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129-497: Around 1978, the Carter Administration consolidated all federal energy activities under the support of the newly established U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The DOE initiated research on the use of plant life as a source of transportation fuels. The Aquatic Species Program (ASP) was a small research effort intended to look at the use of aquatic plants as sources of energy. While its history dates back to 1978, much of

258-446: A National Science Foundation grant ran out in 2004, maintaining the collection became impractical. A review released earlier this year found that more than half the genetic legacy had been lost. 23 of the 51 strains that were extensively studied during the program survive. The losses to the rest of the algal cultures have been even worse. “The really bloody shame is that of those 3,000, there are maybe 100 to 150 strains that remain at

387-478: A coolant in the rotor and the stator in 1937 at Dayton , Ohio, owned by the Dayton Power & Light Co. This was justified by the high thermal conductivity and very low viscosity of hydrogen gas, thus lower drag than air. This is the most common coolant used for generators 60 MW and larger; smaller generators are usually air-cooled . The nickel–hydrogen battery was used for the first time in 1977 aboard

516-465: A nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why H is often called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids . Under the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory , acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors. A bare proton, H , cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals because of its strong attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except at

645-494: A stoichiometric quantity of hydrogen at the anode. For hydrides other than group 1 and 2 metals, the term is quite misleading, considering the low electronegativity of hydrogen. An exception in group 2 hydrides is BeH 2 , which is polymeric. In lithium aluminium hydride , the [AlH 4 ] anion carries hydridic centers firmly attached to the Al(III). Although hydrides can be formed with almost all main-group elements,

774-473: A Caliph) on their way to Guerrero, Mexico where they played a future role in the wars of independence . Sebastián Vizcaíno explored and mapped the coast of California in 1602 for New Spain , putting ashore in Monterey . Despite the on-the-ground explorations of California in the 16th century, Rodríguez's idea of California as an island persisted. Such depictions appeared on many European maps well into

903-459: A Spanish navigator." The name most likely derived from the mythical island of California in the fictional story of Queen Calafia , as recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo . Queen Calafia's kingdom was said to be a remote land rich in gold and pearls, inhabited by beautiful Black women who wore gold armor and lived like Amazons , as well as griffins and other strange beasts. Abbreviations of

1032-598: A commodity until the 1849 California Gold Rush . From the 1820s, trappers and settlers from the United States and Canada began to arrive in Northern California. These new arrivals used the Siskiyou Trail , California Trail , Oregon Trail and Old Spanish Trail to cross the rugged mountains and harsh deserts in and surrounding California. The early government of the newly independent Mexico

1161-437: A fire. Anaerobic oxidation of iron by the protons of water at high temperature can be schematically represented by the set of following reactions: Many metals such as zirconium undergo a similar reaction with water leading to the production of hydrogen. François Isaac de Rivaz built the first de Rivaz engine , an internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in 1806. Edward Daniel Clarke invented

1290-576: A free state, the "loitering or orphaned Indians", were de facto enslaved by their new Anglo-American masters under the 1850 Act for the Government and Protection of Indians . One of these de facto slave auctions was approved by the Los Angeles City Council and occurred for nearly twenty years. There were many massacres in which hundreds of indigenous people were killed by settlers for their land. Between 1850 and 1860,

1419-624: A modest home which in the 1960s cost $ 25,000 would cost half a million dollars or more in urban areas by 2005. More people commuted longer hours to afford a home in more rural areas while earning larger salaries in the urban areas. Speculators bought houses, expecting to make a huge profit in months, then rolling it over by buying more properties. Mortgage companies were compliant, as people assumed prices would keep rising. The bubble burst in 2007–8 as prices began to crash. Hundreds of billions in property values vanished and foreclosures soared, as financial institutions and investors were badly hurt. In

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1548-621: A molar basis ) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape the atmosphere more rapidly than heavier gases. However, hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the Earth's surface, mostly in the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water. California California is a state in the Western United States , lying on the American Pacific Coast . It borders Oregon to

1677-448: A monatomic gas at cryogenic temperatures. According to quantum theory, this behavior arises from the spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy levels, which are particularly wide-spaced in H 2 because of its low mass. These widely spaced levels inhibit equal partition of heat energy into rotational motion in hydrogen at low temperatures. Diatomic gases composed of heavier atoms do not have such widely spaced levels and do not exhibit

1806-469: A part of Mexico. In 1846, the total settler population of the western part of the old Alta California had been estimated to be no more than 8,000, plus about 100,000 Native Americans, down from about 300,000 before Hispanic settlement in 1769. In 1848, only one week before the official American annexation of the area, gold was discovered in California, this being an event which was to forever alter both

1935-545: A partial negative charge. These compounds are often known as hydrides . Hydrogen forms many compounds with carbon called the hydrocarbons , and even more with heteroatoms that, due to their association with living things, are called organic compounds . The study of their properties is known as organic chemistry and their study in the context of living organisms is called biochemistry . By some definitions, "organic" compounds are only required to contain carbon. However, most of them also contain hydrogen, and because it

2064-477: A partial positive charge. When bonded to a more electronegative element, particularly fluorine , oxygen , or nitrogen , hydrogen can participate in a form of medium-strength noncovalent bonding with another electronegative element with a lone pair, a phenomenon called hydrogen bonding that is critical to the stability of many biological molecules. Hydrogen also forms compounds with less electronegative elements, such as metals and metalloids , where it takes on

2193-405: A proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom , together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure. Furthermore, study of the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation H + 2 brought understanding of the nature of the chemical bond , which followed shortly after

2322-475: A serious incident. Hydrogen-lifted airships were used as observation platforms and bombers during the war. The first non-stop transatlantic crossing was made by the British airship R34 in 1919. Regular passenger service resumed in the 1920s and the discovery of helium reserves in the United States promised increased safety, but the U.S. government refused to sell the gas for this purpose. Therefore, H 2

2451-748: A short break in 1862 when legislative sessions were held in San Francisco due to flooding in Sacramento . Once the state's Constitutional Convention had finalized its state constitution, it applied to the U.S. Congress for admission to statehood . On September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850 , California became a free state and September   9 a state holiday . During the American Civil War (1861–1865), California sent gold shipments eastward to Washington in support of

2580-440: A similar experiment with iron and sulfuric acid. However, in all likelihood, "sulfureous" should here be understood to mean "combustible". In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by naming the gas from a metal-acid reaction "inflammable air". He speculated that "inflammable air" was in fact identical to the hypothetical substance " phlogiston " and further finding in 1781 that

2709-498: A smaller portion comes from energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water . Its main industrial uses include fossil fuel processing, such as hydrocracking , and ammonia production , with emerging uses in fuel cells for electricity generation and as a heat source. When used in fuel cells, hydrogen's only emission at point of use is water vapor, though combustion can produce nitrogen oxides . Hydrogen's interaction with metals may cause embrittlement . Hydrogen gas

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2838-471: A spark or flame, they do not react at room temperature in the absence of a catalyst. The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6  eV , equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength. The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, in which the electron "orbits" the proton, like how Earth orbits

2967-450: A species. To avoid the implication of the naked "solvated proton" in solution, acidic aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely fictitious species, termed the " hydronium ion" ( [H 3 O] ). However, even in this case, such solvated hydrogen cations are more realistically conceived as being organized into clusters that form species closer to [H 9 O 4 ] . Other oxonium ions are found when water

3096-406: A spin singlet state having spin S = 0 {\displaystyle S=0} . The equilibrium ratio of ortho- to para-hydrogen depends on temperature. At room temperature or warmer, equilibrium hydrogen gas contains about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form. The ortho form is an excited state , having higher energy than the para form by 1.455 kJ/mol, and it converts to

3225-612: A state Constitutional Convention was first held in Monterey. Among the first tasks of the convention was a decision on a location for the new state capital. The first full legislative sessions were held in San Jose (1850–1851). Subsequent locations included Vallejo (1852–1853), and nearby Benicia (1853–1854); these locations eventually proved to be inadequate as well. The capital has been located in Sacramento since 1854 with only

3354-438: A term that is used fairly loosely. The term "hydride" suggests that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character, denoted H ; and is used when hydrogen forms a compound with a more electropositive element. The existence of the hydride anion , suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group 1 and 2 salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 by the electrolysis of molten lithium hydride (LiH), producing

3483-539: A waste (zero-energy) form of carbon ( CO 2 ) and converting it into a high density liquid form of energy (natural oil). There are several main groups of microalgae , that differ by pigment composition, biochemical constituents, ultrastructure, and life cycle. Five groups were of primary importance to the ASP: diatoms (Class Bacillariophyceae), green algae (Class Chlorophyceae), golden- brown algae (Class Chrysophyceae), prymnesiophytes (Class Prymnesiophyceae ), and

3612-482: A while before caus'd to be purposely fil'd off from a piece of good steel. This metalline powder being moistn'd in the viol with a little of the menstruum, was afterwards drench'd with more; whereupon the mixture grew very hot, and belch'd up copious and stinking fumes; which whether they consisted altogether of the volatile sulfur of the Mars [iron], or of metalline steams participating of a sulfureous nature, and join'd with

3741-621: Is Sacramento . The state's diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast and metropolitan areas in the west to the Sierra Nevada mountains in the east, and from the redwood and Douglas fir forests in the northwest to the Mojave Desert in the southeast. Two-thirds of the nation's earthquake risk lies in California. The Central Valley , a fertile agricultural area, dominates the state's center. The large size of

3870-579: Is exothermic and produces enough heat to evaporate most of the liquid if not converted first to parahydrogen during the cooling process. Catalysts for the ortho-para interconversion, such as ferric oxide and activated carbon compounds, are used during hydrogen cooling to avoid this loss of liquid. While H 2 is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form compounds with most elements. Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more electronegative , such as halogens (F, Cl, Br, I), or oxygen ; in these compounds hydrogen takes on

3999-428: Is a chemical element ; it has symbol H and atomic number 1. It is the lightest element and, at standard conditions , is a gas of diatomic molecules with the formula H 2 , sometimes called dihydrogen , but more commonly called hydrogen gas , molecular hydrogen or simply hydrogen. It is colorless, odorless, non-toxic, and highly combustible . Constituting about 75% of all normal matter , hydrogen

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4128-505: Is crucial in acid-base reactions , which mainly involve proton exchange among soluble molecules. In ionic compounds , hydrogen can take the form of either a negatively charged anion , where it is known as hydride , or as a positively charged cation , H . The cation, usually just a proton (symbol p ), exhibits specific behavior in aqueous solutions and in ionic compounds involves screening of its electric charge by surrounding polar molecules or anions. Hydrogen's unique position as

4257-416: Is detected in order to probe primordial hydrogen. The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the universe up to a redshift of z  = 4. Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H 2 . Hydrogen gas is very rare in Earth's atmosphere (around 0.53 ppm on

4386-400: Is highly flammable: Enthalpy of combustion : −286 kJ/mol. Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4–74% and with chlorine at 5–95%. The hydrogen autoignition temperature , the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C (932 °F). Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and with high oxygen mix are nearly invisible to

4515-453: Is in acidic solution with other solvents. Although exotic on Earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the H + 3 ion, known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the trihydrogen cation. Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted H , H and H . Other, highly unstable nuclei ( H to H ) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature. Unique among

4644-533: Is not a limitation. 200,000 hectares (490,000 acres) could produce one quad of fuel. Thus, resource limitations are not an argument against the technology. In its prime, the program had up to $ 2–2.75 million in annual funding. After the boom years of 1984 and 1985, funding fell rapidly to its low of $ 250,000 in 1991. The total cost of the Aquatic Species Program was $ 25.05 million over its twenty-year life. The July 1998 close out report from

4773-484: Is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals . Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice . These properties may be useful when hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disks, but the gas's high solubility is a metallurgical problem, contributing to the embrittlement of many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks. Hydrogen compounds are often called hydrides ,

4902-537: Is still used, in preference to non-flammable but more expensive helium, as a lifting gas for weather balloons . Deuterium was discovered in December 1931 by Harold Urey , and tritium was prepared in 1934 by Ernest Rutherford , Mark Oliphant , and Paul Harteck . Heavy water , which consists of deuterium in the place of regular hydrogen, was discovered by Urey's group in 1932. The first hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator went into service using gaseous hydrogen as

5031-490: Is the most abundant chemical element in the universe . Stars , including the Sun , mainly consist of hydrogen in a plasma state , while on Earth, hydrogen is found in water , organic compounds , as dihydrogen , and in other molecular forms . The most common isotope of hydrogen (protium, H) consists of one proton , one electron , and no neutrons . In the early universe , the formation of hydrogen's protons occurred in

5160-412: Is the carbon-hydrogen bond that gives this class of compounds most of its particular chemical characteristics, carbon-hydrogen bonds are required in some definitions of the word "organic" in chemistry. Millions of hydrocarbons are known, and they are usually formed by complicated pathways that seldom involve elemental hydrogen. Hydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and transition metals and

5289-526: Is the home of Hollywood , the oldest and one of the largest film industries in the world, profoundly influencing global entertainment. The San Francisco Bay and the Greater Los Angeles areas are seen as the centers of the global technology and U.S. film industries, respectively. The Spaniards gave the name Las Californias to the peninsula of Baja California (in modern-day Mexico). As Spanish explorers and settlers moved north and inland,

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5418-504: The Battle of Providencia near Los Angeles, he convinced each side that they had no reason to be fighting each other. As a result of Marsh's actions, they abandoned the fight, Micheltorena was defeated, and California-born Pio Pico was returned to the governorship. This paved the way to California's ultimate acquisition by the United States. In 1846, a group of American settlers in and around Sonoma rebelled against Mexican rule during

5547-652: The Bear Flag Revolt . Afterward, rebels raised the Bear Flag (featuring a bear, a star, a red stripe and the words "California Republic") at Sonoma. The Republic's only president was William B. Ide , who played a pivotal role during the Bear Flag Revolt. This revolt by American settlers served as a prelude to the later American military invasion of California and was closely coordinated with nearby American military commanders. The California Republic

5676-715: The California Master Plan for Higher Education in 1960 to develop an efficient system of public education. Meanwhile, attracted to the mild Mediterranean climate, cheap land, and the state's variety of geography, filmmakers established the studio system in Hollywood in the 1920s. California manufactured 9% of US armaments produced during World War II , ranking third behind New York and Michigan . California easily ranked first in production of military ships at drydock facilities in San Diego, Los Angeles, and

5805-566: The Graham Affair , which was resolved in part with the intercession of Royal Navy officials. One of the largest ranchers in California was John Marsh . After failing to obtain justice against squatters on his land from the Mexican courts, he determined that California should become part of the United States. Marsh conducted a letter-writing campaign espousing the California climate, the soil, and other reasons to settle there, as well as

5934-502: The Hindenburg airship was a notorious example of hydrogen combustion and the cause is still debated. The visible flames in the photographs were the result of carbon compounds in the airship skin burning. H 2 is unreactive compared to diatomic elements such as halogens or oxygen. The thermodynamic basis of this low reactivity is the very strong H–H bond, with a bond dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol. The kinetic basis of

6063-553: The Indigenous people of California had not yet developed a natural immunity. Under its new American administration, California's first governor Peter Hardeman Burnett instituted policies that have been described as a state-sanctioned policy of elimination of California's indigenous people. Burnett announced in 1851 in his Second Annual Message to the Legislature: "That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between

6192-579: The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) allows any of D, T, H , and H to be used, though H and H are preferred. The exotic atom muonium (symbol Mu), composed of an anti muon and an electron , can also be considered a light radioisotope of hydrogen. Because muons decay with lifetime 2.2  µs , muonium is too unstable for observable chemistry. Nevertheless, muonium compounds are important test cases for quantum simulation , due to

6321-616: The Presidio of San Diego , the first religious and military settlements founded by the Spanish in California. By the end of the expedition in 1770, they would establish the Presidio of Monterey and Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo on Monterey Bay. After the Portolà expedition, Spanish missionaries led by Father-President Serra set out to establish 21 Spanish missions of California along El Camino Real ("The Royal Road") and along

6450-774: The Route 66 . From 1900 to 1965, the population grew from fewer than one million to the greatest in the Union. In 1940, the Census Bureau reported California's population as 6% Hispanic, 2.4% Asian, and 90% non-Hispanic white. To meet the population's needs, engineering feats like the California and Los Angeles Aqueducts ; the Oroville and Shasta Dams ; and the Bay and Golden Gate Bridges were built. The state government adopted

6579-527: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (February 2, 1848) that ended the war, the westernmost portion of the annexed Mexican territory of Alta California soon became the American state of California, and the remainder of the old territory was then subdivided into the new American Territories of Arizona, Nevada, Colorado and Utah . The even more lightly populated and arid lower region of old Baja California remained as

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6708-673: The coast of California were the members of a Spanish maritime expedition led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo in 1542. Cabrillo was commissioned by Antonio de Mendoza , the Viceroy of New Spain , to lead an expedition up the Pacific coast in search of trade opportunities; they entered San Diego Bay on September 28, 1542, and reached at least as far north as San Miguel Island . Privateer and explorer Francis Drake explored and claimed an undefined portion of

6837-431: The "planetary orbit" differs from electron motion. Molecular H 2 exists as two spin isomers , i.e. compounds that differ only in the spin states of their nuclei. In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two nuclei are parallel, forming a spin triplet state having a total molecular spin S = 1 {\displaystyle S=1} ; in the parahydrogen form the spins are antiparallel and form

6966-513: The 18th century. The Portolá expedition of 1769–70 was a pivotal event in the Spanish colonization of California, resulting in the establishment of numerous missions, presidios , and pueblos . The military and civil contingent of the expedition was led by Gaspar de Portolá , who traveled over land from Sonora into California, while the religious component was headed by Junípero Serra , who came by sea from Baja California . In 1769, Portolá and Serra established Mission San Diego de Alcalá and

7095-491: The 1992 Rodney King riots. California was the hub of the Black Panther Party , known for arming African Americans to defend against racial injustice. Mexican, Filipino, and other migrant farm workers rallied in the state around Cesar Chavez for better pay in the 1960s and 70s. During the 20th century, two great disasters happened: the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and 1928 St. Francis Dam flood remain

7224-403: The 21st century, droughts and frequent wildfires attributed to climate change have occurred. From 2011 to 2017, a persistent drought was the worst in its recorded history. The 2018 wildfire season was the state's deadliest and most destructive. One of the first confirmed COVID-19 cases in the United States occurred in California on January 26, 2020. A state of emergency was declared in

7353-522: The California coast in 1579, landing north of the future city of San Francisco . The first Asians to set foot on what would be the United States occurred in 1587, when Filipino sailors arrived in Spanish ships at Morro Bay . Coincidentally the descendants of the Muslim Caliph Hasan ibn Ali in formerly Islamic Manila and had converted, then mixed Christianity with Islam, upon Spanish conquest, transited through California (Named after

7482-526: The California coast, 16 sites of which having been chosen during the Portolá expedition. Numerous major cities in California grew out of missions, including San Francisco ( Mission San Francisco de Asís ), San Diego ( Mission San Diego de Alcalá ), Ventura ( Mission San Buenaventura ), or Santa Barbara ( Mission Santa Barbara ), among others. Juan Bautista de Anza led a similarly important expedition throughout California in 1775–76, which would extend deeper into

7611-534: The California government in 2022. These groups were also diverse in their political organization, with bands, tribes, villages, and, on the resource-rich coasts, large chiefdoms , such as the Chumash , Pomo and Salinan . Trade, intermarriage, craft specialists, and military alliances fostered social and economic relationships between many groups. Although nations would sometimes war, most armed conflicts were between groups of men for vengeance . Acquiring territory

7740-443: The California state government paid around 1.5   million dollars (some 250,000 of which was reimbursed by the federal government) to hire militias with the stated purpose of protecting settlers, however these militias perpetrated numerous massacres of indigenous people. Indigenous people were also forcibly moved to reservations and rancherias, which were often small and isolated and without enough natural resources or funding from

7869-624: The San Francisco Bay Area. Due to the hiring opportunities California offered during the conflict, the population multiplied from the immigration it received due to the work in its war factories, military bases, and training facilities. After World War II, California's economy expanded due to strong aerospace and defense industries, whose size decreased following the end of the Cold War . Stanford University began encouraging faculty and graduates to stay instead of leaving

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7998-479: The Sun and other stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora . Hydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the interstellar medium because the atoms seldom collide and combine. They are the source of the 21-cm hydrogen line at 1420 MHz that

8127-457: The Sun and the CNO cycle of nuclear fusion in case of stars more massive than the Sun . Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states, with properties quite distinct from those of molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the light from

8256-464: The Sun. However, the electron and proton are held together by electrostatic attraction, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity . Due to the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy certain allowed distances from the proton, and therefore only certain allowed energies. A more accurate description of

8385-497: The U.S. Army. In the 20th century, thousands of Japanese people migrated to California. The state in 1913 passed the Alien Land Act , excluding Asian immigrants from owning land. During World War II, Japanese Americans in California were interned in concentration camps; in 2020, California apologized. Migration to California accelerated during the early 20th century with the completion of transcontinental highways like

8514-663: The U.S. Navy's Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-2). The International Space Station , Mars Odyssey and the Mars Global Surveyor are equipped with nickel-hydrogen batteries. In the dark part of its orbit, the Hubble Space Telescope is also powered by nickel-hydrogen batteries, which were finally replaced in May 2009, more than 19 years after launch and 13 years beyond their design life. Because of its simple atomic structure, consisting only of

8643-454: The Union . However, due to the existence of a large contingent of pro-South sympathizers within the state, the state was not able to muster any full military regiments to send eastwards to officially serve in the Union war effort. Still, several smaller military units within the Union army, such as the "California 100 Company" , were unofficially associated with the state of California due to a majority of their members being from California. At

8772-609: The University of Hawaii,” said Al Darzins, who heads up the resurgent algal biofuels research program at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. During the Carter Administration in the mid-1970s, all energy-related offices were brought together under the newly formed Department of Energy. The hierarchy between the DOE and the Aquatic Species Program was as follows: Hydrogen Hydrogen

8901-454: The best land in the state, were secularized by 1834 and became the property of the Mexican government. The governor granted many square leagues of land to others with political influence. These huge ranchos or cattle ranches emerged as the dominant institutions of Mexican California. The ranchos developed under ownership by Californios (Hispanics native of California) who traded cowhides and tallow with Boston merchants. Beef did not become

9030-464: The best route to follow, which became known as "Marsh's route". His letters were read, reread, passed around, and printed in newspapers throughout the country, and started the first wagon trains rolling to California. After ushering in the period of organized emigration to California, Marsh became involved in a military battle between the much-hated Mexican general, Manuel Micheltorena and the California governor he had replaced, Juan Bautista Alvarado. At

9159-551: The conquest include the Battle of San Pasqual and the Battle of Dominguez Rancho in Southern California, as well as the Battle of Olómpali and the Battle of Santa Clara in Northern California. After a series of defensive battles in the south, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed by the Californios on January 13, 1847, securing a censure and establishing de facto American control in California. Following

9288-535: The deadliest in U.S. history. Although air pollution has been reduced, health problems associated with pollution continue. Brown haze known as " smog " has been substantially abated after federal and state restrictions on automobile exhaust. An energy crisis in 2001 led to rolling blackouts , soaring power rates, and the importation of electricity from neighboring states. Southern California Edison and Pacific Gas and Electric Company came under heavy criticism. Housing prices in urban areas continued to increase;

9417-430: The elements, distinct names are assigned to its isotopes in common use. During the early study of radioactivity, heavy radioisotopes were given their own names, but these are mostly no longer used. The symbols D and T (instead of H and H ) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, but the symbol P was already used for phosphorus and thus was not available for protium. In its nomenclatural guidelines,

9546-477: The eustigmatophytes (Class Eustigmatophyceae ). The blue-green algae , or cyanobacteria (Class Cyanophyceae), were also represented in some of the collections. One side benefit was the sequestration of waste CO 2 from coal-fired power plants. The researchers were concerned with finding algae species which had a large lipid content, collecting over 3,000 North American species in their search. Work then focused on increasing their lipid content by reducing

9675-497: The first reliable form of air-travel following the 1852 invention of the first hydrogen-lifted airship by Henri Giffard . German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin promoted the idea of rigid airships lifted by hydrogen that later were called Zeppelins ; the first of which had its maiden flight in 1900. Regularly scheduled flights started in 1910 and by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, they had carried 35,000 passengers without

9804-496: The first second after the Big Bang ; neutral hydrogen atoms only formed about 370,000 years later during the recombination epoch as the universe cooled and plasma had cooled enough for electrons to remain bound to protons. Hydrogen, typically nonmetallic except under extreme pressure , readily forms covalent bonds with most nonmetals, contributing to the formation of compounds like water and various organic substances. Its role

9933-462: The gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for the discovery of hydrogen as an element. In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier identified the element that came to be known as hydrogen when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned. Lavoisier produced hydrogen for his experiments on mass conservation by reacting a flux of steam with metallic iron through an incandescent iron tube heated in

10062-626: The government to adequately sustain the populations living on them. As a result, settler colonialism was a calamity for indigenous people. Several scholars and Native American activists, including Benjamin Madley and Ed Castillo , have described the actions of the California government as a genocide , as well as the 40th governor of California Gavin Newsom . Benjamin Madley estimates that from 1846 to 1873, between 9,492 and 16,092 indigenous people were killed, including between 1,680 and 3,741 killed by

10191-427: The high temperatures associated with plasmas, such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of atoms and molecules, and will remain attached to them. However, the term 'proton' is sometimes used loosely and metaphorically to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen attached to other species in this fashion, and as such is denoted " H " without any implication that any single protons exist freely as

10320-459: The highest output of any U.S. state, and is led by its dairy , almonds , and grapes . With the busiest port in the country ( Los Angeles ), California plays a pivotal role in the global supply chain, hauling in about 40% of goods imported to the US. Notable contributions to popular culture , ranging from entertainment , sports , music , and fashion , have their origins in California. California

10449-503: The hydrogen atom comes from a quantum analysis that uses the Schrödinger equation , Dirac equation or Feynman path integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the proton. The most complex formulas include the small effects of special relativity and vacuum polarization . In the quantum mechanical treatment, the electron in a ground state hydrogen atom has no angular momentum—illustrating how

10578-399: The hydrogen gas blowpipe in 1819. The Döbereiner's lamp and limelight were invented in 1823. Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by James Dewar in 1898 by using regenerative cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask . He produced solid hydrogen the next year. The first hydrogen-filled balloon was invented by Jacques Charles in 1783. Hydrogen provided the lift for

10707-410: The indigenous peoples developed complex forms of ecosystem management, including forest gardening to ensure the regular availability of food and medicinal plants . This was a form of sustainable agriculture . To mitigate destructive large wildfires from ravaging the natural environment, indigenous peoples developed a practice of controlled burning . This practice was recognized for its benefits by

10836-572: The interior and north of California. The Anza expedition selected numerous sites for missions, presidios, and pueblos, which subsequently would be established by settlers. Gabriel Moraga , a member of the expedition, would also christen many of California's prominent rivers with their names in 1775–1776, such as the Sacramento River and the San Joaquin River . After the expedition, Gabriel's son, José Joaquín Moraga , would found

10965-531: The largest dam removal and river restoration project in US history was announced for the Klamath River , as a win for California tribes. Covering an area of 163,696 sq mi (423,970 km ), California is the third-largest state in the United States in area, after Alaska and Texas . California is one of the most geographically diverse states in the union and is often geographically bisected into two regions, Southern California , comprising

11094-456: The long term, reliable production of algae was possible. The Roswell, New Mexico tests proved that outdoor ponds could be run with extremely high efficiency of CO 2 utilization. Careful control of pH and other physical conditions for introducing CO 2 into the ponds allowed greater than 90% utilization. Single day production reported over the course of one year was as high as 50 grams (1.8 oz) of algae per square meter per day,

11223-482: The long-term target. Low temperatures negatively affected production. The costs were significantly lower than the costs of conventional fuel production to the environment and society. ASP evaluated appropriate climate, land, and resource availability. They found that algae could supply several quads of biodiesel (one quad is 290 terawatt-hours ), much more than existing oilseed crops could provide. Microalgae systems use less water than traditional oilseed crops. Land

11352-400: The low reactivity is the nonpolar nature of H 2 and its weak polarizability. It spontaneously reacts with chlorine and fluorine to form hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride , respectively. The reactivity of H 2 is strongly affected by the presence of metal catalysts. Thus, while mixtures of H 2 with O 2 or air combust readily when heated to at least 500°C by

11481-402: The mass difference between the antimuon and the proton, and IUPAC nomenclature incorporates such hypothetical compounds as muonium chloride (MuCl) and sodium muonide (NaMu), analogous to hydrogen chloride and sodium hydride respectively. Table of thermal and physical properties of hydrogen (H 2 ) at atmospheric pressure: In 1671, Irish scientist Robert Boyle discovered and described

11610-481: The mass of the universe, however, is not in the form of chemical-element type matter, but rather is postulated to occur as yet-undetected forms of mass such as dark matter and dark energy . Hydrogen is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H 2 are associated with star formation . Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through the proton-proton reaction in case of stars with very low to approximately 1 mass of

11739-844: The middle of the state lies the California Central Valley , bounded by the Sierra Nevada in the east, the coastal mountain ranges in the west, the Cascade Range to the north and by the Tehachapi Mountains in the south. The Central Valley is California's productive agricultural heartland. Divided in two by the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta , the northern portion, the Sacramento Valley serves as

11868-501: The naked eye, as illustrated by the faint plume of the Space Shuttle Main Engine , compared to the highly visible plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster , which uses an ammonium perchlorate composite . The detection of a burning hydrogen leak, may require a flame detector ; such leaks can be very dangerous. Hydrogen flames in other conditions are blue, resembling blue natural gas flames. The destruction of

11997-558: The next 20 years. Algal biodiesel is expensive in comparison and might not be able to compete with such cheap petroleum prices. National Renewable Energy Laboratory scientists isolated around 3,000 algae species. Fifty-one varieties were characterized as potential high-value strains, but fewer than half of those remain. A few hundred strains were in storage at the University of Hawaii , which for years, every two months, transferred, “passaged”, them to new nutrient-rich test tubes. When

12126-533: The north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California to the south. With nearly 39   million residents across an area of 163,696 square miles (423,970 km ), it is the most populous U.S. state, the third-largest by area, and most populated subnational entity in North America . Prior to European colonization , California

12255-649: The number and combination of possible compounds varies widely; for example, more than 100 binary borane hydrides are known, but only one binary aluminium hydride. Binary indium hydride has not yet been identified, although larger complexes exist. In inorganic chemistry , hydrides can also serve as bridging ligands that link two metal centers in a coordination complex . This function is particularly common in group 13 elements , especially in boranes ( boron hydrides) and aluminium complexes, as well as in clustered carboranes . Oxidation of hydrogen removes its electron and gives H , which contains no electrons and

12384-655: The only neutral atom for which the Schrödinger equation can be directly solved, has significantly contributed to the foundational principles of quantum mechanics through the exploration of its energetics and chemical bonding . Hydrogen gas was first produced artificially in the early 16th century by reacting acids with metals. Henry Cavendish , in 1766–81, identified hydrogen gas as a distinct substance and discovered its property of producing water when burned; hence its name means "water-former" in Greek. Most hydrogen production occurs through steam reforming of natural gas ;

12513-420: The para form over the course of several minutes when cooled to low temperature. The thermal properties of the forms differ because they differ in their allowed rotational quantum states , resulting in different thermal properties such as the heat capacity. The ortho-to-para ratio in H 2 is an important consideration in the liquefaction and storage of liquid hydrogen : the conversion from ortho to para

12642-414: The population of San Francisco increased from 500 to 150,000. The seat of government for California under Spanish and later Mexican rule had been located in Monterey from 1777 until 1845. Pio Pico, the last Mexican governor of Alta California, had briefly moved the capital to Los Angeles in 1845. The United States consulate had also been located in Monterey, under consul Thomas O. Larkin . In 1849,

12771-467: The present and will continue. U.S. Energy Secretary Steven Chu announced in January 2010 $ 80 million in government funding for biofuel research and development. The bulk of the funding, went to algae research and development, while the rest went toward ethanol infrastructure. However, projections for future costs of petroleum are a moving target. DOE expects petroleum costs to remain relatively flat over

12900-528: The program concluded that even with the most optimistic lipid yields the production of bio-diesel from algae would only become cost effective if petro-diesel prices rose to twice the 1998 levels. While highly volatile, oil prices are typically three or more times higher than the average 1998 price in constant dollars. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) is the largest increase in scientific research funding in US history. Billions of dollars are going into energy research, development and deployment in

13029-404: The program was the production of biodiesel from high lipid -content algae grown in ponds, utilizing waste CO 2 from coal -fired power plants. The lipids that they are referring to are another name for Triglycerides or TAGs, which are the primary storage form of natural oils. The program looked at nutrient deficiency in algae, because they wanted to study the lipid trigger. The hypothesis

13158-733: The pueblo of San Jose in 1777, making it the first civilian-established city in California. During this same period, sailors from the Russian Empire explored along the northern coast of California. In 1812, the Russian-American Company established a trading post and small fortification at Fort Ross on the North Coast . Fort Ross was primarily used to supply Russia's Alaskan colonies with food supplies. The settlement did not meet much success, failing to attract settlers or establish long term trade viability, and

13287-477: The quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s. One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood at the time) was a Maxwell observation involving hydrogen, half a century before full quantum mechanical theory arrived. Maxwell observed that the specific heat capacity of H 2 unaccountably departs from that of a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to increasingly resemble that of

13416-469: The races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected. While we cannot anticipate the result with but painful regret, the inevitable destiny of the race is beyond the power and wisdom of man to avert." As in other American states, indigenous peoples were forcibly removed from their lands by American settlers , like miners, ranchers, and farmers. Although California had entered the American union as

13545-502: The reaction between iron filings and dilute acids , which results in the production of hydrogen gas. Having provided a saline spirit [hydrochloric acid], which by an uncommon way of preparation was made exceeding sharp and piercing, we put into a vial, capable of containing three or four ounces of water, a convenient quantity of filings of steel, which were not such as are commonly sold in shops to Chymists and Apothecaries, (those being usually not free enough from rust) but such as I had

13674-403: The region known as California , or Las Californias , grew. Eventually it included lands north of the peninsula, Alta California , part of which became the present-day U.S. state of California. A 2017 state legislative document states, "Numerous theories exist as to the origin and meaning of the word 'California, ' " and that all anyone knows is the name was added to a map by 1541 "presumably by

13803-948: The research from 1978 to 1982 was focused on using algae to produce hydrogen . The program switched emphasis to other transportation fuels, in particular biodiesel, beginning in the early 1980s. In 1995, DOE made the decision to eliminate funding for algae research within the Biofuels Program. The Department chose to focus its on one or two key areas, the largest of these being the development of bioethanol . The Aquatic Species Program ended in 1996. Microalgae are microscopic organisms that can grow via photosynthesis . Many groups grow quickly and are more productive than land plants and macroalgae (seaweed). Microalgae reproduction occurs primarily by vegetative ( asexual ) cell division, although sexual reproduction can occur in many species under appropriate growth conditions. Microalgae are efficient for fuel production and they are capable of taking

13932-506: The saline exhalations of the menstruum, is not necessary to be here discuss'd. But whencesoever this stinking smoak proceeded, so inflammable it was, that upon the approach of a lighted candle to it, it would readily enough take fire, and burn with a blewish and somewhat greenish flame at the mouth of the viol for a good while together; and that, though with little light, yet with more strength than one would easily suspect. The word "sulfureous" may be somewhat confusing, especially since Boyle did

14061-405: The same effect. Antihydrogen ( H ) is the antimatter counterpart to hydrogen. It consists of an antiproton with a positron . Antihydrogen is the only type of antimatter atom to have been produced as of 2015 . Hydrogen, as atomic H, is the most abundant chemical element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and >90% by number of atoms. Most of

14190-654: The state as part of the Gold Rush or to seek work. Even though the Chinese proved indispensable in building the transcontinental railroad from California to Utah, perceived job competition with the Chinese led to anti-Chinese riots in the state, and eventually the US ended migration from China partially as a response to pressure from California with the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act . Under earlier Spanish and Mexican rule, California's original native population had precipitously declined, above all, from Eurasian diseases to which

14319-466: The state on March 4, 2020, and remained in effect until Governor Gavin Newsom ended it in February 2023. A mandatory statewide stay-at-home order was issued on March 19, 2020, which was ended in January 2021. Cultural and language revitalization efforts among indigenous Californians have progressed among tribes as of 2022. Some land returns to indigenous stewardship have occurred. In 2022,

14448-430: The state results in climates that vary from moist temperate rainforest in the north to arid desert in the interior, as well as snowy alpine in the mountains . Droughts and wildfires are an ongoing issue. California's economy is the largest of any U.S. state, with a $ 4.0 trillion gross state product as of 2024 . It is the largest sub-national economy in the world. California's agricultural industry has

14577-515: The state's demographics and its finances. Soon afterward, a massive influx of immigration into the area resulted, as prospectors and miners arrived by the thousands. The population burgeoned with United States citizens, Europeans, Middle Easterns, Chinese and other immigrants during the great California gold rush . By the time of California's application for statehood in 1850, the settler population of California had multiplied to 100,000. By 1854, more than 300,000 settlers had come. Between 1847 and 1870,

14706-522: The state's name include CA, Cal., Calif., Califas , and US-CA . California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America . Historians generally agree that there were at least 300,000 people living in California prior to European colonization. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct ethnic groups , inhabiting environments ranging from mountains and deserts to islands and redwood forests. Living in these diverse geographic areas,

14835-620: The state, and develop a high-tech region, now known as Silicon Valley . As a result of this, California is a world center of the entertainment and music industries, of technology, engineering, and the aerospace industry, and as the US center of agricultural production. Just before the Dot Com Bust , California had the fifth-largest economy in the world. In the mid and late twentieth century, race-related incidents occurred. Tensions between police and African Americans, combined with unemployment and poverty in inner cities, led to riots, such as

14964-483: The supply of key nutrients , such as nitrogen and silicon . Another key research aim was to validate the open pond system for mass production , resulting in the creation of 1,000 square metres (11,000 sq ft) pond systems in Roswell , New Mexico . While achieving the desired yields of 50 grams (1.8 oz) of algae per square meter per day, low temperatures were found to hamper yields. The main focus of

15093-511: The ten southernmost counties, and Northern California , comprising the 48 northernmost counties. It is bordered by Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east and northeast, Arizona to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California to the south (with which it makes up part of The Californias region of North America , alongside Baja California Sur ). In

15222-407: The time of California's admission into the Union, travel between California and the rest of the continental United States had been a time-consuming and dangerous feat. Nineteen years later, and seven years after it was greenlighted by President Lincoln, the first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869. California was then reachable from the eastern States in a week's time. Much of the state

15351-570: The transition from Spanish colonial rule to independent Mexican rule. In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence gave the Mexican Empire (which included California) independence from Spain. For the next 25 years, Alta California remained a remote, sparsely populated, northwestern administrative district of the newly independent country of Mexico, which shortly after independence became a republic. The missions , which controlled most of

15480-544: Was abandoned by 1841. During the War of Mexican Independence , Alta California was largely unaffected and uninvolved in the revolution, though many Californios supported independence from Spain , which many believed had neglected California and limited its development. Spain's trade monopoly on California had limited local trade prospects. Following Mexican independence, California ports were freely able to trade with foreign merchants. Governor Pablo Vicente de Solá presided over

15609-552: Was extremely well suited to fruit cultivation and agriculture in general. Vast expanses of wheat, other cereal crops, vegetable crops, cotton, and nut and fruit trees were grown (including oranges in Southern California), and the foundation was laid for the state's prodigious agricultural production in the Central Valley and elsewhere. In the nineteenth century, a large number of migrants from China traveled to

15738-607: Was highly unstable, and in a reflection of this, from 1831 onwards, California also experienced a series of armed disputes, both internal and with the central Mexican government. During this tumultuous political period Juan Bautista Alvarado was able to secure the governorship during 1836–1842. The military action which first brought Alvarado to power had momentarily declared California to be an independent state, and had been aided by Anglo-American residents of California, including Isaac Graham . In 1840, one hundred of those residents who did not have passports were arrested, leading to

15867-714: Was not usually the purpose of these small-scale battles. Men and women generally had different roles in society. Women were often responsible for weaving, harvesting, processing, and preparing food, while men for hunting and other forms of physical labor. Most societies also had roles for people whom the Spanish referred to as joyas , who they saw as "men who dressed as women". Joyas were responsible for death , burial , and mourning rituals , and they performed women's social roles. Indigenous societies had terms such as two-spirit to refer to them. The Chumash referred to them as 'aqi. The early Spanish settlers detested and sought to eliminate them. The first Europeans to explore

15996-666: Was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America . European exploration in the 16th and 17th centuries led to the colonization by the Spanish Empire . The area became a part of Mexico in 1821, following its successful war for independence , but was ceded to the United States in 1848 after the Mexican–American War . The California gold rush started in 1848 and led to social and demographic changes, including depopulation of Indigenous tribes. The western portion of Alta California

16125-502: Was short-lived; the same year marked the outbreak of the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States Navy sailed into Monterey Bay in 1846 and began the U.S. military invasion of California , with Northern California capitulating in less than a month to the United States forces. In Southern California, Californios continued to resist American forces. Notable military engagements of

16254-440: Was that when the algae is nutrient starved, oil production in the cells increases, so this might affect overall productivity. However, the study found that during nutrient deficiency, rates of oil production are lower. Higher levels of oil in the cells are more than offset by lower rates of cell growth. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase ( ACCase ) is an enzyme which catalyzes a key metabolic step in the synthesis of oils in algae. The program

16383-447: Was the first to isolate this enzyme from a diatom . The researchers discovered the transformation system for diatoms. They wanted to know if increasing the level of ACCase activity in the cells would lead to higher oil production. However, no increased oil production occurred. The program looked into the possibility of large-scale algae production in open ponds. They conducted studies in California , Hawaii , New Mexico , and found that

16512-399: Was then organized and admitted as the 31st state in 1850 , as a free state , following the Compromise of 1850 . The Greater Los Angeles and San Francisco Bay areas are the nation's second- and fifth-most populous urban regions , with 19 million and 10 million residents respectively. Los Angeles is the state's most populous city and the nation's second-most ; California's capital

16641-527: Was used in the Hindenburg airship, which was destroyed in a midair fire over New Jersey on 6 May 1937. The incident was broadcast live on radio and filmed. Ignition of leaking hydrogen is widely assumed to be the cause, but later investigations pointed to the ignition of the aluminized fabric coating by static electricity . But the damage to hydrogen's reputation as a lifting gas was already done and commercial hydrogen airship travel ceased . Hydrogen

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