The Alternative Press Expo (APE) was a comic book festival and alternative comics convention that operated from 1994 to 2017. Founded by Slave Labor Graphics publisher Dan Vado , APE focused on self-published , independent , and alternative cartoonists and comic publishers.
123-470: APE was organized by Vado in 1994 as an event for artists to "promote themselves without having to drown out a 50-million-watt display by some huge publisher." The first APE was held as a one-day event in San Jose, California . Vado transferred management of APE to Comic-Con International, the organizers of San Diego Comic-Con , in 1995. The organization Friends of Lulu produced its first LuluCon (held at
246-550: A car. Most ethnic neighborhoods in the United States disappear within a decade or two, as immigrants gain language abilities, cultural skills, and resources and subsequently move elsewhere. Ethnic enclaves have become commonplace in modern times, with the increase in the geographic mobility of humankind. However, they have also arisen in historical times, for various reasons. The village of Schandorf , now in Austria,
369-487: A center of innovation for the mechanization and industrialization of agricultural and food processing equipment. Though not affected as severely as San Francisco, San Jose also suffered significant damage from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake . Over 100 people died at the Agnews Asylum (later Agnews State Hospital) after its walls and roof collapsed, and San Jose High School's three-story stone-and-brick building
492-414: A host society. The discourse pioneered by Portes and Wilson produced the construct for a body of literature that came to be known by the ethnic enclave hypothesis. While never empirically defined, the term "ethnic enclave" began to be widely used to represent two distinct definitions: that of an enclave economy and that of a residential area of high co-ethnic concentration. The most fundamental concept within
615-603: A large administrative division created by José de Gálvez , Spanish Minister of the Indies , in order to provide greater autonomy for the Spanish Empire 's borderlands. That year, King Carlos III of Spain approved an expedition by Juan Bautista de Anza to survey the San Francisco Bay Area , in order to choose the sites for two future settlements and their accompanying mission . De Anza initially chose
738-418: A national land conservation organization, reported that San Jose was tied with Albuquerque and Omaha for having the 11th best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities. A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked San Jose the nineteenth most walkable of 50 largest cities in the United States. San Jose's trail network of 60 mi (100 km) of recreational and active transportation trails throughout
861-428: A particular residential area outside the enclave. When discussing the ethnic enclave as defined by a spatial cluster of businesses, economic success, and growth can be largely predicted by three factors. These factors include 1) the size and population of the enclave, 2) the level of entrepreneurial skills of those in the enclave, and 3) the availability of capital resources to the enclave. Successful enclaves can reach
984-457: A point where they become self-sufficient, or "institutionally complete" through the supply of new immigrants and demand of goods offered in the market. They only reach this point after first supplying for the needs of co-ethnics and then expanding to meet needs of those in the larger market of the host society. The term "ethnic enclave" arose in response to a publication by Alejandro Portes and Kenneth Wilson in 1980. Portes and Wilson identified
1107-612: A political propensity toward Smart Growth planning principles. San Jose is located at 37°20′10″N 121°53′26″W / 37.33611°N 121.89056°W / 37.33611; -121.89056 . San Jose is located within the Santa Clara Valley , in the southern part of the Bay Area in Northern California. The northernmost portion of San Jose touches San Francisco Bay at Alviso , though most of
1230-440: A rapid population growth and aggressive annexation of nearby cities and communities carried out in the 1950s and 1960s. The rapid growth of the high-technology and electronics industries further accelerated the transition from an agricultural center to an urbanized metropolitan area. Results of the 1990 U.S. census indicated that San Jose had officially surpassed San Francisco as the most populous city in Northern California. By
1353-899: A residential area or a workspace with a high concentration of ethnic firms. Their success and growth depends on self-sufficiency, and is coupled with economic prosperity. Douglas Massey describes how migrant networks provide new immigrants with social capital that can be transferred to other tangible forms. As immigrants tend to cluster in close geographic spaces, they develop migrant networks—systems of interpersonal relations through which participants can exchange valuable resources and knowledge. Immigrants can capitalize on social interactions by transforming information into tangible resources, and thereby lower costs of migration. Information exchanged may include knowledge of employment opportunities, affordable housing, government assistance programs and helpful NGOs . By stimulating social connections, enclaves can generate intangible resources that help to promote
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#17327831379391476-415: A space to make connections that ultimately lower migration costs and promote economic mobility. Many worn path taken by former immigrants are made accessible to enclave members, making immigration easier to future generations. By generating further immigration, migration leads to its own cumulative causation over time. An approach that analyzes ethnic enclaves and their members by their modes of incorporation
1599-453: A structured mobilization framework. This social structure is most essential for immigrants who face language barriers and may lack familiarity with host institutions. The extent to which migrant networks promote citizenship depends on the efficacy of government policies on immigrant integration. Governments adopting policies that facilitate the emergence, integration and growth of ethnic economies are presumed to gain support by co-ethnics. Thus,
1722-724: A third labor market in which Cuban immigrants in Miami took part. Instead of entering the secondary labor market of the host society, Portes and Wilson discovered that new immigrants tended to become employed by co-ethnics running immigrant-owned firms. The collection of small immigrant enterprises providing employment to new immigrants was defined as the enclave economy. Observations of the Cuban ethnic enclave economy in Miami led Alejandro Portes and Kenneth Wilson to conclude that participation in an enclave economy provided immigrants with an alternative, speedy option to achieve economic mobility in
1845-445: A topic of debate. Enclave economies have been linked to a glass ceiling limiting immigrant growth and upward mobility. While participation in the enclave economy may assist in achieving upward mobility through increased availability of employment opportunities in the enclave labor market, it may also impede acquisition of host country skills that benefit the immigrant over the long-run. Such delays constrain immigrants to activity within
1968-410: Is difficult as there is little data available to accurately test them. Jennifer Lee adds to the discussion noting the particular niches and types of business immigrant groups enter. She notes that it is most common for immigrants to participate in long hours of physically demanding work in the retail industry . The retail market is a viable option due to the relatively low startup costs and knowledge of
2091-569: Is home to one of the world's largest overseas Vietnamese populations, a Hispanic community that makes up over 40% of the city's residents, and historic ethnic enclaves such as Japantown and Little Portugal . Before the arrival of the Spanish , the area around San Jose was long inhabited by the Tamien nation of the Ohlone peoples of California . San Jose was founded on November 29, 1777, as
2214-409: Is important to note as second-generation immigrants must actively work to identify themselves with their ethnic group. Enclave networks offer access to a unique type of social capital and act as large kinship networks. Within enclave networks, social capital commonly exists both as a private and public good. Though there is some debate in relation to the long-term benefits offered by these networks,
2337-538: Is preferred to a neoclassical model, which states that the economic success of immigrants depends on the education, work experience, and other elements of human capital that they possess. Sociologists have concluded that these factors do not suffice in explaining the integration and success of immigrants measured by occupational mobility and earnings. Upon arrival to a foreign country, immigrants face challenges in assimilation and integration processes and thus experience different modes and levels of incorporation within
2460-626: Is seen in the Central Valley . "Rain year" precipitation has ranged from 4.83 in (122.7 mm) between July 1876 and June 1877 to 30.30 in (769.6 mm) between July 1889 and June 1890, although at the current site since 1893 the range is from 5.33 in (135.4 mm) in "rain year" 2020–21 to 30.25 in (768.3 mm) in "rain year" 1982–83. 2020-2021 was the lowest precipitation year ever, in 127 years of precipitation records in San Jose. The most precipitation in one month
2583-561: Is shaken by moderate earthquakes on average one or two times a year. These quakes originate just east of the city on the creeping section of the Calaveras Fault, which is a major source of earthquake activity in Northern California. On April 14, 1984, at 1:15 pm local time, a 6.2 magnitude earthquake struck the Calaveras Fault near San Jose's Mount Hamilton. The most serious earthquake, in 1906, damaged many buildings in San Jose as described earlier. Earlier significant quakes rocked
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#17327831379392706-608: Is the Washington-Guadalupe neighborhood, immediately south of the SoFA District ; this neighborhood is home to a community of Hispanics , centered on Willow Street. San Jose possesses about 15,950 acres (6,455 ha) of parkland in its city limits, including a part of the expansive Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge . The city's oldest park is Alum Rock Park , established in 1872. In its 2013 ParkScore ranking, The Trust for Public Land ,
2829-561: Is the county seat of Santa Clara County and the main component of the San Jose–Sunnyvale–Santa Clara Metropolitan Statistical Area, with an estimated population of around two million residents in 2018. San Jose is notable for its innovation , cultural diversity, affluence , and sunny and mild Mediterranean climate . Its connection to the booming high tech industry phenomenon known as Silicon Valley prompted Mayor Tom McEnery to adopt
2952-657: Is the most populous city in both the Bay Area and the San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland Combined Statistical Area —which in 2022 had a population of 7.5 million and 9.0 million respectively —the third-most populous city in California after Los Angeles and San Diego , and the 13th-most populous in the United States . Located in the center of the Santa Clara Valley on the southern shore of San Francisco Bay , San Jose covers an area of 179.97 sq mi (466.1 km ). San Jose
3075-508: Is the presence of relatives or friends in the receiving country. Friends and family, making up a kinship network, who are willing to help the newcomers can be classified as a type of capital commonly referred to as social capital . Upon arrival, many immigrants have limited or no access to human capital and thus rely heavily on any available source of social capital. The cost to immigration is large, however this burden can be shared and thus eased through an immigrant's access to social capital in
3198-506: Is unpaid labor. Undocumented immigrants are especially afraid to report violations of labor laws and exploitation. Government policy toward immigrants is the first mode of reception to the receiving country. Governments generally enforce measures to reduce the amount of "unwanted" immigrants which may potentially pose a burden on the receiving society and economy. The granting of different statuses and visas (i.e. refugee, temporary visas for students and workers) to immigrant groups affects
3321-785: The Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe , the first city founded in the Californias . It became a part of Mexico in 1821 after the Mexican War of Independence . Following the American Conquest of California during the Mexican–American War , the territory was ceded to the United States in 1848. After California achieved statehood two years later, San Jose was designated as the state's first capital. Following World War II , San Jose experienced an economic boom, with
3444-610: The Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe by José Joaquín Moraga , under orders of Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa , Viceroy of New Spain . San Jose served as a strategic settlement along El Camino Real , connecting the military fortifications at the Monterey Presidio and the San Francisco Presidio , as well as the California mission network . In 1791, due to the severe flooding which characterized
3567-685: The California Trail as part of the Bartleson Party and later acquired a fortune, was the city's first mayor. San Jose was briefly California's first state capital, and legislators met in the city from 1849 to 1851. ( Monterey was the capital during the period of Spanish California and Mexican California ). The first capitol no longer exists; the Plaza de César Chávez now lies on the site, which has two historical markers indicating where California's state legislature first met. In
3690-771: The Californian coast . During this time Alta California and the Baja California peninsula were administered together as Province of the Californias (Spanish: Provincia de las Californias ). For nearly 200 years, the Californias remained a distant frontier region largely controlled by the numerous Native Nations and largely ignored by the government of the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Mexico City . Shifting power dynamics in North America—including
3813-806: The First Mexican Empire in 1821, after Mexico's War of Independence was won against the Spanish Crown , and in 1824, part of the First Mexican Republic . With its newfound independence, and the triumph of the republican movement, Mexico set out to diminish the Catholic Church 's power within Alta California by secularizing the California missions in 1833. In 1824, in order to promote settlement and economic activity within sparsely populated California,
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3936-677: The M113 Armored Personnel Carrier , the Bradley Fighting Vehicle , and various subsystems of the M1 Abrams battle tank. IBM established its first West Coast operations in San Jose in 1943 with a downtown punch card plant, and opened an IBM Research lab in 1952. Reynold B. Johnson and his team developed direct access storage for computers, inventing the RAMAC 305 and the hard disk drive ;
4059-566: The Ohlone people since around 4,000 BC . The Tamien spoke Tamyen language of the Ohlone language family . During the era of Spanish colonization and the subsequent building of Spanish missions in California , the Tamien people's lives changed dramatically. From 1777 onward, most of the Tamien people were forcibly enslaved at Mission Santa Clara de Asís or Mission San José where they were baptized and educated to be Catholic neophytes , also known as Mission Indians . This continued until
4182-638: The Santa Cruz Mountains flowing north through San Jose, ending in the San Francisco Bay at Alviso . Along the southern part of the river is the neighborhood of Almaden Valley , originally named for the mercury mines which produced mercury needed for gold extraction from quartz during the California Gold Rush as well as mercury fulminate blasting caps and detonators for the U.S. military from 1870 to 1945. East of
4305-776: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo formally ceded California to the United States, as part of the Mexican Cession . On December 15, 1849, San Jose became the capital of the unorganized territory of California . With California's Admission to the Union on September 9, 1850, San Jose became the state's first capital. On March 27, 1850, San Jose was incorporated . It was incorporated on the same day as San Diego and Benicia ; together, these three cities followed Sacramento as California's earliest incorporated cities. Josiah Belden , who had settled in California in 1842 after traversing
4428-411: The sociology of immigration . Ethnic Enclaves generate a pool of social capital through which members can access resources that lower the costs of migration. Enclave membership provides economic assistance such as job opportunities and small businesses loans. Small ethnic firms within the enclave provide new immigrants with immediate access to economic opportunities by subverting the secondary sector of
4551-593: The 1846 Bear Flag Revolt , Captain Thomas Fallon led nineteen volunteers from Santa Cruz to the pueblo of San Jose, which his forces easily captured. The raising of the flag of the California Republic ended Mexican rule in Alta California on July 14, 1846. By the end of 1847, the Conquest of California by the United States was complete, as the Mexican–American War came to an end. In 1848,
4674-399: The 1920s. This model showcased how immigrants who arrived in the U.S. in the early 20th century were drawn to urban enclave neighborhoods as they opened up opportunities for social networking and employment. In 1998, nearly three quarters of all immigrants in the United States lived in California, New York, Texas, Florida, New Jersey or Illinois. Housing discrimination remains a factor in
4797-448: The 1960s and 1970s, some residents and officials advocated for returning to the original spelling of "San José", with the acute accent on the "e", to acknowledge the city's Mexican origin and Mexican-American population. On June 2, 1969, the city adopted a flag designed by historian Clyde Arbuckle that prominently featured the inscription "SAN JOSÉ, CALIFORNIA". On June 16, 1970, San Jose State College officially adopted "San José" as
4920-504: The 1990s, San Jose had become the global center for the high tech and internet industries and was California's fastest-growing economy for 2015–2016. Between April 2020 and July 2022, San Jose lost 42,000 people, 4.1% of its population, dropping to 12th, and then 13th largest city position in largest city ranking. San Jose is named after el Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe ( Spanish for 'the Town of Saint Joseph of Guadalupe '),
5043-755: The British/American victory and acquisition of North America, east of the Mississippi following the 1763 Treaty of Paris , as well as the start of Russian colonization of northwestern North America — prompted Spanish/Mexican authorities to sponsor the Portolá Expedition to survey Northern California in 1769. In 1776, the Californias were included as part of the Captaincy General of the Provincias Internas ,
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5166-638: The Guadalupe River each fall in the 1990s, but have all but vanished in the current decade apparently blocked from access to breeding grounds by impassable culverts, weirs and wide, exposed and flat concrete paved channels installed by the Santa Clara Valley Water District . In 2011 a small number of Chinook salmon were filmed spawning under the Julian Street bridge. Conservationist Roger Castillo, who discovered
5289-753: The Guadalupe River, Coyote Creek also flows to south San Francisco Bay and originates on Mount Sizer near Henry W. Coe State Park and the surrounding hills in the Diablo Range , northeast of Morgan Hill, California . The lowest point in San Jose is 13 ft (4.0 m) below sea level at the San Francisco Bay in Alviso; the highest is 2,125 ft (648 m). Because of the proximity to Lick Observatory atop Mount Hamilton, San Jose has taken several steps to reduce light pollution , including replacing all street lamps and outdoor lighting in private developments with low pressure sodium lamps . To recognize
5412-740: The Hyatt Sainte Claire) in conjunction with the 1997 Alternative Press Expo. The event expanded to two days of programming in 1998, and included special guests Mike Allred , Jhonen Vasquez , Terry Moore , Batton Lash , Shannon Wheeler , and Jill Thompson . In 2000, APE moved to San Francisco , where it was held a one-day event at the Herbst Pavilion in Fort Mason , before moving to the Concourse Exhibition Center in 2003. The programming available at
5535-887: The Mexican government began an initiative, for Mexican and foreign citizens alike, to settle unoccupied lands in California. Between 1833 and 1845, thirty-eight rancho land grants were issued in the Santa Clara Valley , 15 of which were located within modern-day San Jose's borders. Numerous prominent historical figures were among those granted rancho lands in the Santa Valley, including James A. Forbes , founder of Los Gatos, California (granted Rancho Potrero de Santa Clara ), Antonio Suñol , Alcalde of San Jose (granted Rancho Los Coches ), and José María Alviso , Alcalde of San Jose (granted Rancho Milpitas ). In 1835, San Jose's population of approximately 700 people included 40 foreigners, primarily Americans and Englishmen . By 1845,
5658-1004: The Pacific Ocean like San Francisco. As a result, the city is somewhat more sheltered from rain, barely avoiding a cold semi-arid ( BSk ) climate. Like most of the Bay Area, San Jose is made up of dozens of microclimates . Because of a more prominent rain shadow from the Santa Cruz Mountains, Downtown San Jose experiences the lightest rainfall in the city, while South San Jose, only 10 mi (16 km) distant, experiences more rainfall, and somewhat more extreme temperatures. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from around 50 °F (10 °C) in December and January to around 70 °F (21 °C) in July and August. The highest temperature ever recorded in San Jose
5781-707: The Santa Clara Valley and, in turn, walling off the expansion of adjacent communities. During his reign, it was said the City Council would vote according to Hamann's nod. In 1963, the State of California imposed Local Agency Formation Commissions statewide, but largely to try to maintain order with San Jose's aggressive growth. Eventually the political forces against growth grew as local neighborhoods bonded together to elect their own candidates, ending Hamann's influence and leading to his resignation. While
5904-419: The adverse effects patterns of ethnic embeddedness can have on surrounding ethnic groups by noting the difficulty other groups face in joining the network. She argues that this type of retail niche domination can have positive consequences for co-ethnics, as Portes and Wilson believe, however can also have negative effects on surrounding ethnic groups who face exclusion due solely to their ethnic dissimilarity from
6027-513: The city from 17 to 149 sq mi (44 to 386 km ), absorbing the communities named above, changing their status to "neighborhoods." They say San José is going to become another Los Angeles. Believe me, I'm going to do everything in my power to make that come true. Sales taxes were a chief source of revenue. Hamann would determine where major shopping areas would be, and then annex narrow bands of land along major roadways leading to those locations, pushing "tentacles" or "finger areas" across
6150-492: The city in 1839, 1851, 1858, 1864, 1865, 1868 , and 1891. The Daly City Earthquake of 1957 caused some damage. The Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989 also did some damage to parts of the city. San Jose's expansion was made by the design of "Dutch" Hamann , the City Manager from 1950 to 1969. During his administration, with his staff referred to as "Dutch's Panzer Division ", the city annexed property 1,389 times, growing
6273-610: The city lies away from the bayshore. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 180.0 sq mi (466 km ), making the fourth-largest city in California by land area (after Los Angeles, San Diego and California City ). San Jose lies between the San Andreas Fault , the source of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake , and the Calaveras Fault . San Jose
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#17327831379396396-462: The city logo. The accent reflects the Spanish version of the name, and the dropping of accents in all-capital writing was once typical in Spanish. While San José is commonly spelled both with and without the acute accent over the "e", the city's official guidelines indicate that it should be spelled with the accent most of the time and sets forth narrow exceptions, such as when the spelling is in URLs, when
6519-399: The city motto of "Capital of Silicon Valley" in 1988 to promote the city. Major global tech companies including Cisco Systems , eBay , Adobe Inc. , PayPal , Broadcom , and Zoom maintain their headquarters in San Jose. One of the wealthiest major cities in the world, San Jose has the third-highest GDP per capita (after Zurich and Oslo ) and the fifth-most expensive housing market. It
6642-440: The city seal, official stationery, office titles and department names. As late as 2010, the 1965 city charter stated the name of the municipal corporation as City of San Jose , without the accent mark, but later editions have added the accent mark. By convention, the spelling San José is only used when the name is spelled in mixed upper- and lowercase letters, but not when the name is spelled only in uppercase letters, as on
6765-542: The city's efforts, the asteroid 6216 San Jose was named after the city. There are four distinct valleys in the city of San Jose: Almaden Valley, situated on the southwest fringe of the city; Evergreen Valley to the southeast, which is hilly all throughout its interior; Santa Clara Valley, which includes the flat, main urban expanse of the South Bay; and the rural Coyote Valley , to the city's extreme southern fringe. The extensive droughts in California , coupled with
6888-484: The city's name, including in the college's own name. On August 20, 1974, the San Jose City Council approved a proposal by Catherine Linquist to rename the city "San José" but reversed itself a week later under pressure from residents concerned with the cost of changing typewriters, documents, and signs. On April 3, 1979, the city council once again adopted "San José" as the spelling of the city name on
7011-482: The city's predecessor, which was eventually located in the area of what is now the Plaza de César Chávez . In the 19th century, print publications used the spelling "San José" for both the city and its eponymous township . On December 11, 1943, the United States Board on Geographic Names ruled that the city's name should be spelled "San Jose" based on local usage and the formal incorporated name. In
7134-514: The city. Besides those mentioned above, some well-known communities within San Jose include Japantown , Rose Garden , Midtown San Jose , Willow Glen , Naglee Park , Burbank , Winchester , Alviso , East Foothills , Alum Rock , Communications Hill , Little Portugal , Blossom Valley , Cambrian , Almaden Valley , Little Saigon , Silver Creek Valley , Evergreen Valley , Mayfair , Edenvale , Santa Teresa , Seven Trees , Coyote Valley , and Berryessa . A distinct ethnic enclave in San Jose
7257-631: The city. The major trails in the network include: This large urban trail network, recognized by Prevention Magazine as the nation's largest, is linked to trails in surrounding jurisdictions and many rural trails in surrounding open space and foothills. Several trail systems within the network are designated as part of the National Recreation Trail, as well as regional trails such as the San Francisco Bay Trail and Bay Area Ridge Trail. Early written documents record
7380-577: The clarification that those in ethnic enclaves need not be wealthier than those who left the enclave for the hypothesis to be supported. They instead assert that this will usually not be the case as the constant entrance of new immigrants into the enclave will actually be somewhat burdensome on the economy; a factor which does not actually represent disadvantage when compared with the other advantages provided. Additionally, Portes and Jensen outline three different conditions to be fulfilled in order to disprove their hypothesis. The first of these conditions requires
7503-404: The customs and practices of the larger culture outside the enclave and help navigating challenges in many areas of everyday life. Social hostility may be a challenge faced by immigrants in their host society, therefore to avoid this factor, ethnic enclaves provide a haven where economic success may still be achieved. Ethnic enclave economies are predicated upon aspects of economic sociology and
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#17327831379397626-433: The demonstration that ethnic entrepreneurship is a mobility trap leading to lower earnings than the immigrant's worth in human capital. The second condition requires data proving the work within the enclave to be exploitative, and the third condition requires data showing employment within the enclave leads to a 'dead end' and offers no chance of upward mobility. They acknowledge that the fulfillment of these three requirements
7749-422: The dissonance between official immigration policies and real policy outcomes. Policy gaps are the result of unintended consequences and inadequate enforcement by the receiving society. Many reasons can explain unintended consequences of immigration policy . Governments with undefined or ambiguous stances toward immigration may propagate unintended consequences, and the reliance on flawed policies can further reduce
7872-606: The drainage of the reservoir at Anderson Lake for seismic repairs, have strained the city's water security . San Jose has suffered from lack of precipitation and water scarcity to the extent that some residents may run out of household water by the summer of 2022. San Jose, like most of the Bay Area, has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csb ), with warm to hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. San Jose has an average of 298 days of sunshine and an annual mean temperature of 61.4 °F (16.3 °C). It lies inland, surrounded on three sides by mountains, and does not front
7995-504: The economy and creating numerous low-wage jobs that are easily accessed by members. The ethno-centric nature of businesses and firms provides easy integration into enclave economies. Goods and services tend to be offered in the ethnic group's language, while social and cultural norms specific to the host country are not required of employees in the enclave economy. Thus, the ethno-specific nature of enclave economies makes them attractive to new immigrants who are otherwise unable integrate into
8118-411: The economy goes bad and general public opinion turns hostile to immigrants." Furthermore, governments and special groups in the immigrant-sending country may align themselves with pro-immigration lobbyists in the receiving country. Thus, the policymaking process is complicated by involvement of multiple factions. The second thesis studied by Wayne Cornelius is the convergence hypothesis, which describes
8241-624: The efficacy of institutional measures. Furthermore, political incoherency policy poses a greater challenge for the incorporation and enforcement of effective measures. A negative public opinion toward immigrants is a good measure of significant policy gaps in the receiving government; however, special interest groups may also constrain political responses to immigration. This is especially true in liberal democracies, where "lobbying by powerful employer groups, religious groups, ethnic and immigrant advocacy groups, and even labor unions leads governments to adopt more expansionary immigration policies, even when
8364-526: The enclave and secludes them from the larger economy. Opportunities available to mainstream society can thus be out of reach for immigrants who haven't learned about them. Thus, the accelerated path toward economic mobility that lures new immigrants into enclave economies may impede success. One 2024 study, for example, found that relocation from an ethnic enclave led to greater economic outcomes for those who were relocated. Integration into an ethnic enclave may delay and even halt cultural assimilation , preventing
8487-422: The enclave economy is not a mobility trap as some would term it, but an alternate mode of incorporation. In their argument formulated to disprove the enclave economy hypothesis, Sanders and Nee state the need for a distinction between "immigrant-bosses" and "immigrant-workers" as the economic benefits differ along this distinction. They also call for the investigation of economic opportunities available to those in
8610-503: The enclave hypothesis is that of social capital , which lays the foundation for the establishment of migrant networks and the advantages associated with them. With the rise in globalization and ease of international transportation, patterns of immigration show the role of ethnic enclaves for contributing to increased migration over time. New immigrants unintentionally lower costs for future immigration of co-ethnics by pooling together resources for themselves. Thus, by achieving mobility in
8733-481: The enclave, believing them to be lesser in quality and supply. Sanders and Nee also assert the idea that segregation and forced entrance of immigrant-workers into low paying jobs is actually aggravated by the existence of ethnic enclaves. Due to these objections, they call for the revision of Portes and Wilson's hypothesis to include an acknowledgement and outline of the entrepreneur/worker economic benefit distinction. In reaction to Sanders and Nee, Portes and Jensen make
8856-412: The ethnic enclave. The ethnic enclave economy allows for a measure of independence for immigrants by creating a path for them to own businesses. Ethnic enclave economies also have the effect of raising the hourly wages of workers within the enclave. An individual's entrance into the enclave economy is dependent upon the conditions of incorporation they experience. Unfavorable modes of incorporation into
8979-435: The event expanded under Comic-Con International, with APE 2005 offering panels, seminars, exhibitions and special guests. APE was moved to the fall beginning in 2008. The final APE organized by Comic-Con International was held in 2014. Vado re-assumed management of the event that year, and returned APE to San Jose in 2015. The most recent APE was held in 2017, with special guests Jhonen Vasquez and Derf Backderf . As of 2019,
9102-519: The event is no longer produced. San Jose, California San Jose , officially the City of San José ( Spanish for ' Saint Joseph ' / ˌ s æ n h oʊ ˈ z eɪ , - ˈ s eɪ / SAN hoh- ZAY , - SAY ; Spanish: [saŋ xoˈse] ), is the largest city in Northern California by both population and area. With a 2022 population of 971,233, it
9225-472: The fact that ethnic enclaves allow immigrants to function successfully within the host society without a significant amount of adjustment either culturally or linguistically. As such, they can either help or hinder naturalization within the host country. The relatively low levels of skill required allow immigrants to achieve financial stability which can in turn encourage eventual naturalization and assimilation. Adversely, this same factor can afford enclave members
9348-399: The first third of the nineteenth century and continued forming throughout that century and the twentieth as successive waves of immigrants arrived in the United States. In the early 20th century, immigrants chose to live in enclave neighborhoods because of language barriers and cost-of-living benefits. Sociologists Robert Park and Edward Burgess integrated a model that studied these patterns in
9471-512: The growing similarity of political responses to immigration among immigrant-receiving countries. These similarities fall into: "(1) the policies that their governments have adopted to control immigration; (2) policies designed to integrate immigrants into host societies by providing them with social services as well as political, economic, and social rights; and (3) attitudes toward immigrants and immigration policy preferences among general publics." Ethnic groups receive various levels of reception by
9594-458: The host country's language required. Different niches have different levels of communication, for example the retail and self-service niche, (fruit and vegetable markets, take out restaurants) typically require the lowest level of customer interaction and communication. Lee notes the embeddedness of ethnic enclaves and brings the thought that such practices are good for those within the enclave but harmful to certain groups outside them. She also notes
9717-549: The host society for various reasons. In general, European immigrants tend to encounter little resistance by host countries, while tenets of racism are evinced by widespread resistance to immigrants of color. Political incorporation into the host country is coupled with adoption of citizenship of the host country. By studying the diverging trajectories of immigrant citizenship in Canada and the U.S., Irene Bloemraad explains that current models of citizenship acquisition fail to recognize
9840-467: The host society provide incentives for immigrants to enter the informal economy . Discrimination , hostility , and a lack of resources may encourage immigrants to enter into informal employment. Ethnic enclaves are rich in informal activities, as the entrepreneurial services making the core of the enclave's founding were historically informal ventures. Informality proves favorable for many immigrant entrepreneurs by bypass regulatory expenses. Additionally,
9963-410: The host society. Many factors influence the level of ease or challenge experienced by immigrants as they make the transition and undergo physical, social, and psychological challenges. The segmented assimilation model notes that there can exist a "consciously pluralistic society in which a variety of subcultures and racial and ethnic identities coexist" One influential factor in an immigrant's journey
10086-464: The idea that "[i]mmigrant workers are not restricted to the secondary labor market." They instead argue that "those inserted into an immigrant enclave can be empirically distinguished from workers in both the primary and secondary labor markets. Enclave workers will share with those in the primary sector a significant economic return past human capital investments" something those who enter the secondary labor market are not able to enjoy. Thus, they assert
10209-540: The immigrants from benefiting from mainstream institutions. Ethnic enclaves have been prominent urban features for centuries. Examples include a new Armenian one near Beirut , an old one in Bucharest , and an even older Armenian Quarter in Jerusalem . Urban quarters have often belonged mainly to residents having a particular sectarian or ethnic origin. Historically, the formation of ethnic enclaves has been
10332-489: The incorporations of Campbell and Cupertino , development was not slowed, but rather directed into already-incorporated areas. San Jose's position in Silicon Valley triggered further economic and population growth. Results from the 1990 U.S. Census indicated that San Jose surpassed San Francisco as the most populous city in the Bay Area for the first time. This growth led to the highest housing-cost increase in
10455-599: The job was not complete, the trend was set. The city had defined its sphere of influence in all directions, sometimes chaotically leaving unincorporated pockets to be swallowed up by the behemoth, sometimes even at the objection of the residents. Major thoroughfares in the city include Monterey Road , the Stevens Creek Boulevard / San Carlos Street corridor, Santa Clara Street / Alum Rock Avenue corridor, Almaden Expressway , Capitol Expressway , and 1st Street (San Jose) . The Guadalupe River runs from
10578-565: The local presence of migrating salmon in the Rio Guadalupe dating as far back as the 18th century. Both steelhead ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) and King salmon are extant in the Guadalupe River , making San Jose the southernmost major U. S. city with known salmon spawning runs, the other cities being Anchorage ; Seattle ; Portland and Sacramento . Runs of up to 1,000 Chinook or King Salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ) swam up
10701-409: The mainstream economy. Ethnic enclave economies also provide a method for immigrants who enter at lower wage jobs to rise to the status community entrepreneurs own firms within the community. While benefiting from the higher wages that owning a business provides them, these established immigrants continue the cycle of providing attractive (albeit lower income) labor to newcomers within the framework of
10824-510: The mission was secularized by the Mexican Government in 1833. A large majority of the Tamien died either from disease in the missions, or as a result of the state sponsored genocide . Some surviving families remained intact, migrating to Santa Cruz after their ancestral lands were granted to Spanish and Mexican Immigrants. California was claimed as part of the Spanish Empire in 1542, when explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo charted
10947-581: The most recent snow to remain on the ground was on February 5, 1976, when many residents around the city saw as much as 3 in (0.076 m) on car and roof tops. The official observation station measured only 0.5 in (0.013 m) of snow. The city is generally divided into the following areas: Central San Jose (centered on Downtown San Jose ), West San Jose , North San Jose , East San Jose , and South San Jose . Many of San Jose's districts and neighborhoods were previously unincorporated communities or separate municipalities that were later annexed by
11070-454: The movement toward political incorporation and citizenship is nested in a larger institutional structure involving economic and social integration policy as these relate to immigrants. Ethnic enclaves have the ability to simultaneously assist in political and civic incorporation of immigrants. By providing a space that facilitates upward mobility and economic integration into the receiving society, enclaves and their members fundamentally influence
11193-444: The name appears in all-capital letters, when the name is used on social media sites where the diacritical mark does not render properly, and where San Jose is part of the proper name of another organization or business, such as San Jose Chamber of Commerce , that has chosen not to use the accent-marked name. San Jose, along with most of the Santa Clara Valley , has been home to the Tamien group (also spelled as Tamyen, Thamien) of
11316-430: The nation, 936% between 1976 and 2001. Efforts to increase density continued into the 1990s when an update of the 1974 urban plan kept the urban growth boundaries intact and voters rejected a ballot measure to ease development restrictions in the foothills. As of 2006, sixty percent of the housing built in San Jose since 1980 and over three-quarters of the housing built since 2000 have been multifamily structures, reflecting
11439-646: The network is likely to be of much higher quality. Adversely, kinship networks may break down if much stress is placed on the relationships involved due to economic hardships. The duration and intensity of aid needed can dictate the quality of the kinship network available to the immigrant. Immigrant ideas regarding level of support to be received are often high and left unmet if true economic conditions do not allow for favorable network conditions. Shared norms and relational ties can also lead to obligatory ties which some scholars, such as Tsang and Inkpen, argue restricts an individual's willingness to explore opportunities outside
11562-489: The network. Immigration to the United States has occurred in waves that demonstrate the predominance of certain sets of ethnic minorities. As immigrants tended to cluster in certain cities and states, separate waves were responsible for the establishment of ethnic enclaves in separate physical spaces. The best-known ethnic enclaves in American cities began to appear with the arrival of large numbers of Irish immigrants during
11685-456: The network. Methods of assimilation and access to social capital vary between and even within ethnic groups. A variety of factors can influence individuals' ethnic identities including their social class background and the social networks available to them. As theorized by sociologist Mary C. Waters, the involvement level of parents in ethnic organizations or activities heavily influences the development of their children's ethnic identities. This
11808-412: The opportunity to remain considerably segregated and secluded from the host society. As such, members may circumvent the need to acquire skills necessary for life in the larger host society such as knowledge of cultural norms and language. The debate regarding the economic viability of ethnic enclaves revolves around the enclave-economy hypothesis. The hypothesis as written by Wilson and Portes formulates
11931-449: The perceptions of receiving institutions by co-ethnics. Finally, enclaves may gauge community interest in naturalization and direct immigrants through the process to gaining citizenship Ethnic enclaves have prompted debate among scholars in two related areas of thought. Both areas discuss the role ethnic enclaves play by either offering aid or hindering the economic and social well-being of the enclave's members. One area of thought discusses
12054-432: The period 1900 through 1910, San Jose served as a center for pioneering invention, innovation, and impact in both lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air flight. These activities were led principally by John Montgomery and his peers. The City of San Jose has established Montgomery Park, a Monument at San Felipe and Yerba Buena Roads, and John J. Montgomery Elementary School in his honor. During this period, San Jose also became
12177-486: The persistence of racial enclaves in American cities. However, more recent patterns of migration, such as chain migration , challenge traditional methods of enclaves establishment. A 2023 study found that 43% of the foreign-born population in the United States lived in ethnic neighborhoods in 1970. By 2010, this had risen to 67%. Ethnic neighborhoods tend to have lower average incomes and housing values, as well as more rental housing and more inhabitants that commute without
12300-409: The population of the pueblo had increased to 900, primarily due to American immigration. Foreign settlement in San Jose and California was rapidly changing Californian society, bringing expanding economic opportunities and foreign culture. By 1846, native Californios had long expressed their concern for the overrunning of California society by its growing and wealthy Anglo-American community. During
12423-601: The pueblo, San Jose's settlement was moved approximately a mile south, centered on the Pueblo Plaza (modern-day Plaza de César Chávez ). In 1800, due to the growing population in the northern part of the Californias, Diego de Borica , Governor of the Californias, officially split the province into two parts: Alta California ( Upper California ), which would eventually become several western U.S. states , and Baja California ( Lower California ), which would eventually become two Mexican states . San Jose became part of
12546-473: The receiving country themselves, immigrants create a social structure that makes it easier for future immigrants to become upwardly mobile. According to Douglas Massey, "Networks build into the migration process a self-perpetuating momentum that leads to its growth over time, in spite of fluctuating wage differentials, recessions, and increasingly restrictive immigration policies." Ethnic enclaves thus contribute to continued immigration by providing co-ethnics with
12669-436: The receiving country. Kinship networks in the receiving country can provide aid not only for the physical and economic needs of immigrants, but also for their emotional and socio-psychological needs. Access to social capital does not guarantee ease or success for the migrant. Because social capital is rooted in relationships it easily lends itself to conflict and disagreement between parties. The level of economic stability on
12792-420: The remains of a mammoth on the banks of the Guadalupe River in 2005, found that a herd of tule elk ( Cervus canadensis ) had recolonized the hills of south San Jose east of Highway 101 in early 2019. Ethnic enclave In sociology , an ethnic enclave is a geographic area with high ethnic concentration, characteristic cultural identity, and economic activity. The term is usually used to refer to either
12915-448: The result of a variety of socioeconomic factors that draw immigrants to similar spaces in the receiving city, state, or country. Cultural diversity brings together people who don't understand each other's language but a group can communicate more easily with neighbors in an enclave. In some cases, enclaves have been enforced by law, as in a ghetto . Roman colonies were established to control newly conquered provinces, and grew to absorb
13038-426: The role of enclaves in assimilative patterns and upward mobility while the second area of thought argues the economic ramifications associated with membership within ethnic enclaves. The immediate economic and social advantages associated with membership in an ethnic enclave are undisputed by scholars, however the long-term consequences remain an area of uncertainty. The role these networks play remains uncertain due to
13161-527: The scope of employment for immigrants is greatly widened by the availability of informal jobs in the enclave economic sector. The informality of the enclave economy simultaneously induces risk and fraud. Informal activities are constantly under risk of detection by the formal sector, which has a negative effect on job security. Furthermore, due to the absence of legal framework, immigrant laborers often remain silent about various forms of exploitation. The most common form of labor exploitation in immigrant economies
13284-498: The short-term benefits are universally acknowledged. The socio-psychological challenges faced by the immigrant can be largely reduced through the individual's entrance into an ethnic enclave. Ethnic enclaves can resemble the immigrant's place of origin through physical look, layout, and language employed both written and orally. In addition to increasing the cultural comfort of the migrant, healthy ethnic enclaves offer solidarity and trust among members, and informal training systems within
13407-418: The side of the receiving party can dictate the level of aid they are willing or able to offer. In addition, the economic condition of the country and the availability of jobs open to the immigrants can largely affect the quality of the support network available to the migrant. If the receiving country provides favorable conditions such as access to social programs, the local economy, and employment opportunities,
13530-603: The site for a military settlement in San Francisco, for the Royal Presidio of San Francisco , and Mission San Francisco de Asís . On his way back to Mexico from San Francisco, de Anza chose the sites in Santa Clara Valley for a civilian settlement, San Jose, on the eastern bank of the Guadalupe River , and a mission on its western bank, Mission Santa Clara de Asís . San Jose was officially founded as California's first civilian settlement on November 29, 1777, as
13653-399: The social and economic development of its members. By providing a space for people who share the same ethnic identity to create potentially beneficial relations, ethnic enclaves can assist members in achieving economic mobility . By reducing their exposure to language and cultural barriers, enclave economies can improve co-ethnics' incorporation into the economy. Enclaves can help to explain
13776-552: The social nature of political incorporation. Bloemraad describes political incorporation as a "social process of mobilization by friends, family, community organizations and local leaders that is embedded in an institutional context shaped by government policies of diversity and newcomer settlement." This alternative model emphasizes the role of migrant networks in critically shaping how immigrants consider citizenship. Bloemraad shows that friends, family, co-ethnic organizations and local community affect political incorporation by providing
13899-463: The success of some immigrant groups. Additionally, while the ethnic enclave theory was developed to explain immigrant incorporation into the receiving society, it has also been linked to migration processes at large as successful incorporation of immigrants has the potential to lower migration costs for future immigrants, an example of chain migration . Despite their immediate benefits, the long-term implications of participation in an ethnic enclave are
14022-506: The surrounding hills. The CZU lightning complex fires took almost 5 months to fully be controlled. Over 86,000 acres were burned and nearly 1500 buildings were destroyed. The snow level drops as low as 4,000 ft (1,220 m) above sea level, or lower, occasionally coating nearby Mount Hamilton and, less frequently, the Santa Cruz Mountains , with snow that normally lasts a few days. Snow will snarl traffic traveling on State Route 17 towards Santa Cruz . Snow rarely falls in San Jose;
14145-612: The surrounding territory. Some enclaves were established when a governing authority permitted a group to establish their own new town, as in the English town of Gravesend, Brooklyn in 1645. The lack of access to economic capital and of knowledge regarding residential neighborhoods can constrain newly arrived immigrants to regions of affordable housing. Social dynamics such as prejudice and racism may concentrate co-ethnics into regions displaying ethnic similarity. Housing discrimination may also prevent ethnic minorities from settling into
14268-478: The technological side of San Jose's economy grew. During the 1950s and 1960s, City Manager A. P. "Dutch" Hamann led the city in a major growth campaign. The city annexed adjacent areas, such as Alviso and Cambrian Park , providing large areas for suburbs. An anti-growth reaction to the effects of rapid development emerged in the 1970s, championed by mayors Norman Mineta and Janet Gray Hayes . Despite establishing an urban growth boundary , development fees, and
14391-426: The type of reception immigrants will receive. Aside from immigration control policies, some governments also impose measures to accelerate social and political incorporation of new immigrants, and to stimulate economic mobility. Wayne Cornelius studies two central theses regarding institutional response to increased movement of people across transnational borders. The first of these is the gap hypothesis which describes
14514-445: The workplace. The geographic proximity of the enclave network allows for easy flow of knowledge and varying types of assistance between firms as well. Where there is an atmosphere of trust in ethnic enclaves, this transfer of knowledge and sharing of social capital exists as an asset to the firms. Connections with members in an enclave may also afford the newcomer work opportunities. Immigrants may also receive informal training regarding
14637-414: Was 109 °F (43 °C) on September 6, 2022; the lowest was 18 °F (−7.8 °C) on January 6, 1894. On average, there are 2.7 mornings annually where the temperature drops to, or below, the freezing mark; and sixteen afternoons where the high reaches or exceeds 90 °F or 32.2 °C. Diurnal temperature variation is far wider than along the coast or in San Francisco but still a shadow of what
14760-464: Was 12.38 in (314.5 mm) in January 1911. The maximum 24-hour rainfall was 3.60 in (91.4 mm) on January 30, 1968. On August 16, 2020, one of the most widespread and strong thunderstorm events in recent Bay Area history occurred as an unstable humid air mass moved up from the south and triggered multiple dry thunderstorms which caused many fires to be ignited by 300+ lightning strikes in
14883-646: Was also destroyed. The period during World War II was tumultuous; Japanese Americans primarily from Japantown were sent to internment camps , including the future mayor Norman Mineta . Following the Los Angeles zoot suit riots , anti-Mexican violence took place during the summer of 1943. In 1940, the Census Bureau reported San Jose's population as 98% white. As World War II started, the city's economy shifted from agriculture (the Del Monte cannery
15006-531: Was for centuries a Croatian ethnic enclave, surrounded by areas of Austrian and Hungarian ethnicity. The enclave originated around 1543 when the Hungarian magnate Batthyany sought to repopulate lands that had been emptied by devastating Turkish attacks; he invited Croatian settlers. The town of Alghero in Sardinia still marginally preserves a Catalan ethnic enclave; this dates from a military conquest of
15129-606: Was the largest employer and closed in 1999 ) to industrial manufacturing with the contracting of the Food Machinery Corporation (later known as FMC Corporation ) by the United States War Department to build 1,000 Landing Vehicle Tracked . After World War II, FMC (later United Defense , and currently BAE Systems ) continued as a defense contractor , with the San Jose facilities designing and manufacturing military platforms such as
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