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97-515: Fourteen Celtic tribes and over twenty Aquitanian tribes occupied the area from the northern slopes of the Pyrenees in the south to the Liger ( Loire ) river in the north. The major tribes are listed at the end of this section. There were more than twenty tribes of Aquitani, but they were small and lacking in repute; the majority of the tribes lived along the ocean, while the others reached up into

194-593: A plebeian family c.  63 BC , in an uncertain location in Roman Italy , he met the future emperor Augustus, then known as Octavian, at Apollonia , in Illyria . Following the assassination of Octavian's great-uncle Julius Caesar in 44 BC, Octavian returned to Italy. Around this time, Agrippa was elected tribune of the plebs . He served as a military commander, fighting alongside Octavian and Caesar's former general and right-hand man Mark Antony in

291-472: A Brittonic language of northern Britain. Celtic regions of mainland Europe are those whose residents claim a Celtic heritage, but where no Celtic language survives; these include western Iberia, i.e. Portugal and north-central Spain ( Galicia , Asturias , Cantabria , Castile and León , Extremadura ). Continental Celts are the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe and Insular Celts are

388-705: A Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul (Northern Italy), the oldest of which pre-date the La Tène period . Other early inscriptions, appearing from the early La Tène period in the area of Massilia , are in Gaulish , which was written in the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest. Celtiberian inscriptions, using their own Iberian script, appear later, after about 200 BC. Evidence of Insular Celtic

485-568: A borrowing from Frankish * Walholant , 'Roman-land' (see Gaul: Name ) , the root of which is Proto-Germanic * walha- , 'foreigner, Roman, Celt', whence the English word Welsh ( Old English wælisċ ). Proto-Germanic * walha comes from the name of the Volcae , a Celtic tribe who lived first in southern Germany and central Europe, then migrated to Gaul. This means that English Gaul , despite its superficial similarity,

582-569: A child. He had an elder brother whose name was also Lucius Vipsanius , and a sister named Vipsania Polla . His family originated in the Italian countryside, and was of humbler and plebeian origins when compared to the highest families of the Roman aristocracy. They had not been prominent in Roman public life (but were nevertheless massively wealthy if compared to the average Roman family). According to some scholars, including Victor Gardthausen , R. E. A. Palmer , and David Ridgway , Agrippa's family

679-830: A collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia , identified by their use of Celtic languages and other cultural similarities. Major Celtic groups included the Gauls ; the Celtiberians and Gallaeci of Iberia; the Britons , Picts , and Gaels of Britain and Ireland; the Boii ; and the Galatians . The interrelationships of ethnicity, language and culture in the Celtic world are unclear and debated; for example over

776-760: A common cultural and linguistic heritage more than a genetic one. Celtic cultures seem to have been diverse, with the use of a Celtic language being the main thing they had in common. Today, the term 'Celtic' generally refers to the languages and cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall , the Isle of Man , and Brittany ; also called the Celtic nations . These are the regions where Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent. The four are Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Welsh , and Breton ; plus two recent revivals, Cornish (a Brittonic language ) and Manx (a Goidelic language ). There are also attempts to reconstruct Cumbric ,

873-574: A great victory over the Gauls of Aquitania in 38 BC. It was the smallest region of all three mentioned above. A land extension stretching to the Loire River was added by Augustus , following the census conducted in 27 BC, based on Agrippa's observations of language, race and community according to some sources. At that point, Aquitania became an imperial province and it, along with Narbonensis, Lugdunensis and Belgica, made up Gallia . Aquitania lay under

970-493: A month in mourning. Augustus oversaw the education of Agrippa's children. Agrippa had built a tomb for himself but Augustus had Agrippa's remains placed in the Mausoleum of Augustus . Agrippa was not only Augustus' most skilled subordinate commander but also his closest companion, serving him faithfully for over three decades. Historian Glen Bowersock says of Agrippa: Agrippa deserved the honours Augustus heaped upon him. It

1067-570: A nation was not a natural unit (Caesar differentiated between proper Gauls (Celtae), Belgae and Aquitani ). In order to protect the route to Spain, Rome helped Massalia ( Marseille ) against bordering tribes. Following this intervention, the Romans conquered what they called Provincia , or the "Province" in 121 BC. Provincia extended from the Mediterranean to Lake Geneva , and was later known as Narbonensis with its capital at Narbo . Some of

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1164-504: A naval base. Antony drew up his ships and troops at Actium , where Octavian moved to meet him. Agrippa meanwhile defeated Antony's supporter Quintus Nasidius in a naval battle at Patrae . Dio relates that as Agrippa moved to join Octavian near Actium, he encountered Gaius Sosius , one of Antony's lieutenants, who was making a surprise attack on the squadron of Lucius Tarius , a supporter of Octavian. Agrippa's unexpected arrival turned

1261-474: A pact with Mark Antony and Lepidus , legally established in 43 BC as the Second Triumvirate . Octavian and his consular colleague Quintus Pedius arranged for Caesar's assassins to be prosecuted in their absence , and Agrippa was entrusted with the case against Gaius Cassius Longinus . It may have been in the same year that Agrippa began his political career, holding the position of tribune of

1358-754: A result, these items quickly became associated with the Celts, so much so that by the 1870s scholars began to regard finds of the La Tène as 'the archaeological expression of the Celts'". This cultural network was overrun by the Roman Empire, though traces of La Tène style were still seen in Gallo-Roman artifacts . In Britain and Ireland, the La Tène style survived precariously to re-emerge in Insular art . The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to be challenged in

1455-633: A rethinking of the meaning of "Celtic". John T. Koch and Barry Cunliffe have developed this 'Celtic from the West' theory. It proposes that the proto-Celtic language arose along the Atlantic coast and was the lingua franca of the Atlantic Bronze Age cultural network, later spreading inland and eastward. More recently, Cunliffe proposes that proto-Celtic had arisen in the Atlantic zone even earlier, by 3000 BC, and spread eastwards with

1552-535: A revival. The first recorded use of the name 'Celts' – as Κελτοί ( Keltoi ) in Ancient Greek – was by Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus in 517 BC, when writing about a people living near Massilia (modern Marseille ), southern Gaul . In the fifth century BC, Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the source of the Danube and in the far west of Europe. The etymology of Keltoi

1649-668: A single culture or ethnic group. A new theory suggested that Celtic languages arose earlier, along the Atlantic coast (including Britain, Ireland, Armorica and Iberia ), long before evidence of 'Celtic' culture is found in archaeology. Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick argued that "Celtic settlement of the British Isles" might date to the Bell Beaker culture of the Copper and Bronze Age (from c. 2750 BC). Martín Almagro Gorbea (2001) also proposed that Celtic arose in

1746-526: A sort of honourable exile. He only sent his legate to Syria , while he remained at Lesbos and governed by proxy. He might have been on a secret mission to negotiate with the Parthians about the return of the Roman legions' standards. On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a year of his exile, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could not dispense with his services. If one places

1843-488: A tribal surname, which epigraphic findings have confirmed. A Latin name for the Gauls, Galli ( pl. ), may come from a Celtic ethnic name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the Celtic expansion into Italy from the early fifth century BC. Its root may be Proto-Celtic *galno , meaning "power, strength" (whence Old Irish gal "boldness, ferocity", Welsh gallu "to be able, power"). The Greek name Γαλάται ( Galatai , Latinized Galatae ) most likely has

1940-483: A tribune of the plebeians. These great powers of state are not usually heaped upon a former exile. It is said that Maecenas advised Augustus to attach Agrippa still more closely to him by making him his son-in-law. In 21 BC, he induced Agrippa to divorce Marcella and marry his daughter, Julia the Elder —the widow of Marcellus, equally celebrated for her beauty, abilities, and her shameless extravagance. In 19 BC, Agrippa

2037-591: A worsening debility on the part of the western government created a power vacuum. During the 460s and 470s, Visigoths encroached on Roman territory to the east, and in 476, the last imperial possessions in the south of Aquitania were ceded to the Visigoths. The Visigothic Kingdom later expanded over the Pyrenees and into the Iberian Peninsula . From 602, an independent Duchy of Vasconia (or Wasconia )

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2134-607: Is available only from about 400 AD, in the form of Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions . Besides epigraphic evidence, an important source of information on early Celtic is toponymy (place names). Arnaiz-Villena et al. (2017) demonstrated that Celtic-related populations of the European Atlantic (Orkney Islands, Scottish, Irish, British, Bretons, Basques, Galicians) shared a common HLA system . Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa ( / ə ˈ ɡ r ɪ p ə / ; c.  63 BC – 12 BC)

2231-518: Is conceivable that without Agrippa, Octavian would never have become emperor. Rome would remember Agrippa for his generosity in attending to aqueducts, sewers, and baths. Agrippa was also a writer, especially on the subject of geography . Under his supervision, Julius Caesar's dream of having a complete survey of the Empire made was carried out. Agrippa constructed a circular chart, which was later engraved on marble by Augustus, and afterwards placed in

2328-510: Is not actually derived from Latin Gallia (which should have produced * Jaille in French), though it does refer to the same ancient region. Celtic refers to a language family and, more generally, means 'of the Celts' or 'in the style of the Celts'. Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic, based on unique sets of artefacts. The link between language and artefact is aided by

2425-534: Is primarily a linguistic label. In his 'Celtic from the Centre' theory, he argues that the proto-Celtic language did not originate in central Europe nor the Atlantic, but in-between these two regions. He suggests that it "emerged as a distinct Indo-European dialect around the second millennium BC , probably somewhere in Gaul [centered in modern France] ... whence it spread in various directions and at various speeds in

2522-502: Is unclear. Possible roots include Indo-European * kʲel 'to hide' (seen also in Old Irish ceilid , and Modern Welsh celu ), * kʲel 'to heat' or * kel 'to impel'. It may come from the Celtic language . Linguist Kim McCone supports this view and notes that Celt- is found in the names of several ancient Gauls such as Celtillus, father of Vercingetorix . He suggests it meant the people or descendants of "the hidden one", noting

2619-607: The Histories of Herodotus, which placed the Celts at the source of the Danube . However, Stephen Oppenheimer shows that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the Pyrenees , which would place the Ancient Celts in a region which is more in agreement with later classical writers and historians (i.e. in Gaul and Iberia). The theory was also partly based on the abundance of inscriptions bearing Celtic personal names in

2716-530: The 3rd millennium BC , suggesting that the spread of the Bell Beaker culture explained the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the Celtic peoples. Using a multidisciplinary approach, Alberto J. Lorrio and Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero reviewed and built on Almagro Gorbea's work to present a model for the origin of Celtic archaeological groups in Iberia and proposing

2813-507: The Battle of Actium was fought. Octavian's victory, which gave him the mastery of Rome and the empire, was mainly due to Agrippa. Octavian then bestowed upon him the hand of his niece Claudia Marcella Major in 28 BC. He also served a second consulship with Octavian the same year. In 27 BC, Agrippa held a third consulship with Octavian, and in that year, the Senate also bestowed upon Octavian

2910-764: The Battle of Munda . Caesar regarded him highly enough to send him with Octavius in 45 BC to study in Apollonia (on the Illyrian coast) with the Macedonian legions , while Caesar consolidated his power in Rome. In the fourth month of their stay in Apollonia the news of Julius Caesar's assassination in March 44 BC reached them. Agrippa and another friend, Quintus Salvidienus Rufus , advised Octavius to march on Rome with

3007-596: The Battle of Philippi . In 40 BC, he was praetor urbanus and played a major role in the Perusine war against Lucius Antonius and Fulvia, respectively the brother and wife of Mark Antony. In 39 or 38 BC, Agrippa was appointed governor of Transalpine Gaul . In 38 BC, he put down a rising of the Aquitanians and fought the Germanic tribes. He was consul for 37 BC, well below the usual minimum age of 43, to oversee

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3104-704: The Gaels ( Irish , Scots and Manx ) and the Celtic Britons ( Welsh , Cornish , and Bretons ) of the medieval and modern periods. A modern Celtic identity was constructed as part of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Britain, Ireland, and other European territories such as Galicia . Today, Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Welsh , and Breton are still spoken in parts of their former territories, while Cornish and Manx are undergoing

3201-474: The Iberian Peninsula , Ireland and Britain. The languages developed into Celtiberian , Goidelic and Brittonic branches, among others. The mainstream view during most of the twentieth century is that the Celts and the proto-Celtic language arose out of the Urnfield culture of central Europe around 1000 BC, spreading westward and southward over the following few hundred years. The Urnfield culture

3298-537: The Lepontic inscriptions from the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names. Insular Celtic languages are attested from the 4th century AD in Ogham inscriptions , though they were being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century AD. Elements of Celtic mythology are recorded in early Irish and early Welsh literature. Most written evidence of

3395-521: The aqueduct known as the Aqua Marcia and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city. He became the first Curator Aquarum of Rome in 33 BC. Through his actions after being elected in 33 BC as one of the aediles (officials responsible for Rome's buildings and festivals), the streets were repaired and the sewers were cleaned out, and lavish public spectacles were held. Agrippa signalled his tenure of office by effecting great improvements in

3492-437: The consulship for 37 BC. He was well below the usual minimum age of 43, but Octavian had suffered a humiliating naval defeat against Sextus Pompey and needed his friend to oversee the preparations for further warfare. Agrippa refused the offer of a triumph for his exploits in Gaul – on the grounds, says Dio , that he thought it improper to celebrate during a time of trouble for Octavian. Since Sextus Pompeius had command of

3589-464: The first millennium BC ". Sims-Williams says this avoids the problematic idea "that Celtic was spoken over a vast area for a very long time yet somehow avoided major dialectal splits", and "it keeps Celtic fairly close to Italy, which suits the view that Italic and Celtic were in some way linked ". The Proto-Celtic language is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age. The earliest records of

3686-476: The settlement plans of 23 BC failed and Augustus needed military support. After 23 BC, as part of what became known as Augustus's Second Constitutional Settlement , Agrippa's constitutional powers were greatly increased to provide the Principate of Augustus with greater constitutional stability by providing for a political heir or replacement for Augustus if he were to succumb to his habitual ill health or

3783-467: The 3rd century. External pressures exacerbated internal weaknesses, and neglect of the Rhine frontier resulted in barbarian invasions and civil war. For a while Gaul, including Spain and Britain, was governed by a separate line of emperors (beginning with Postumus ). However, there had still been no move to gain independence. In an attempt to save the Empire, Diocletian reorganized the provinces in 293, with

3880-585: The Alps by Celts and Germans. Roman policy henceforth called for Italy to be defended by guarding the distant Rhine River. Caesar named Aquitania the triangle shaped territory between the Ocean, the Pyrenees and the Garonne river. He fought and almost completely subdued them in 56 BC after Publius Crassus 's military exploits assisted by Celtic allies. New rebellions ensued anyway up to 28–27 BC, with Agrippa gaining

3977-603: The Atlantic coast of the Aquitani was sandy and thin-soiled; it grew millet , but was unproductive with respect to other products. Along this coast was also the gulf held by the Tarbelli; in their land, gold mines were abundant. Large quantities of gold could be mined with a minimum of refinement. The interior and mountainous country in this region had better soil. The Petrocorii and the Bituriges Cubi had fine ironworks;

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4074-473: The Bell Beaker culture over the following millennium. His theory is partly based on glottochronology , the spread of ancient Celtic-looking placenames, and thesis that the Tartessian language was Celtic. However, the proposal that Tartessian was Celtic is widely rejected by linguists, many of whom regard it as unclassified. Celticist Patrick Sims-Williams (2020) notes that in current scholarship, 'Celt'

4171-479: The Britons resembled the Gauls in customs and religion. For at least 1,000 years the name Celt was not used at all, and nobody called themselves Celts or Celtic, until from about 1700, after the word 'Celtic' was rediscovered in classical texts, it was applied for the first time to the distinctive culture, history, traditions, language of the modern Celtic nations – Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany, and

4268-694: The Cadurci had linen factories; the Ruteni and the Gabales had silver mines. According to Strabo, the Aquitani were a wealthy people. Luerius, the King of the Arverni and the father of Bituitus who warred against Maximus Aemilianus and Dometius, is said to have been so exceptionally rich and extravagant that he once rode on a carriage through a plain, scattering gold and silver coins here and there. The Romans called

4365-566: The Celtic-speaking people of the British and Irish islands, and their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating Insular Celts from Britain and so are grouped accordingly. The Celtic languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages . By the time Celts are first mentioned in written records around 400 BC, they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of western mainland Europe,

4462-599: The Celts with the Iron Age Hallstatt culture which followed it ( c.  1200 –500 BC), named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt , Austria, and with the following La Tène culture ( c.  450 BC onward), named after the La Tène site in Switzerland. It proposes that Celtic culture spread westward and southward from these areas by diffusion or migration . A newer theory, " Celtic from

4559-488: The Cimmerian Chersonnese ( Crimean Peninsula ). Agrippa's last public service was his beginning of the conquest of the upper Danube River region, which would become the Roman province of Pannonia in 13 BC. He died at Campania in 12 BC at the age of 50–51. His posthumous son, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus , was named in his honor. Augustus honoured his memory by a magnificent funeral and spent over

4656-437: The Eastern Hallstatt region ( Noricum ). However, Patrick Sims-Williams notes that these date to the later Roman era, and says they suggest "relatively late settlement by a Celtic-speaking elite". In the late 20th century, the Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to fall out of favour with some scholars, which was influenced by new archaeological finds. 'Celtic' began to refer primarily to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to

4753-447: The Gauls claimed descent from an underworld god (according to Commentarii de Bello Gallico ), and linking it with the Germanic Hel . Others view it as a name coined by Greeks; among them linguist Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel , who suggests it meant "the tall ones". In the first century BC, Roman leader Julius Caesar reported that the Gauls called themselves 'Celts', Latin : Celtae , in their own tongue . Thus whether it

4850-405: The Greeks to apply this name for the type of Keltoi that they usually encountered". Because Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland Κελτοί ( Keltoi ) or Celtae , some scholars prefer not to use the term for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands. However, they spoke Celtic languages, shared other cultural traits, and Roman historian Tacitus says

4947-425: The Isle of Man. 'Celt' is a modern English word, first attested in 1707 in the writing of Edward Lhuyd , whose work, along with that of other late 17th-century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of the early Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain. The English words Gaul , Gauls ( pl. ) and Gaulish (first recorded in the 16–17th centuries) come from French Gaule and Gaulois ,

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5044-423: The Perusine war, Octavian departed for Gaul , leaving Agrippa as urban praetor in Rome with instructions to defend Italy against Sextus Pompeius , an opponent of the Triumvirate who was now occupying Sicily . In July 40 BC, while Agrippa was occupied with the Ludi Apollinares that were the praetor's responsibility, Sextus began a raid in southern Italy. Agrippa advanced on him, forcing him to withdraw. However,

5141-434: The Romans with as many as two to four hundred thousand men. Two hundred thousand fought against Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus and against Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus . The Arverni not only had extended their empire as far as Narbo and the boundaries of Massiliotis, but they were also masters of the tribes as far as the Pyrenees, and as far as the ocean and the Rhenus ( Rhine ). Early Roman Gaul came to an end late in

5238-414: The Triumvirate proved unstable, and in August 40 BC both Sextus and Antony invaded Italy (but not in an organized alliance). Agrippa's success in retaking Sipontum from Antony helped bring an end to the conflict. Agrippa was among the intermediaries through whom Antony and Octavian agreed once more upon peace. During the discussions Octavian learned that Salvidienus had offered to betray him to Antony, with

5335-419: The Visigoths . According to some sources the Visigoths were Roman foederati and Flavius acted to reward them under the principle of hospitalitas (i.e. the Roman legal framework under which civilians were required to provide quarters to soldiers). However, in 418, an independent Visigothic Kingdom was formed from parts of Novempopulania and Aquitania Secunda . The death of the general Aëtius (454) and

5432-493: The West ", suggests proto-Celtic arose earlier, was a lingua franca in the Atlantic Bronze Age coastal zone, and spread eastward. Another newer theory, "Celtic from the Centre", suggests proto-Celtic arose between these two zones, in Bronze Age Gaul, then spread in various directions. After the Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe in the 3rd century BC, Celtic culture reached as far east as central Anatolia , Turkey . The earliest undisputed examples of Celtic language are

5529-649: The battle around. As the decisive battle approached, according to Dio, Octavian received intelligence that Antony and Cleopatra planned to break past his naval blockade and escape. At first he wished to allow the flagships past, arguing that he could overtake them with his lighter vessels and that the other opposing ships would surrender when they saw their leaders' cowardice. Agrippa objected, saying that Antony's ships, although larger, could outrun Octavian's if they hoisted sails, and that Octavian ought to fight now because Antony's fleet had just been struck by storms. Octavian followed his friend's advice. On 2 September 31 BC,

5626-567: The burials "dated to roughly the time when Celts are mentioned near the Danube by Herodotus , Ramsauer concluded that the graves were Celtic". Similar sites and artifacts were found over a wide area, which were named the 'Hallstatt culture'. In 1857, the archaeological site of La Tène was discovered in Switzerland. The huge collection of artifacts had a distinctive style. Artifacts of this 'La Tène style' were found elsewhere in Europe, "particularly in places where people called Celts were known to have lived and early Celtic languages are attested. As

5723-418: The city of Rome, restoring and building aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the Cloaca Maxima , constructing baths and porticos, and laying out gardens. He also gave a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art. It was unusual for an ex-consul to hold the lower-ranking position of aedile , but Agrippa's success bore out that break with tradition. As emperor, Augustus would later boast that "he had found

5820-467: The city of brick but left it of marble" in part because of the great services provided by Agrippa under his reign. Agrippa was again called away to take command of the fleet when the war with Antony and Cleopatra broke out. He captured the strategically important city of Methone at the southwest of the Peloponnese , then sailed north, raiding the Greek coast and capturing Corcyra (modern Corfu ). Octavian then brought his forces to Corcyra, occupying it as

5917-465: The colonnade built by his sister Polla. Amongst his writings, an autobiography, now lost, is referenced. Agrippa established a standard for the Roman foot in 29 BC, and thus a definition of a pace as 5 feet. An imperial Roman mile denotes 5,000  Roman feet . The term Via Agrippa is used for any part of the network of roadways in Gaul built by Agrippa. Some of these still exist as paths or even as highways. The Roman tribe Agrippia

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6014-542: The command of a former Praetor , and hosted no legions. More so than Caesar, Strabo insists that the primeval Aquitani differ from the other Gauls not just in language , institutions and laws (" lingua institutis legibusque discrepantes ") but in body make-up too, deeming them closer to the Iberians . The administrative boundaries set up by Augustus comprising both proper Celtic tribes and primeval Aquitani remained unaltered until Diocletian 's new administrative reorganization (see below). The Arverni often warred against

6111-452: The early Celts comes from Greco-Roman writers, who often grouped the Celts as barbarian tribes. They followed an ancient Celtic religion overseen by druids . The Celts were often in conflict with the Romans , such as in the Roman–Gallic wars , the Celtiberian Wars , the conquest of Gaul and conquest of Britain . By the 1st century AD, most Celtic territories had become part of the Roman Empire . By c. 500, due to Romanisation and

6208-510: The establishment of the Diocesis Viennensis in the south of Gaul, comprising the former Gallia Aquitania and Gallia Narbonensis. At the same time, Aquitania was divided into Aquitania Prima , with its see (capital) in Avaricum Biturigum (Bourges), Aquitania Secunda (see – Burdigala ; the later Bordeaux) and Aquitania Tertia , better known as Novempopulania ("land of the nine peoples"), with its see in Elusa (Eauze). Novempopulania originated in boundaries set up by Caesar for

6305-404: The events in the context of the crisis of 23 BC it seems unlikely that, when facing significant opposition and about to make a political climb down, the emperor Augustus would place a man in exile in charge of the largest body of Roman troops. What is far more likely is that Agrippa's 'exile' was actually the careful political positioning of a loyal lieutenant in command of a significant army in case

6402-453: The family of Julius Caesar , his elder brother chose another side in the civil wars of the 40s BC, fighting under Cato against Caesar in Africa . When Cato's forces were defeated, Agrippa's brother was taken prisoner but freed after Octavian interceded on his behalf. It is not known whether Agrippa fought against his brother in Africa, but he probably served in Caesar's campaign of 46 to 45 BC against Gnaeus Pompeius , which culminated in

6499-401: The grant of these powers Agrippa was, on paper, almost as powerful as Augustus was; there was no doubt that Augustus was the man in charge. Agrippa was appointed governor of the eastern provinces a second time in 17 BC, where his just and prudent administration won him the respect and good-will of the provincials, especially from the Jewish population. Agrippa also restored Roman control over

6596-480: The highest quality public services, and was responsible for the creation of many baths, porticoes , and gardens. He was also awarded powers almost as great as those of Augustus. He had veto power over the acts of the Senate and the power to present laws for approval by the People. He died in 12 BC at the age of 50–51. Augustus honored his memory with a magnificent funeral and spent over a month in mourning. His remains were placed in Augustus' own mausoleum . Agrippa

6693-521: The imperial title of Augustus . In commemoration of the Battle of Actium, Agrippa built and dedicated the building that served as the Roman Pantheon before its destruction in AD 80. Emperor Hadrian used Agrippa's design to build his own Pantheon, which survives in Rome. The inscription of the later building, which was built c.  125 , preserves the text of the inscription from Agrippa's building during his third consulship. The years following his third consulship, Agrippa spent in Gaul, reforming

6790-446: The interior and to the summits of the Cemmenus Mountains, as far as the Tectosages . The name Gallia Comata was often used to designate the three provinces of Farther Gaul, viz. Gallia Lugdunensis, Gallia Belgica, and Aquitania, literally meaning "long-haired Gaul", as opposed to Gallia Bracata "trousered Gaul", a term derived from bracae ("breeches", the native costume of the northern "barbarians") for Gallia Narbonensis. Most of

6887-408: The latter 20th century, when it was accepted that the oldest known Celtic-language inscriptions were those of Lepontic from the 6th century BC and Celtiberian from the 2nd century BC. These were found in northern Italy and Iberia, neither of which were part of the 'Hallstatt' nor 'La Tène' cultures at the time. The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory was partly based on ancient Greco-Roman writings, such as

6984-445: The migration of Germanic tribes, Celtic culture had mostly become restricted to Ireland, western and northern Britain, and Brittany . Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. They had a common linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from surrounding cultures. Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of

7081-468: The original Aquitania, who had kept some kind of separate sense of identity (Verus' mission to Rome aimed at demanding a separate province). After this restructuring, Gaul enjoyed stability and enhanced prestige. After the trans-Rhine invasion December 31 406 by 4 tribes (Alans, Sueves, Asding and Siling Vandals), the offices of the Gallic prefecture were moved from Trier to Arles even though the Rhine frontier

7178-504: The plebs , which granted him entry to the Senate . In 42 BC, Agrippa probably fought alongside Octavian and Antony in the Battle of Philippi . After their return to Rome, he played a major role in Octavian's war against Lucius Antonius and Fulvia , respectively the brother and wife of Mark Antony, which began in 41 BC and ended in the capture of Perusia in 40 BC. However, Salvidienus remained Octavian's main general at this time. After

7275-609: The preparations for warfare against Sextus Pompey , who had cut off grain shipments to Rome. Agrippa defeated Pompey in the battles of Mylae and Naulochus in 36 BC. In 33 BC, he served as curule aedile . Agrippa commanded the victorious Octavian's fleet at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. A few years after the victory at Actium, Octavian became emperor and took the title of Princeps, while Agrippa remained as his close friend and lieutenant. Agrippa assisted Augustus in making Rome "a city of marble". Agrippa renovated aqueducts to provide Roman citizens from every social class access to

7372-462: The presence of inscriptions. The modern idea of a Celtic cultural identity or "Celticity" focuses on similarities among languages, works of art, and classical texts, and sometimes also among material artefacts, social organisation , homeland and mythology . Earlier theories held that these similarities suggest a common "racial" ( race is now a contested concept) origin for the various Celtic peoples, but more recent theories hold that they reflect

7469-409: The provincial administration and taxation system, along with building an effective road system and aqueducts. Agrippa's friendship with Augustus seems to have been clouded by the jealousy of Augustus's nephew and son-in-law Marcus Claudius Marcellus . Traditionally it is said that the result of such jealousy was that Agrippa left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governorship of eastern provinces –

7566-604: The region is now a part of modern Provence , named after the Roman district. The main struggle against the Romans occurred from 58 to 50 BC when Vercingetorix fought against Julius Caesar at the Battle of Gergovia (a city of the Arverni) and at the Battle of Alesia (a city of the Mandubii). Vercingetorix was captured at the siege of Alesia after which the war ended. Caesar seized the remainder of Gaul, justifying his conquest by playing on Roman memories of savage attacks over

7663-536: The result that Salvidienus was prosecuted and either executed or committed suicide. Agrippa was now Octavian's leading general. In 39 or 38 BC, Octavian appointed Agrippa governor of Transalpine Gaul , where in 38 BC he put down a rising of the Aquitanians . He also fought the Germanic tribes , becoming the next Roman general to cross the Rhine after Julius Caesar . He was summoned back to Rome by Octavian to assume

7760-600: The same origin, referring to the Gauls who invaded southeast Europe and settled in Galatia . The suffix -atai might be a Greek inflection. Linguist Kim McCone suggests it comes from Proto-Celtic *galatis ("ferocious, furious"), and was not originally an ethnic name but a name for young warrior bands . He says "If the Gauls' initial impact on the Mediterranean world was primarily a military one typically involving fierce young *galatīs , it would have been natural for

7857-523: The sea on the coasts of Italy, Agrippa's first care was to provide a safe harbour for Octavian's ships. He accomplished this by cutting through the strips of land which separated the Lacus Lucrinus from the sea, thus forming an outer harbour, while joining the lake Avernus to the Lucrinus to serve as an inner harbor. The new harbor-complex was named Portus Julius in Octavian's honour. Agrippa

7954-552: The second Emperor Tiberius ), and was the maternal grandfather of Caligula and the maternal great-grandfather of the Emperor Nero . Agrippa was born c.  63 BC , in an uncertain location. His father was called Lucius Vipsanius . His mother's name is not known and Pliny the Elder claimed that his cognomen " Agrippa " derived from him having been born breech so it is possible that she died in childbirth. Pliny also stated that he suffered from lameness as

8051-860: The tribal groups pagi . These were organized into larger super-tribal groups that the Romans called civitates . These administrative groupings were later taken over by the Romans in their system of local control. Aquitania was inhabited by the following tribes: Ambilatri, Anagnutes, Arverni , Ausci , Basabocates, Belendi, Bercorates, Bergerri , Bituriges Cubi , Bituriges Vivisci , Cadurci , Cambolectri Agesinates, Camponi, Convenae , Cocossati, Consoranni, Elusates , Gabali , Lassunni / Sassumini, Latusates / Tarusates, Lemovices , Monesi, Nitiobroges / Antobroges, Onobrisates, Oscidates montani, Oscidiates campestres, Petrocorii , Pictones , Pindedunni / Pinpedunni, Ruteni , Santones , Sediboniates, Sennates, Sibyllates, Sottiates, Succasses, Tarbelli , Tornates / Toruates, Vassei, Vellates, Vellavi , Venami. Gaul as

8148-457: The triumvir Lepidus into retirement and entered Rome in triumph. Agrippa received the unprecedented honour of a corona navalis decorated with the beaks of ships; as Dio remarks, this was "a decoration given to nobody before or since". Agrippa participated in smaller military campaigns in 35 and 34 BC, but by the autumn of 34 BC he had returned to Rome. He rapidly set out on a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of

8245-526: The troops from Macedonia, but Octavius decided to sail to Italy with a small retinue. After his arrival, he learned that Caesar had adopted him as his legal heir. Octavius at this time took Caesar's name, but modern historians refer to him as "Octavian" during this period. After Octavian's return to Rome, he and his supporters realised they needed the support of legions. Agrippa helped Octavian to levy troops in Campania . Once Octavian had his legions, he made

8342-638: The ways in which the Iron Age people of Britain and Ireland should be called Celts. In current scholarship, 'Celt' primarily refers to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single ethnic group. The history of pre-Celtic Europe and Celtic origins is debated. The traditional "Celtic from the East" theory, says the proto-Celtic language arose in the late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of central Europe, named after grave sites in southern Germany, which flourished from around 1200 BC. This theory links

8439-423: Was a Roman general, statesman and architect who was a close friend, son-in-law and lieutenant to the Roman emperor Augustus . Agrippa is well known for his important military victories, notably the Battle of Actium in 31 BC against the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra . He was also responsible for the construction of some of the most notable buildings of his era, including the original Pantheon . Born to

8536-410: Was also known as a writer, especially on geography. Under his supervision, Julius Caesar's design of having a complete survey of the empire made was accomplished. From the materials at hand he constructed a circular chart, which was engraved on marble by Augustus and afterwards placed in the colonnade built by his sister Vipsania Polla . Agrippa was also husband to Julia the Elder (who had later married

8633-651: Was also responsible for technological improvements, including larger ships and an improved form of grappling hook . About this time, he married Caecilia Pomponia Attica , daughter of Cicero 's friend Titus Pomponius Atticus . In 36 BC, Octavian and Agrippa set sail against Sextus. The fleet was badly damaged by storms and had to withdraw; Agrippa was left in charge of the second attempt. Thanks to superior technology and training, Agrippa and his men won decisive victories at Mylae and Naulochus , destroying all but seventeen of Sextus' ships and compelling most of his forces to surrender. Octavian, with his power increased, forced

8730-406: Was assassinated. In the course of the year, proconsular imperium , similar to Augustus's power, was conferred upon Agrippa for five years. The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus's imperial provinces , east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate. That was to come later, as was the jealously guarded tribunicia potestas , or powers of

8827-490: Was conferred without his having to hold the office. These powers were considerable, giving him veto power over the acts of the Senate or other magistracies, including those of other tribunes, and the power to present laws for approval by the People. Just as important, a tribune's person was sacred, meaning that any person who harmfully touched them or impeded their actions, including political acts, could lawfully be killed. After

8924-536: Was employed in putting down a rising of the Cantabrians in Hispania ( Cantabrian Wars ). In 18 BC, Agrippa's powers were even further increased to almost match those of Augustus. That year his proconsular imperium was augmented to cover the senatorial provinces and was granted tribunicia potestas , or powers of a tribune of the plebeians. As was the case with Augustus, Agrippa's grant of tribunician powers

9021-744: Was formed, under a Frankish -Roman elite, in the former Visigothic stronghold of south-west Aquitania (i.e. the region known later as Gascony ). Celt Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Celts ( / k ɛ l t s / KELTS , see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples ( / ˈ k ɛ l t ɪ k / KEL -tik ) were

9118-544: Was given to them by others or not, it was used by the Celts themselves. Greek geographer Strabo , writing about Gaul towards the end of the first century BC, refers to the "race which is now called both Gallic and Galatic ", though he also uses Celtica as another name for Gaul. He reports Celtic peoples in Iberia too, calling them Celtiberi and Celtici . Pliny the Elder noted the use of Celtici in Lusitania as

9215-551: Was originally from Pisa in Etruria . Agrippa's family most likely gained Roman citizenship after the Social War in 87 BC and, like many other Italians, immigrated to Rome to take advantage of the social mobility opportunities that arose at the war's end. Agrippa was the same age as Octavian (the future emperor Augustus ), and the two were educated together and became close friends. Despite Agrippa's association with

9312-557: Was preeminent in central Europe during the late Bronze Age , circa 1200 BC to 700 BC. The spread of iron-working led to the Hallstatt culture (c. 800 to 500 BC) developing out of the Urnfield culture in a wide region north of the Alps. The Hallstatt culture developed into the La Tène culture from about 450 BC, which came to be identified with Celtic art . In 1846, Johann Georg Ramsauer unearthed an ancient grave field with distinctive grave goods at Hallstatt , Austria. Because

9409-710: Was subsequently restored and under Roman control till 459 when Cologne was taken by the Franks. Roman attention had been shifted to the south to try to control the invaders and keep them from the Mediterranean, a policy which failed after the Vandals started to harass the coasts from their bases in southern Spain from the early 420s. In the early 5th century, Aquitania was invaded by the Germanic Visigoths . The Emperor Flavius Honorius conceded land in Aquitania to

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