Arakan ( / ˈ ær ə k æ n / or / ˈ ɑːr ə k ɑː n / ) is the historical geographical name of Rakhine State , Myanmar (formerly Burma). The region was called Arakan for centuries until the Burmese military junta changed its name in 1989. The people of the region were known as Arakanese .
123-523: Arakan's first states can be traced to the 4th century. Arakan was one of the first Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia . It was home to the sacred Mahamuni sculpture of Buddha , which was later transferred to Mandalay by Burmese conquerors in the 18th century. For 356 years between 1428 and 1784, Arakan was ruled by the Kingdom of Mrauk U from the city of Mrauk U . The kingdom was founded as
246-616: A vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate . It later asserted its independence and adopted the customs of the Bengal Sultanate, including Muslim titles for its kings. All of the Kingdoms of Arakan were ruled by Buddhist kings; therefore, Buddhism was considered the state religion. Minorities including Muslims and Hindus were also present in the region. It was also home to Hindus and Christians. The Portuguese were active in
369-521: A God who battled and defeated the wrong doers that threaten the ethical order of the world. Hinduism does not have a single historical founder, a centralized imperial authority in India proper nor a bureaucratic structure, thus ensuring relative religious independence for the individual ruler. It also allows for multiple forms of divinity, centered upon the Trimurti the triad of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva,
492-536: A benign and uncoercive world civiliser and font of global enlightenment," stayed away from explicit "Greater India" formulations. In addition, some scholars have seen the Hindu/Buddhist acculturation in ancient Southeast Asia as "a single cultural process in which Southeast Asia was the matrix and South Asia the mediatrix." In the field of art history, especially in American writings, the term survived due to
615-630: A distinctly developed regional culture, style, and expression. Southeast Asia is called Suvarnabhumi or Sovannah Phoum – the golden land and Suvarnadvipa – the golden Islands in Sanskrit. It was frequented by traders from eastern India, particularly Kalinga . Cultural and trading relations between the powerful Chola dynasty of South India and the Southeast Asian Hindu kingdoms led the Bay of Bengal to be called "The Chola Lake", and
738-581: A diverse cultural cline. These countries have been transformed to varying degrees by the acceptance and introduction of cultural and institutional elements from each other. The term Greater India as a reference to the Indian cultural sphere was popularised by a network of Bengali scholars in the 1920s, but became obsolete in the 1970s. Since around 500 BCE, Asia's expanding land and maritime trade had resulted in prolonged socio-economic and cultural stimulation and diffusion of Buddhist and Hindu beliefs into
861-572: A game) may involve the use of a Sanskrit phrase. Scholars like Sheldon Pollock have used the term Sanskrit Cosmopolis to describe the region and argued for millennium-long cultural exchanges without necessarily involving migration of peoples or colonisation. Pollock's 2006 book The Language of the Gods in the World of Men makes a case for studying the region as comparable with Latin Europe and argues that
984-765: A global rice exporter in the 20th century can be traced to Arakan. As one of the earliest regions to be conquered by the British, Arakan saw the removal of export restrictions imposed by the Burmese Empire. Rice was exproted to Bengal and beyond. Akyab (now Sittwe), the divisional capital of Arakan, was located in proximity to the Chittagong Division of British Bengal . In 1840, Akyab exported 74,500 tons of rice valued at an estimated 1.2 million rupees. In 1855, Akyab exported 162,000 tons of rice valued at an estimated 3 million rupees. The growth in rice exports
1107-466: A growing Muslim community. They included Muslim traders from the Indian Ocean trade network and Sufi missionaries who established themselves along the coasts of Arakan. More Muslims were found among the thousands of inhabitants of Bengal who were forcibly deported to Arakan. They included artists, craftsmen, soldiers, and highly educated people who were employed by the royal court. The slave trade
1230-571: A key factor in the growth of the Muslim population. The colonial government encouraged Chittagonian migration as part of its policy to expand the rice economy in Arakan. The northern part of Arakan received the largest influx of settlers. The township of Naaf (now Maungdaw), which bordered Chittagong Division, became an extension of farmlands in Cox’s Bazar . The Naaf economy was essentially integrated with
1353-504: A kind of tax in kind for the support of the court, and a band of armed retainers who acted as household guards, organised the peasantry as militia and enforced the authority of the ruler. Material defences – walls and moats protecting the palace and the city – were constructed and the city-state, the nagara, evolved. These transformations saw the tribal chieftain replaced by a divine king, shaman by brahmin priest, tribesman as cultivators by peasants, tribesmen as warriors by an army, and favoured
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#17327648070321476-855: A lesser extent, with a large proportion of words being derived from Arabic . Similarly, Philippine languages such as Tagalog have many Sanskrit loanwords . A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word bhāṣā , or spoken language, which is used to mean language in general, for example bahasa in Malay, Indonesian and Tausug , basa in Javanese, Sundanese , and Balinese , phasa in Thai and Lao, bhasa in Burmese , and phiesa in Khmer . Scripts in Sanskrit discovered during
1599-731: A lucrative alternative to the United States. The arrival of leading European banking and shipping companies in Burma propelled the rice trade into the single most important cash crop sector of the Burmese economy. In 1864, Liverpool imported an estimated 1000 tons of rice from Burma. The opening of the Suez Canal lowered the cost of shipping from Burma. European firms began to set up rice mills in Burma itself. Indian and Chinese merchants proliferated Burma’s ports. The rice economy supported
1722-454: A relationship with the Islamic court of Bengal. Restoring the throne of a neighbouring kingdom was not unprecedented for Bengal. The throne of Tripura was also restored by the Bengal Sultanate. Arakanese traditional history states that Arakan was a tributary state of the Bengal Sultanate for a certain period. The kings of Arakan adopted both Buddhist and Muslim titles after the restoration. In
1845-653: A selected group of nobles only. Many struggle to date and determine when Indianizaton in Southeast Asia occurred because of the structures and ruins found that were similar to those in India. States such as Srivijaya , Mataram , Majapahit and the Khmer empire had territorial continuity, resilient population and surplus economies that rivaled those in India itself. Borobudur and Prambanan in Java and Angkor in Cambodia are, apart from their grandeur, examples of
1968-574: A wealthy trading port. The Candra-ruled Harikela state was known as the Kingdom of Ruhmi to the Arabs. Evidence points to the use of the ancient Bengali script in Arakan. The Anandacandra inscription recorded the reign of the Candra dynasty. Since in the 8th century, Arab merchants began conducting missionary activities in southeast Asia. Some researchers have speculated that Muslims used trade routes in
2091-539: Is different from direct colonialism in that these Indianized lands were not inhabited by organizations or state elements from the Indian subcontinent, with exceptions such as the Chola invasions of medieval times. Instead, Indian cultural influence from trade routes and language use slowly permeated through Southeast Asia, making the traditions a part of the region. The interactions between India and Southeast Asia were marked by waves of influence and dominance. At some points,
2214-548: Is documented from geological record of Asia and the Himalaya as up to approximately 2,350 km (1,460 mi) less. The use of Greater India to refer to an Indian cultural sphere was popularised by a network of Bengali scholars in the 1920s who were all members of the Calcutta-based Greater India Society. The movement's early leaders included the historian R. C. Majumdar (1888–1980);
2337-430: The devaraja concept of kingship, and Sanskrit as official writing. Despite the fundamental cultural integration, these kingdoms were autonomous in their own right and functioned independently. Not only did Indianization change many cultural and political aspects, but it also changed the spiritual realm as well, creating a type of Northern Culture which began in the early 14th century, prevalent for its rapid decline in
2460-722: The Arakan Liberation Army have sought independence for the region. Other groups, including the Arakan Rohingya National Organization , have demanded autonomy . The region witnessed military crackdowns during Operation King Dragon in 1978; in 1991 and 1992 after the 8888 uprising and 1990 Burmese general election ; the 2012 Rakhine State riots , the 2015 Rohingya refugee crisis and Rohingya persecution in Myanmar (2016-present) . The people of Arakan have historically been called
2583-664: The Bay of Bengal and stretches from the Naf River estuary on the border of the Chittagong Hills area (in Bangladesh) in the north to the Gwa River in the south. The Arakan region is about 400 miles (640 km) long from north to south and is about 90 miles (145 km) wide at its broadest. The Arakan Mountains (also called Arakan Yoma), a range that forms the eastern boundary of the region, isolates Arakan from
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#17327648070322706-657: The Bengal Sultanate during the Burmese invasion. According to Jacques Leider , Min Saw Mun fled to Bengal in 1406 and returned to Arakan in 1428. Min Saw Mun arrived in Bengal for self-imposed exile during the reign of Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah (1389–1410) and left for Arakan during the reign of Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah (1415–1432). An academic consensus prevails that Min Saw Mun returned to Arakan, regained
2829-579: The Indian cultural sphere , or the Indic world , is an area composed of several countries and regions in South Asia , East Asia and Southeast Asia that were historically influenced by Indian culture , which itself formed from the various distinct indigenous cultures of South Asia . It is an umbrella term encompassing the Indian subcontinent and surrounding countries, which are culturally linked through
2952-685: The Japanese gassho and Thai wai . Beyond the Himalaya and Hindukush mountains in the north, along the Silk Route, Indian influence was linked with Buddhism. Tibet and Khotan were direct heirs of Gangetic Buddhism, despite the difference in languages. Many Tibetan monks even used to know Sanskrit very well. In Khotan the Ramayana was well cicrulated in Khotanese language, though
3075-678: The Malabar Coast (present-day Kerala ) to India extra Gangem (lit. "India, beyond the Ganges," but usually the East Indies , i.e. present-day Malay Archipelago ) and India Minor , from Malabar to Sind . Farther India was sometimes used to cover all of modern Southeast Asia. Until the fourteenth century, India could also mean areas along the Red Sea, including Somalia , South Arabia , and Ethiopia (e.g., Diodorus of Sicily of
3198-904: The Mughal Empire 's invasion campaign of Bengal, the Arakan navy and pirates dominated a coastline of 1000 miles, spanning from the Sundarbans to Moulmein . The kingdom's coastline was frequented by Arab, Dutch , Danish and Portuguese traders. Control of the Kaladan River and Lemro River valleys led to increased international trade , making Mrauk U prosperous. The reigns of Min Phalaung (Sikender Shah), Min Rajagiri (Salim Shah I) and grandson Min Khamaung (Hussein Shah) strengthened
3321-717: The Philippines . The Ramayana and the Mahabharata have had a large impact on South Asia and Southeast Asia. One of the most tangible evidence of dharmic Hindu traditions is the widespread use of the Añjali Mudrā gesture of greeting and respect. It is seen in the Indian namasté and similar gestures known throughout Southeast Asia; its cognates include the Cambodian sampeah , the Indonesian sembah ,
3444-702: The Rakhine people . It also recognizes sections of the Muslim community, including the Kamein . But Myanmar does not recognize the Rohingya . Arakan Division had the largest percentage of Indians in British Burma . Indianized kingdoms Dark orange : The Indian subcontinent Light orange : Southeast Asia culturally linked to India (except Northern Vietnam , Philippines and Western New Guinea ) Traditional Greater India , also known as
3567-531: The Tanjur ). Buddhism was similarly introduced to China by Mahayanist missionaries mostly through translations of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit texts, and many terms were transliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. In Southeast Asia, languages such as Thai and Lao contain many loan words from Sanskrit, as does Khmer to a lesser extent. For example, in Thai, Rāvaṇa ,
3690-536: The divisions of British India . Initially governed as part of the Bengal Presidency , it received many settlers from neighboring Chittagong Division . The settlers became influential in commerce, agriculture and shipping. During British rule, Arakan Division was one of the largest rice exporters in the world. Arakan was the pioneer of the rice industry in British Burma. The emergence of Burma as
3813-440: The " Look East " policy, and more recently has involved deepening military ties as well. Sri Lanka also continues to have strong political links with South East Asia, asked by ASEAN to be a founding member, and has recently been increasing integration with South East Asia through its own "Look East" policy; politicians view the relationship between Sri Lanka and South East Asia as second only to South Asia. Culture spread via
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3936-403: The 135 ethnic groups recognized by the government of Myanmar . They are identified as a sub-group of Chin people . They live widely in some parts of northern Rakhine state , Chin state , the townships of Matupi and Paletwa , and the regions of Samechaung and Michaung. They are Tibeto-Burman and have their own language, culture and customs which are still in existence. For Chin specifically,
4059-429: The 1970s. The concept of "Indianized kingdoms" and "Indianization", coined by George Coedès , originally describes Southeast Asian principalities that flourished from the early common era as a result of centuries of socio-economic interaction having incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy, literature and architecture. The term Greater India and
4182-573: The Arakan Mountains in the 9th century. The Rakhines settled in the valley of the Lemro River . Their cities included Sambawak I, Pyinsa , Parein , Hkrit, Sambawak II, Myohaung , Toungoo and Launggret . Arakan was a kingdom under siege in the 14th and 15th centuries. Mon invaders from Lower Burma conquered southern Arakan, including Sandoway . In 1404, Burmese forces from Upper Burma conquered Laungyet. The ruler of Laungyet fled to
4305-554: The Arakanese kings continued the custom of maintaining Muslim titles. They compared themselves to Sultans and fashioned themselves after Mughal rulers. They also continued to employ Indians and Muslims in prestigious positions within the royal administration. The court adopted Indian and Islamic fashions from neighbouring Bengal. Mrauk U hosted mosques , temples , shrines , seminaries and libraries . Syed Alaol and Daulat Qazi were prominent poets of Arakan. The Santikan Mosque
4428-686: The Arakanese. The population consists of Tibeto-Burmans and Indo-Aryans . Tibeto-Burman Arakanese mostly speak the Arakanese language , also known as Rakhine and closely related to Burmese . Most Indo-Aryan Arakanese speak the Rohingya language . Other languages spoken by smaller communities in Rakhine state include the Tibeto-Burman Chak , Asho Chin , Ekai , Kumi , Laitu , Mru , Songlai , Sumtu , Uppu and Chakma . The government of Myanmar recognizes Tibeto-Burman Arakanese as
4551-535: The Battle of Chittagong in 1666, when Mrauk U lost control of southeast Bengal. The Mrauk U dynasty's reign continued until the 18th century. The Konbaung Dynasty conquered Arakan in 1784. Mrauk U was devastated during the invasion. The Burmese Empire executed thousands of men and deported a considerable portion of people from the Arakanese population to central Burma. The independence of Arakan ended in 1784 when Burmese forces conquered Mrauk-U. The Arakanese royal court
4674-817: The British, which caused tension with Arakanese Burmese , many of whom were aligned with the Japanese. Both groups were represented as natives in the Legislative Council of Burma and the Legislature of Burma . In the 1940s, Arakanese Muslims appealed to Muhammad Ali Jinnah to incorporate the townships of the Mayu River valley into the Dominion of Pakistan . Arakan became one of the Union of Burma 's divisions after independence from British rule. Burma
4797-547: The Buddhist world including Ceylon , Tibet, Central Asia, and even Japan were held to fall within this web of Indianizing culture colonies " This particular usage – implying cultural "sphere of influence" of India – was promoted by the Greater India Society , formed by a group of Bengali men of letters , and is not found before the 1920s. The term Greater India was used in historical writing in India into
4920-421: The Burmese government altered the country's name from Burma to Myanmar. In the 1990s, the State Peace and Development Council changed the name of Arakan State to Rakhine State . The province was renamed after the Rakhine ethnic group . However, the new name is not accepted as legitimate by many in both the Rakhine and Rohingya communities, instead preferring the historical term Arakan. Rakhine-led groups like
5043-520: The Chola attacks on Srivijaya in the 10th century CE are the sole example of military attacks by Indian rulers against Southeast Asia. The Pala dynasty of Bengal , which controlled the heartland of Buddhist India, maintained close economic, cultural and religious ties, particularly with Srivijaya. The pre-Indic political and social systems in Southeast Asia were marked by a relative indifference towards lineage descent. Hindu God kingship enabled rulers to supersede loyalties, forge cosmopolitan polities and
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5166-448: The Common Era and eventually settled there. Strong impulse most certainly came from the region's ruling classes who invited Brahmans to serve at their courts as priests, astrologers and advisers. Divinity and royalty were closely connected in these polities as Hindu rituals validated the powers of the monarch. Brahmans and priests from India proper played a key role in supporting ruling dynasties through exact rituals. Dynastic consolidation
5289-642: The Ganges delta. Arakan was one of the first regions in Southeast Asia to adopt Dharmic religions . It became one of the earliest Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Buddhist missionaries from the Mauryan Empire traveled through Arakan to other parts of Southeast Asia . Paul Wheatley chronicled the "Indianization" of Arakan. According to Pamela Gutman , "Arakan was ruled by kings who adopted Indian titles and traditions to suit their own environment. Indian Brahmins conducted royal ceremonies, Buddhist monks spread their teachings, traders came and went and artists and architects used Indian models for inspiration. In
5412-400: The Hindu and Buddhist cultures there. They introduced the caste system to the region, especially to Java , Bali, Madura , and Sumatra. The adopted caste system was not as strict as in India, tempered to the local context. There are multiple similarities between the two caste systems such that both state that no one is equal within society and that everyone has his own place. It also promoted
5535-476: The Indian culture solely found its way into the region, and at other points, the influence was used to take over. Southeast Asia was now situated in the central area of convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade routes, the basis for economic and cultural growth. The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan and Champa. Adoption of Indian civilization elements and individual adaptation stimulated
5658-465: The Indian kingdoms. The decline of Hindu kingdoms and spark of Buddhist kingdoms led to the formation of orthodox Sinhalese Buddhism and is a key factor leading to the decline of Indianization. Sukhothai and Ceylon are the prominent characters who formulated the center of Buddhism and thus became more popularized over Hinduism. Not only was the spark of Buddhism the driving force for Indianization coming to an end, but Islamic influence took over as well in
5781-407: The Indian sub-continent was at a deficiency for gold due to extensive control of overland trade routes by the Roman Empire . This made many Vaishya traders look to the seas to acquire new gold, of which Southeast Asia was abundant. However, the conclusion that Indianization was just spread through trade is insufficient, as Indianization permeated through all classes of Southeast Asian society, not just
5904-648: The Kwaymis. The dialect spoken by them is different but allied to that of the Khumi. In literature, the word Wakun is mainly used. Mro-people has their own literature. This literature was published in 1997 by U Kyaw Tha Aung (KEF), by the help of German literature scholar Dr Kenneth Greggerson and German literature Helga , he invented the Mro-Khimi literature from the Roman alphabet. The ancient Mro-khimi people worshiped traditional spirits. Later, most of them practiced Buddhism. There are also Christians. Buddhists also offer their traditional spirits. Traditional spirits are guardian spirits, They are guardian spirits. In
6027-464: The Mrauk-U period. Min Saw Mun regained control of the throne with military assistance from the Bengal Sultanate. Arakan emerged as a vassal state of Bengal. Burhanuddin became the first Muslim defense minister of Arakan. Evidence points to an alliance between Bengal and Arakan to restore Min Saw Mun to the throne. The most significant evidence is that all post-restoration Arakanese rulers adopted Muslim titles in addition to native titles. This indicates
6150-500: The Mro People are one of 53 sub-groups identified by the government of Myanmar. According to the Rakhine Chronicles, the Mro people were the first people who enter Rakhine land. They call themselves as Khami. It means 'human'. Mro people has their own language, culture. There are more than 100 clans. The Mro people once ruled as emperors in Rakhine State and established two "Mro" dynasties. The dynasty lasted for about 25 years, from 131 AD to 156 AD. The Mro people were descended from
6273-411: The Mro-khimi language, “SUN”; is called “KANI”; and “KHOEQMAQ”; is interpreted as the Universe. “KNIQKHOEQMAQ” Kani Khutma”(eng); means the creator who owns the sun and the universe. It is because they are making a noise. However, only if there are problems or illnesses among the Mro-khimi people, they ask for “KANI KHUTMA”. In the stories of creation, KOEQMRIKOEQMRAN created “KHUTMARIKHUTMERIN”; said that
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#17327648070326396-416: The Muslim advance for two centuries, with the Kabul Shahi and Zunbils remaining unconquered until the Saffarid and Ghaznavid conquests. The significance of the realm of Zun and its rulers Zunbils had laid in them blocking the path of Arabs in invading the Indus Valley . According to historian André Wink , "In southern and eastern Afghanistan, the regions of Zamindawar (Zamin I Datbar or land of
6519-404: The Sanskrit language was its unifying element. Scripts in Sanskrit discovered during the early centuries of the Common Era are the earliest known forms of writing to have extended all the way to Southeast Asia. Its gradual impact ultimately resulted in its widespread domain as a means of dialect which evident in regions, from Bangladesh to Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand and additionally a few of
6642-594: The South Asian peninsula and Hinter-Indien as Southeast Asia. Greater India , or Greater India Basin also signifies "the Indian Plate plus a postulated northern extension", the product of the Indian–Asia collision . Although its usage in geology pre-dates Plate tectonic theory, the term has seen increased usage since the 1970s. It is unknown when and where the India–Asia (Indian and Eurasian Plate ) convergence occurred, at or before 52 million years ago. The plates have converged up to 3,600 km (2,200 mi) ± 35 km (22 mi). The upper crustal shortening
6765-416: The Wakun and Xautau dialects. But there are slightly differences in the dialect of the Mro-khimi people according to the region. When calling a body part, it is usually called starting with Vowel sound “ A ” or “ La ”. The above content is the dialect spoken by the Mro-khimi people who communicate along the Kaladan river basin from Chin state to Rakhine state. The 1911 Burma Census Report, Section (1) of
6888-431: The Western colonialism of the early 20th century. By some accounts Greater India consists of "lands including Burma, Java , Cambodia, Bali , and the former Champa and Funan polities of present-day Vietnam ," in which Indian and Hindu culture left an "imprint in the form of monuments, inscriptions and other traces of the historic " Indianizing " process." By some other accounts, many Pacific societies and "most of
7011-428: The accounts of foreign travelers like Fray Sebastian Manrique and Bengali members of the Arakanese court, the kings are referred with their Muslim titles. But the kings did not convert to Islam and remained Buddhists. It appears that Arakan’s kings were following ancient footsteps by imitating royal customs from the subcontinent. Arakan not only integrated Hindu-Buddhist rituals from the subcontinent; but it also integrated
7134-422: The adoption of many Indian style law codes and architecture into Southeast Asian society It is unknown how immigration, interaction, and settlement took place, whether by key figures from India or through Southeast Asians visiting India who took elements of Indian culture back home. It is likely that Hindu and Buddhist traders, priests, and princes traveled to Southeast Asia from India in the first few centuries of
7257-435: The appendix, on page 437, states the language of the Mro people as follows. The language and customs of the Mro-khimi people are more similar to those of the southern Chin. The 78% Mro-khimi people language similarity with Khumi (Khimi) and 39% similarity with Mrucha Mru people [17]. This is stated in the book History Of Operation in Northern Arakan and the Yawdwin Chin Hills (1896-97) by Captain GC Rigby. Mro much resemble
7380-438: The area known as Twipin (Tibet). From there, they moved slowly to the south. After that, they lived in Rokon for about thirty years. From there, they arrived at Cha Phawi Mountain and lived there for about 300 years, then moved to Khang Lyhn Mawi in Paletwa and descended to Rakhine State. The Mro people speak Mro-Khimi , which belongs to the Kuki-Chin branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Mro-Khimi people are spoken in
7503-417: The army. The hill chiefs of northern and southern Arakan provided troops who were ethnic Thet, Mrung, Chin, or from other small minority groups. The elite were ethnically and culturally diverse. Min Khayi (Ali Khan) was the first to challenge Bengali hegemony. Ba Saw Phyu (Kalima Shah) defeated Bengal Sultan Rukunuddin Barbak Shah in 1459. Min Bin (Zabuk Shah) conquered Chittagong . Taking advantage of
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#17327648070327626-415: The conflict. Arakan experienced a demographic vacuum as a result of the Burmese conquest. There were several uprisings against Burmese rule, including a rebellion by Chin Bya in 1811. The uprisings caused recurrent Burmese raids into British India, which led to the First Anglo-Burmese War. The Burmese Empire ceded Arakan to the British East India Company in the 1826 Treaty of Yandabo . Arakan became one of
7749-419: The control of power in Lower Burma”. The cities of Bago, Bagan and Inwa were the centres of political power in Burma proper. In contrast, independent Arakanese states were based in the capital cities of Dhanyawadi, Vesali, Laungyet and Mrauk-U. The ruins of these cities are located in northern Arakan in proximity to the borderland of Bengal. It is unclear who the earliest inhabitants were; some historians believe
7872-490: The country after the 1962 Burmese coup d'état . In 1974, a discriminatory citizenship law was enacted. In 1982, most Arakanese Muslims were stripped of citizenship. A segregated system of citizenship was introduced by Burma's military rulers. Both Arakanese Buddhists and Muslims experienced growing nationalism, including hopes for self-rule. After Burma's controversial citizenship law in 1974, the Buddhists became known as Rakhines and Muslims became known as Rohingya . The region
7995-554: The cultural and political frontier zone between India and Persia ." He also wrote, "It is clear however that in the seventh to ninth centuries the Zunbils and their kinsmen the Kabulshahs ruled over a predominantly Indian rather than a Persianate realm. The Arab geographers, in effect, commonly speak of 'that king of al-Hind ... (who) bore the title of Zunbil." Mro people (Awa Khami) The Mro-Khimi people ( Burmese : မြို(ခမိ) or မြိုလူမျိုး ), also known as Mro , Awa Khami Mro , Wakim , Mro Chin or Awa Khami , are one of
8118-448: The deities responsible for the creation, preservation, and destruction of the universe. The effects of Hinduism and Buddhism applied a tremendous impact on the many civilizations inhabiting Southeast Asia which significantly provided some structure to the composition of written traditions. An essential factor for the spread and adaptation of these religions originated from trading systems of the third and fourth century. In order to spread
8241-452: The development of infrastructure, public services and other sectors of commerce. Rice from Lower Burma and Arakan became the backbone of the Burmese economy. In 1869, Muslims constituted 12.24% of the population in Arakan. In 1931, they constituted 25.56%. In the divisional capital Akyab, the share of the Muslim population increased from 20.67% in 1869 to 38.41% in 1931. The British administration considered Chittagonian migration from Bengal as
8364-488: The development of occupational specialisation. They were reflected in the conversion of the chief’s hut into a palace, the spirit house into a temple, the object of the spirit cult into the palladium of the state, and the boundary spirits which previously had protected the village into Indianized Lokapalas presiding over cardinal directions. This process can clearly be traced in Arakan, which received Indian culture by land from Bengal and by sea from other parts of India”. Due to
8487-404: The earliest settlers included the Burmese Mro tribe but there is a lack of evidence and no clear tradition of their origin or written records of their history. Arakanese traditional history holds that Arakan was inhabited by the Rakhine since 3000 BCE, but there is no archaeological evidence to support the claim. According to British historian Daniel George Edward Hall , who wrote extensively on
8610-490: The early centuries of the Common Era are the earliest known forms of writing to have extended all the way to Southeast Asia. Its gradual impact ultimately resulted in its widespread domain as a means of dialect which evident in regions, from Bangladesh to Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand and additionally a few of the larger Indonesian islands. In addition, alphabets from languages spoken in Burmese, Thai, Laos, and Cambodia are variations formed off of Indian ideals that have localized
8733-419: The early half of the third century. Indian religion was profoundly absorbed by local cultures that formed their own distinctive variations of these structures in order to reflect their own ideals. Champa , Dvaravati , Funan , Gangga Negara , Kadaram , Kalingga , Kutai , Langkasuka , Pagan , Pan Pan , Po-ni , and Tarumanagara had by the 1st to 4th centuries CE adopted Hinduism's cosmology and rituals,
8856-674: The east. To the west, Indian culture converged with Greater Persia via the Hindu Kush and the Pamir Mountains . The concept of the Three Indias was in common circulation in pre-industrial Europe. Greater India was the southern part of South Asia , Lesser India was the northern part of South Asia , and Middle India was the region near the Middle East . The Portuguese form ( Portuguese : India Maior )
8979-576: The emergence of centralized states and localized caste systems in Southeast Asia. As conclusive evidence is missing, numerous Indianization theories of Southeast Asia have emerged since the early 20th century. The central question usually revolves around the main propagator of Indian institutional and cultural ideas in Southeast Asia. Iron Age trade expansion caused regional geostrategic remodeling. Austronesian sailors from Island Southeast Asia first established contact and trade with Southern India and Sri Lanka as early as 500 BCE. This resulted in
9102-618: The emergence of centralized states and the development of highly organized societies. Ambitious local leaders realized the benefits of Hinduism and Indian methods of administration, culture, literature, etc. Rule in accord with universal moral principles, represented in the concept of the devaraja , was more appealing than the Chinese concept of intermediaries. The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan and Champa. Adoption of Indian civilization elements and individual adaptation stimulated
9225-512: The evidence of Sanskrit inscriptions found in the region, historians believe the founders of the first Arakanese state were Indian. The first Arakanese state flourished in Dhanyawadi between the 4th and 6th centuries. The city was the center of a large trade network linked to India, China and Persia. Power then shifted to the city of Waithali , where the Candra dynasty ruled. Waithali became
9348-429: The exchange of commodities. Another theory of the spread of Indianization that focuses on the caste of Vaishya traders and their role for spreading Indian culture and language into Southeast Asia through trade. There were many trade incentives that brought Vaishya traders to Southeast Asia, the most important of which was gold. During the 4th century C.E., when the first evidence of Indian trader in Southeast Asia,
9471-489: The farmers on the royal lands. Some became ministers in the royal court. The heavy presence of Bengali Muslims was documented by Arakanese and European records. The Mons were deported after the fall of Pegu ; they formed a group which could still be identified until the end of the eighteenth century. Afghan soldiers fleeing the Mughal advance and Portuguese traders and adventurers settled in Arakan. They accepted appointments in
9594-516: The first century BC says that "the Nile rises in India" and Marco Polo of the fourteenth century says that "Lesser India ... contains ... Abash [Abyssinia]"). In late 19th-century geography, Greater India referred to a region that included: "(a) Himalaya , (b) Punjab , (c) Hindustan , (d) Burma , (e) Indo-China , (f) Sunda Islands , (g) Borneo , (h) Celebes , and (i) Philippines ." German atlases distinguished Vorder-Indien (Anterior India) as
9717-535: The following townships of Myanmar ( Ethnologue ): Chin State : Paletwa township , Rakhine State : Kyauktaw , Buthidaung , Ponnagyun , Pauktaw , Mrauk U , and Maungdaw townships. There are 4 main dialects of Mro-Khimi ( Ethnologue ). Wakun (Vakung) is the most widely spoken and understood dialect(Horney 2009:5). Horney (2009:5) also lists Aryn, Dau, Khuitupui, Likhy, Pamnau, Tuiron, Xautau, and Xienau as dialects of Mro-khami. Horney (2009) describes phonologies of
9840-1002: The greater Chittagong economy. Between the 1870s and 1880s, the Naaf experienced a surge in population growth due to immigration. Settlers included not only Muslims and Hindus from Chittagong; but also returning Buddhist refugees who were displaced by earlier wars. Muslims formed the overwhelming majority of settlers. This was complemented by the transformation of waste lands into rice fields. Settlers constituted 70% of Naaf’s population, owned 79% of cultivated land and held 84% of tax-paying landed property. Colonial census reports in 1921 and 1931 described Arakanese Muslims with various terms, including “Arakan Mahomedans”, “Chittagonian Mahomedans born in Burma”, “Chittagonian Mahomedans born outside of Burma”, “Bengali Mahomedans born in Burma”, “Bengali Mahomedans born outside of Burma”, “Indian Muslims” and “Indo-Burmans”. In 1937, Arakan became part of Burma Province , which
9963-418: The history of Burma, "The Burmese do not seem to have settled in Arakan until possibly as late as the tenth century AD. Hence earlier dynasties are thought to have been Indian, ruling over a population similar to that of Bengal. All the capitals known to history have been in the north near modern Akyab". Arakan came under strong Indic influence from the Indian subcontinent , particularly the ancient kingdoms of
10086-569: The home), “ Yar Sout Nat” (spirit of the land or agriculture), and the primary Nat who was called “KNIQKHOEQMAQ” (creator of the world and of the Khimi people). The belief in KNIQKHOEQMAQ was transitional for the conversion of some Mro to belief in the singular deity of Christianity. The term “KNIQKHOEQAMAQ” is a combination of two words in the traditional culture of the Mro-khimi people, In
10209-478: The influence of Islamic India, particularly the Bengal Sultanate. Between 1430 and 1638, a total of 16 kings are recorded to have used Muslim titles. In conclusion, the Arakan State has always been predominantly Buddhist, with the majority known today as the Rakhine people. Although all the kings of Arakan had Muslim titles, none of them adopted the religion; they remained as Buddhists. Arakan became home to
10332-426: The influence of art theorist Ananda Coomaraswamy . Coomaraswamy's view of pan-Indian art history was influenced by the "Calcutta cultural nationalists." Its modern meanings often invoke images of soft power. The region is considered in Indian political circles as part of India's extended neighbourhood, and modern integration was propelled through a multifaceted acceleration of economic and strategic interaction under
10455-601: The introduction of Southeast Asian material culture (including catamarans , outrigger boats , sewn-plank boats, and paan ) and cultigens (like coconuts , sandalwood , bananas , and sugarcane ) to South Asia; as well as connecting the material cultures of India and China . These early Austronesian trade routes linking Island Southeast Asia with India also became the maritime aspect of the wider spice trade network, which were later also used by Tamil and Arab maritime trade. The sustained contact between Southeast Asia and South Asia resulted in cultural exchange, in addition to
10578-535: The justice giver, the classical Arachosia ) and Zabulistan or Zabul (Jabala, Kapisha , Kia pi shi) and Kabul , the Arabs were effectively opposed for more than two centuries, from 643 to 870 AD, by the indigenous rulers the Zunbils and the related Kabul-Shahs of the dynasty which became known as the Buddhist-Shahi. With Makran and Baluchistan and much of Sindh this area can be reckoned to belong to
10701-403: The language. The utilization of Sanskrit has been prevalent in all aspects of life including legal purposes. Sanskrit terminology and vernacular appears in ancient courts to establish procedures that have been structured by Indian models such as a system composed of a code of laws. The concept of legislation demonstrated through codes of law and organizations particularly the idea of "God King"
10824-509: The larger Indonesian islands. In addition, alphabets from languages spoken in Burmese, Thai, Laos, and Cambodia are variations formed off of Indian ideals that have localized the language. Sanskrit and related languages have also influenced their Tibeto-Burman -speaking neighbors to the north through the spread of Buddhist texts in translation. The spread of Buddhism to Tibet allowed many Sanskrit texts to survive only in Tibetan translation (in
10947-404: The later period, there was also influence from the Islamic courts of Bengal and Delhi". Gutman writes that “the maintenance of a state appropriate to kingship required the ministrations of increasing numbers of craftsmen and artisans, the most skilled of whom were often accommodated within the royal compound. It required the labour of a peasantry who contributed the surplus produce of their fields as
11070-526: The legendary emperor of Sri Lanka , is called 'Thosakanth' which is derived from his Sanskrit name 'Daśakaṇṭha' ("having ten necks"). Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in Austronesian languages , such as Javanese particularly the old form from which nearly half the vocabulary is derived from the language. Other Austronesian languages, such as traditional Malay , modern Indonesian , also derive much of their vocabulary from Sanskrit, albeit to
11193-609: The matter of deity worship, the village people seem to believe in a traditional deity called “KNIQKHOEQMAQ”; as special gods. Some Mro people who converted to Buddhism still maintain elements of the ethnic Nat devotion. The Mro ethnic tradition describes a group of Nats (or spirits) referred to as the Yoyar Nats as the original or first Nats to exist, with each Yoyar Nat having a certain area of responsibility or control. These Yoyar Nats are respectively called “Eain Sout Nat” (spirit of
11316-482: The merchant classes. Another theory states that Indianization spread through the warrior class of Kshatriya . This hypothesis effectively explains state formation in Southeast Asia, as these warriors came with the intention of conquering the local peoples and establishing their own political power in the region. However, this theory hasn't attracted much interest from historians as there is very little literary evidence to support it. The most widely accepted theory for
11439-576: The message of these religions Buddhist monks and Hindu priests joined mercantile classes in the quest to share their religious and cultural values and beliefs. Along the Mekong delta, evidence of Indianized religious models can be observed in communities labeled Funan. There can be found the earliest records engraved on a rock in Vocanh. The engravings consist of Buddhist archives and a south Indian scripts are written in Sanskrit that have been dated to belong to
11562-631: The midst of the thirteenth century to trump the Hindu kingdoms. In the process of Islam coming to the traditional Hindu kingdoms, trade was heavily practiced and the now Islamized Indians started becoming merchants all over Southeast Asia. Moreover, as trade became more saturated in the Southeast Asian regions wherein Indianization once persisted, the regions had become more Muslim populated. This so-called Islamic control has spanned to many of
11685-471: The name as Arracao . The name was spelled as Araccan in many old European maps and publications. The area constituted Arakan Division under British rule in Burma . The name “Arakan” was in use until 1989 when the military government of Burma changed the name to Rakhine State. Arakan is a coastal geographic region in Lower Burma . It comprises a long narrow strip of land along the eastern seaboard of
11808-646: The narrative is slightly different from the Gangetic version. In Afghanistan , Uzbekistan and Tajikistan many Buddhist monasteries were established. These countries were used as a kind of springboard for the monks who brought Indian Buddhist texts and images to China. Further north, in the Gobi Desert , statues of Ganesha and Kartikeya were found alongside Buddhist imagery in the Mogao Caves . Indians spread their religion to Southeast Asia, beginning
11931-417: The notion of an explicit Hindu expansion of ancient Southeast Asia have been linked to both Indian nationalism and Hindu nationalism . The English term was popularised in the late 19th and the 20th century as a view of an expansionist India within the context of East Asia. However, many Indian nationalists, like Jawaharlal Nehru and Rabindranath Tagore , although receptive to "an idealisation of India as
12054-572: The philologists Suniti Kumar Chatterji (1890–1977) and P. C. Bagchi (1898–1956), and the historians Phanindranath Bose and Kalidas Nag (1891–1966). Some of their formulations were inspired by concurrent excavations in Angkor by French archaeologists and by the writings of French Indologist Sylvain Lévi . The scholars of the society postulated a benevolent ancient Indian cultural colonisation of Southeast Asia, in stark contrast – in their view – to
12177-605: The ports of Bengal, including Calcutta , Chittagong, Narayanganj , Goalundo and Dacca . By the 20th century, Akyab enjoyed shipping links with Europe, Malaya, China, Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies. Arakanese rice was being exported to many parts of the world. The American Civil War disrupted the rice supply chain from the southern states of the United States of America. European traders and millers looked for an alternative location for rice imports. British Burma, with its expanding and low cost rice production, provided
12300-481: The potential of generating revenue by taxing rice farmers. The colonial economy in South and Southeast Asia depended on the taxation of farmers. Arakan neighboured the densely populated province of Bengal where demand for rice was high. Rice was a staple food of Bengal and demand for rice surged during periods of food shortages and famine. Arakan met this demand and profited from the rice trade. Akyab had shipping links with
12423-613: The region to travel to India and China . A southern branch of the Silk Road connected India, Burma and China since the neolithic period. It is unclear whether the Rakhine people were one of the tribes of the Burmese Pyu city-states because the people in those states at the time spoke a Tibeto-Burman language while Arakan (Rakhine) speakers are from the Sino-Tibetan language family. They began migrating to Arakan through
12546-509: The region's cosmology, in particular in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka . In Central Asia, the transmission of ideas was predominantly of a religious nature. By the early centuries of the common era , most of the principalities of Southeast Asia had effectively absorbed defining aspects of Indian culture, religion, and administration. The notion of divine god-kingship was introduced by the concept of Harihara , and Sanskrit and other Indian epigraphic systems were declared official , like those of
12669-501: The region. Arakan Division was a part of British India and later fell under British rule in Burma . Arakan was a major rice exporter in the world during the 19th and early 20th centuries. During World War II , several Arakan Campaigns were conducted by Allied forces against the Japanese as part of the Burma Campaign . After Burma became independent in 1948, Arakan saw a movement for autonomy. Human rights deteriorated in
12792-678: The rest of Burma. The coast has several sizable offshore islands, including Cheduba and Ramree . The region's principal rivers are the Nāf estuary and the Mayu , Kaladan , and Lemro rivers. One-tenth of Arakan's generally hilly land is cultivated. Rice is the dominant crop in the delta areas, where most of the population is concentrated. Other crops include fruits, chilies, dha and tobacco. The main towns are coastal and include Sittwe (Akyab), Sandoway , Kyaukpyu and Taungup . Arakan has been recognized “as one among other Burmese kingdoms competing for
12915-724: The south Indian Pallava dynasty and Chalukya dynasty . These Indianized kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès in his work Histoire ancienne des états hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient , were characterized by resilience, political integrity, and administrative stability. To the north, Indian religious ideas were assimilated into the cosmology of Himalayan peoples, most profoundly in Tibet and Bhutan, and merged with indigenous traditions. Buddhist monasticism extended into Afghanistan , Uzbekistan , and other parts of Central Asia , and Buddhist texts and ideas were accepted in China and Japan in
13038-514: The south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence in the region. A defining characteristic of the cultural link between Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent was the adoption of ancient Indian Vedic /Hindu and Buddhist culture and philosophy into Myanmar , Tibet , Thailand , Indonesia , Malaya , Laos and Cambodia. Indian scripts are found in Southeast Asian islands ranging from Sumatra, Java, Bali, South Sulawesi and
13161-532: The spread of Indianization into Southeast Asia is through the class of Brahman scholars. These Brahmans brought with them many of the Hindu religious and philosophical traditions and spread them to the elite classes of Southeast Asian polities. Once these traditions were adopted into the elite classes, it disseminated throughout all the lower classes, thus explaining the Indianization present in all classes of Southeast Asian society. Brahmans were also experts in art and architecture, and political affairs, thus explaining
13284-416: The throne and shifted the capital from Laungyet to Mrauk-U (erstwhile Mrohaung). The establishment of the capital at Mrauk-U heralded the most significant period in the history of Arakan. A new cosmopolitan kingdom emerged. In Arakanese traditional history, the restoration of the throne is glorified. Bengali literary texts and coinage are among the chief primary sources to detail the history of Arakan during
13407-858: The trade routes that linked India with southern Burma , central and southern Siam , the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra to Java , lower Cambodia and Champa . The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism , Brahmanism and Hinduism , were transmitted from direct contact as well as through sacred texts and Indian literature. Southeast Asia had developed some prosperous and very powerful colonial empires that contributed to Hindu-Buddhist artistic creations and architectural developments. Art and architectural creations that rivaled those built in India, especially in its sheer size, design and aesthetic achievements. The notable examples are Borobudur in Java and Angkor monuments in Cambodia. The Srivijaya Empire to
13530-434: The trading centers across the regions of Southeast Asia, including one of the most dominant centers, Malacca, and has therefore stressed a widespread rise of Islamization. The eastern regions of Afghanistan were considered politically as parts of India. Buddhism and Hinduism held sway over the region until the Muslim conquest. Kabul and Zabulistan which housed Buddhism and other Indian religions , offered stiff resistance to
13653-484: The upbringing of highly organized central states. Indians were still able to implement their religion, political ideas, literature, mythology, and art. It is conjectured that certain traditional Indian games spread throughout Southeast Asia, as variations of Indian games such as atya-patya and gilli danda can be found throughout the region. Also, the Indonesian hom pim pa (a method of selecting players before
13776-633: The wealth and power of Mrauk U. Arakan colluded in the slave trade with the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong . After conquering the port city of Syriam in the early 1600s, Arakan appointed the Portuguese mercenary Philip De Brito e Nicota as the governor of Syriam. But Nicota later transferred Syriam to the authority of Portuguese India . Even after independence from the Sultans of Bengal,
13899-570: The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was combined with ancestor worship, so that Khmer, Javanese, and Cham rulers claimed semi-divine status as descendants of a God. Hindu traditions, especially the relationship to the sacrality of the land and social structures, are inherent in Hinduism's transnational features. The epic traditions of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa further legitimized a ruler identified with
14022-593: Was a parliamentary democracy until the 1962 Burmese coup d'état . The northern part of Arakan was governed by the central government in Rangoon in the early 1960s. Known as the Mayu Frontier District , it covered townships near the border with East Pakistan . In 1982, the Burmese junta enacted the Burmese nationality law which did not recognize Arakanese Indians as one of Burma's ethnic groups, thereby stripping them of their citizenship. In 1989,
14145-545: Was built in Mrauk U. Indian and Muslim influence continued on Arakanese affairs for 350 years. In 1660, Shah Shuja , the brother of Emperor Aurangzeb and a claimant of the Peacock Throne , received asylum in Mrauk U. Members of Shuja's entourage were recruited in the Arakanese army and court. They were kingmakers in Arakan until the Burmese conquest. Arakan suffered a major defeat to the forces of Mughal Bengal during
14268-564: Was deported to central Burma. The religious relics of the kingdom, including the sacred Mahamuni sculpture of Buddha , were seized and transferred to Amarapura in Mandalay . Rakhine rebellions were suppressed. Many Rakhine Buddhists fled by sea to the Barisal region of Bengal, where their descendants continue to live today. It is also likely that Arakanese Muslims became dispersed across Burma and Bengal as either deportees or refugees due to
14391-442: Was driven by the expansion of farmland – by clearing out jungles and cultivating paddy fields. Agriculturalists from Chittagong played an important role in the development of the rice economy in Arakan. When the British took control of Arakan, the borderland with Bengal was filled with dense vegetation. British objectives in Arakan centred on stimulating the rice economy. Transforming forests and barren land into paddy fields offered
14514-483: Was embraced by numerous rulers of Southeast Asia. The rulers amid this time, for example, the Lin-I Dynasty of Vietnam once embraced the Sanskrit dialect and devoted sanctuaries to the Indian divinity Shiva. Many rulers following even viewed themselves as "reincarnations or descendants" of the Hindu gods. However once Buddhism began entering the nations, this practiced view was eventually altered. Indianization
14637-512: Was separated from India into a distinct crown colony . During World War II , Arakan endured the Japanese occupation of Burma . The Burma National Army and the pro-British V Force were active in the region. Sectarian tensions flared during the Arakan massacres in 1942 . Japanese rule ended with the successful Burma Campaign by Allied forces . The division's seaport and capital Akyab were dominated by Arakanese Indians who were aligned with
14760-451: Was the backbone of the Arakanese economy. Leider explains that “Arakan was sadly famed as the main provider of slaves in the Bay of Bengal” unlike Bengal's trade in muslin , silk, shipbuilding, and saltpeter. The kings imported labour, bureaucrats and artisans by raiding Lower Burma and southeast Bengal. They provided the craftsmen, guards, and artists at the palace; the rowers for the fleet, or
14883-536: Was the basis for more centralized kingdoms that emerged in Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Burma, and along the central and south coasts of Vietnam from the 4th to 8th centuries. Art, architecture, rituals, and cultural elements such as the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata had been adopted and customized increasingly with a regional character. The caste system, although adopted, was never applied universally and reduced to serve for
15006-610: Was the site of the Rohingya genocide in 2016 and 2017. According to Arthur Purves Phayre , a report by the Royal Geographical Society in November 1882 included a paper by one Colonel Yule who discussed the oldest records of a sea route to China from the Middle East. Yule identified Arakan with the country of "Argyre" mentioned by the Greco-Roman geographer Claudius Ptolemy . Portuguese records spelled
15129-499: Was used at least since the mid-15th century. The term, which seems to have been used with variable precision, sometimes meant only the Indian subcontinent; Europeans used a variety of terms related to South Asia to designate the South Asian peninsula, including High India , Greater India , Exterior India and India aquosa . However, in some accounts of European nautical voyages, Greater India (or India Major ) extended from
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