153-525: The Bengal Sultanate ( Middle Bengali : বাঙ্গালা সালতানাত , Classical Persian : سلطنت بنگاله was a late medieval sultanate based in the Bengal region in the eastern South Asia between the 14th and 16th century. It was the dominant power of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta , with a network of mint towns spread across the region. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of vassal states in
306-675: A 1513 inscription from Sonargaon indicates that Hussain Shah annexed a part of the Twipra Kingdom . The Pratapgarh Kingdom came under Bengali suzerainty . Hussain Shah also waged several campaigns against the Gajapati rulers of Orissa. Hussain Shah extended Bengali territory in the west beyond Bihar, up to Saran in Jaunpur . The Sultan of Jaunpur took refuge in Bengal after an invasion by
459-666: A Pashtun general, he regained control of his country during the Reconquest of Arakan . The restored Arakanese realm became a vassal state of Bengal. A war with Arakan in 1459 led to the defeat of Bengali Sultan Rukunuddin Barbak Shah . The Arakanese developed an alliance with Portuguese Chittagong against Bengal. Despite achieving independence from the Sultans of Bengal, the Arakanese kings continued to fashion themselves after
612-563: A confederation of twelve aristocrats of the former sultanate, who became known as the Baro Bhuyans . Their leader was Isa Khan , a zamindar and a former nobleman of the sultanate through his mother Princess Syeda Momena Khatun . The confederation was made up of petty kingdoms . The Mughal government eventually suppressed the remnants of the sultanate in the Bhati area and brought all of Bengal under full Mughal control. The Bengal Sultanate
765-623: A conflict by paying him tribute and accepting his suzerainty. Iltutmish accepted the offer, and returned to Delhi after appointing Malik Jani as the governor of Bihar. In 1226, Iltutmish captured the Ranthambore Fort, which was reputed to be impregnable. The next year, he captured the fort of Mandore , also in present-day Rajasthan . Meanwhile, in eastern India, Ghiyasuddin re-asserted his independence and occupied Bihar. In 1227, Iltutmish directed his son Nasiruddin Mahmud , who held
918-446: A fact that is evidenced by the typically Persian phonological mutation of the words of Arabic origin. Dobhashi was also used for forms of story-telling like Puthi , Kissa , Jangnama , Raag , Jari , Hamd , Na`at and Ghazal . Educated Bengalis would be multilingual and multi-literate enabling them to study and engage with Persian , Arabic and Bengali literature. Dobhashi manuscripts are paginated from right to left, imitating
1071-626: A flourishing shipbuilding industry was part of the evidence that Bengal enjoyed significant seaborne trade. The expansion of muslin production, sericulture and the emergence of several other crafts were indicated in Ma Huan's list of items exported from Bengal to China. Bengali shipping co-existed with Chinese shipping until the latter withdrew from the Indian Ocean in the mid-15th century. The testimony of European travelers such as Ludovico di Varthema , Duarte Barbosa and Tomé Pires attest to
1224-571: A king. Iltutmish also had the envoy killed, and sent troops to aid Qabacha against Jalal ad-Din . Minhaj , another Persian historian, states that Iltutmish himself led an army against Jalal ad-Din. Only the vanguards of the two armies clashed, and the two rulers withdrew after exchanging friendly messages. Meanwhile, Qabacha - who had earlier accepted Jalal ad-Din's suzerainty - rebelled against him, and this conflict kept Jalal ad-Din busy. Jalal-ad-Din carried out some more campaigns in India, including
1377-561: A large amount of wealth: Iltutmish's share (one-fifth) of the loot amounted to 2.5 million jitals . While Taisi was returning to Gwalior, the Yajvapala ruler Chahada-deva (called Jahar by Minhaj) ambushed him, but Taisi able to fend off the attack by dividing his army into three contingents. Subsequently, Iltutmish raided the Paramara -controlled cities of Bhilsa and Ujjain in 1234–35. Iltutmish's army occupied Bhilsa, and destroyed
1530-406: A message to Iltutmish, declaring that he was the real successor of Mu'izz ad-Din and thus, had claims to the former Ghurid territories in India. According to Isami 's Futuh-us-Salatin , Iltutmish replied that the days of such hereditary claims were over: You know that today the dominion of the world is enjoyed by the one who possesses the greatest strength. The principle of hereditary succession
1683-557: A period of instability. As Sultan, Hussain Shah ruled until 1519. The dynasty he founded reigned until 1538. Muslims and Hindus jointly served in the royal administration during the Hussain Shahi dynasty. This era is often regarded as the golden age of the Bengal Sultanate, in which Bengali territory included areas of Arakan , Orissa , Tripura , and Assam . Under the order of Hussain Shah, Shah Ismail Ghazi commanded
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#17327572710901836-620: A place called Mansura, which was located on the banks of the Chenab River . Iltutmish then captured Lahore in the winter of 1216–1217, and appointed his son Nasiruddin Mahmud to govern it. Lahore remained contested in the subsequent years; for example, at the time of Khwarazmian invasion of the region (see below), it was under the control of Qabacha's son. Qabacha seems to have posed a serious threat to Iltutmish, as suggested by Muhammad Aufi in Lubab ul-Albab . Aufi, writing shortly before
1989-763: A raid in Gujarat , but none against Iltutmish. He left the Indian frontier in 1223–1224; according to his biographer Shihab al-Din Muhammad al-Nasawi , he did so because he received the news that Iltutmish, Qabacha, and several Hindu chiefs ("rais and thakurs") had formed an alliance against him. The Mongols also maintained a presence in the region: for example, Genghis Khan's general besieged Qabacha in Multan in 1224, before retreating because of hot weather. Until Genghis Khan's death in 1227, Iltutmish chose not to get involved in
2142-592: A rebellion in Bengal, captured Gwalior , raided the Paramara -controlled cities of Bhilsa and Ujjain in central India, and expelled Khwarazmian subordinates in the north-west. His officers also attacked and plundered the Chandela -controlled Kalinjar area. Iltutmish organized the administration of the Sultanate, laying the foundation for its dominance over northern India until the Mughal invasion. He introduced
2295-417: A robe of honour, and asked Aibak to treat him well. Minhaj states that Mu'izz ad-Din also ordered Iltutmish's deed of manumission to be drawn on this occasion, which would mean that Iltutmish - a slave of a slave until this point - was manumitted even before his own master Aibak had been manumitted. However, Iltutmish's manumission doesn't appear to have been well-publicized because Ibn Battuta states that at
2448-416: A sovereign Sultan. While Iltutmish was busy at the north-western frontier of his empire, Ghiyasuddin captured parts of present-day Bihar, and also extracted tribute from the smaller states of Jajnagar , Tirhut , Bang (in Bengal region), and Kamrup . Iltutmish's forces captured Bihar in the 1210s, and invaded Bengal in 1225. Ghiyasuddin led an army to check Iltutmish's advance, but then decided to avoid
2601-579: A subordinate king - al-Malik al-Mu'azzam ("the great chief"), rather than as an imperial Sultan . Meanwhile, taking advantage of the succession conflict between Aram Shah and Iltutmish, Qabacha had captured Lahore in 1211. Shortly after this, a Khwarazmian invasion forced Yildiz to leave Ghazni. Yildiz migrated eastwards, displaced Qabacha from Lahore, and captured parts of the Punjab region. Iltutmish became concerned that Yildiz would ultimately try to occupy Delhi, and marched against him. Yildiz sent
2754-476: A sugar shattering situation (become excited) That this Persian candy [ode], to Bangalah [Bengal] is going on. Middle Bengali language Dobhashi ( Bengali : দোভাষী , romanized : Dobhāṣī , lit. 'bilingual') is a neologism used to refer to a historical register of the Bengali language which borrowed extensively, in all aspects, from Arabic and Persian . It became
2907-578: A temple whose construction - according to Minhaj - had taken three hundred years. At Ujjain, his forces damaged the Mahakaleshwar temple and obtained rich plunder, but made little effort to annex the Paramara territory. The jyotirlinga at the site was dismantled and believed to be thrown into a nearby 'Kotiteerth Kunda' (a pond neighboring the temple) with the Jaladhari (a structure supporting
3060-492: A three-month long siege, on 4 May 1228. Qabacha fled to Bhakkar , pursued by an army led by Iltutmish's wazir Nizam al-Mulk Junyadi. Finding himself in an unwinnable situation, Qabacha sent his son Malik Alauddin Bahram to Iltutmish, to negotiate a peace treaty. Iltutmish offered peace in exchange for Qabacha's unconditional surrender, but Qabacha preferred death to these terms, and committed suicide by drowning himself into
3213-539: A tribute to the Delhi Sultan. Despite losing control of many conquered areas, Ilyas Shah remained in firm control of Bengal. Ilyas Shah founded the Ilyas Shahi dynasty which ruled Bengal for fifteen decades. His son and successor Sikandar Shah defeated Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq during the second Siege of Ekdala Fort in 1359. A peace treaty was signed between Delhi and Bengal, with the former recognizing
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#17327572710903366-628: A vassal king in 1430. However, conflict later emerged between Arakan and Bengal based on the control of Chittagong . Arakan asserted its independence as a coastal power. Under Alauddin Husain Shah , Bengali sovereignty was restored in Chittagong and northern Arakan. However, the Arakanese persisted to fight over Chittagong, often allying with Portuguese pirates . During Husain Shah's rule, Bengali control over Assam reached its zenith. Under
3519-528: A young boy, Iltutmish was brought to Bukhara , where he was re-sold to the local Sadr-i Jahan (officer in charge of religious matters and endowments). There are several anecdotes about Iltutmish's childhood interest in religious mysticism. According to a story narrated by Iltutmish himself in Minhaj's book, once a family member of the Sadr-i Jahan gave him some money and asked him to bring some grapes from
3672-467: Is a partial listing of mint towns: Vassal states were a number of tributary states and protectorates on the periphery of the Bengal Sultanate under the suzerainty of the Sultan of Bengal. Direct control was not established over these territories for various reasons. Vassal states had Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist rulers. The following illustrates the most notable vassal states. In the southeast, Arakan
3825-488: Is considered to have lost popularity as a highly Sanskritised form of Shadhu-bhasha was institutionalised by the British, who worked alongside the educated Brahmins that had chosen to accept English as the official language. In reaction to Sanskritisation, many Bengali Muslims that refused to learn English took to the initiative to continue Dobhashi literature hoping to maintain their identity and linguistic traditions. It
3978-592: Is mostly used for research purposes though it is sometimes used to achieve particular literary effects. Remnants of the register are present in regional Bengali dialects , in particular amongst rural Muslim communities in eastern Bengal. The 20th century educationist and researcher, Dr Kazi Abdul Mannan (d. 1994), wrote his thesis on The Emergence and Development of Dobhasi Literature in Bengal (up to 1855 AD) for his PhD from Dhaka University in 1966. Iltutmish Shams ud-Din Iltutmish (1192 – 30 April 1236)
4131-409: Is not extinct, [but] long ago destiny abolished this custom. Iltutmish offered to engage in a negotiation provided both men came to the meeting unaccompanied by any warriors. Yildiz refused the offer, resulting a battle at Tarain on 25 January 1216, which resulted in Iltutmish's victory. Isami states that Yildiz managed to escape to Hansi , while the earlier chronicler Hasan Nizami states that he
4284-676: The Abbasid Caliph Al-Nasir sent his Indian-born ambassador Radi al-Din Abu'l-Fada'il al-Hasan bin Muhammad al-Saghani to Delhi. The ambassador returned to the Abbasid capital Baghdad in 1227, during the reign of Al-Mustansir . In 1228, the new Caliph sent the ambassador back to Delhi with robes of honour, recognizing Iltutmish's authority in India and conferring on him the titles Yamin Khalifat Allah ("Right Hand of
4437-841: The Arabic -tradition. The following is a sample text in Dobhashi Bengali of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations : Dobhashi Bengali in the Bengali script Dobhashi Bengali in a modified Arabic script دفا ١: تَمام انسان آزاد ھئیا شمان عِزّت ار حقّ لئیا پیدا ھي۔ تاهَدِر ھوش و عَقل اچھے؛ تايئ ايكجن ارِك جنِر شاتھے بِرادر حِشابے سُلوك كرا ضروري۔ Dobhashi Bengali in phonetic Romanization Gloss English Translation The arrival of merchants, traders and missionaries from Arabia , Persia and Turkestan to
4590-495: The Arabic script . Another notable example of the use of Arabic script is a late 19th-century Bengali theological work, which is now kept in the Bangladesh National Museum . Medieval tales of Persian origin such as Gul-e-Bakavali were being translated to Dobhashi and being popularised in Bengal. Dobhashi puthis about the latter tale were written by the likes of Munshi Ebadat Ali in 1840. Muhammad Fasih
4743-797: The Ghiyasia Madrasa and Banjaliah Madrasa. Taqi al-Din al-Fasi , a contemporary Arab scholar, was a teacher at the madrasa in Makkah. The madrasa in Madinah was built at a place called Husn al-Atiq near the Prophet's Mosque . Several other Bengali Sultans also sponsored madrasas in the Hejaz . In Africa, Sultan Ashraf Barsbay of Egypt sent the Bengali Sultan a robe of honour and a letter of recognition. There are also records of envoys from
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4896-526: The Indian subcontinent , including parts of Odisha in the southwest, Arakan in the southeast, and Tripura in the east. The Bengal Sultanate controlled large parts of the eastern South Asia during its five dynastic periods, reaching its peak under Hussain Shahi dynasty . Its raids and conquests reached Nepal in the north, Brahmaputra valley (modern-day Assam ) in the east, and Jaunpur and Varanasi in
5049-647: The Kingdom of Mrauk U conquered Chittagong. The late 1480s saw four usurper Sultans from the Abyssinian mercenary corps. Tensions between different Muslim communities often affected the sultanate. Alauddin Hussain Shah gained control of Bengal in 1494 when he was prime minister. Alauddin Husain Shah founded the Hussain Shahi dynasty which had Sayyid of Arab or Afghan origin. He brought end to
5202-736: The Lodi dynasty of Delhi. The Delhi Sultan attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Jaunpur Sultan. Unable to make headway, the Delhi Sultan withdrew after concluding a peace treaty with Bengal. Under Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah , the Sultanate pushed into the Mithila region and annexed the ruling Oiniwar dynasty in 1526 with the ruler of the Oiniwars, Laksminathasimha, being killed in battle. Embassies from Portuguese India frequented Bengal after
5355-623: The Ming dynasty . He sent ambassadors in 1405, 1408 and 1409. Emperor Yongle of China responded by sending ambassadors to Bengal between 1405 and 1433, including members of the Treasure voyages fleet led by Admiral Zheng He . The exchange of embassies included the gift of an East African giraffe by Sultan Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah to the Chinese emperor in 1414. China also mediated an end to
5508-519: The Persian alphabet . The late 14th-century Sultan of Bengal , Ghiyathuddin Azam Shah , Turco-Persian in origin, was a patron of literature and poetry. His court poet, Shah Muhammad Saghir , was reportedly the first to use Islamic terminology such as Allah , Rasul and Alim in the native Bengali native script. His best known work is Yusuf-Zulekha . From as early as the 14th century,
5661-587: The Sindh Sagar Doab in the Punjab region, and captured the fort of Pasrur . He sent his envoy Ainul Mulk to Iltutmish, seeking an alliance against the Mongols, and requesting for a safe place to stay. According to Juvayni, after deliberating over the matter for several days, Iltutmish refused to provide him a residence on the excuse that no place in his kingdom have a suitable climate or a locality fit for
5814-650: The converted Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah received recognition from Al-Mu'tadid II , which strengthened Jalaluddin's legitimacy in the eyes of the clergy. Many coins minted by the Bengal Sultanate bore the names of both the Bengali Sultans and the Abbasid Caliphs. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah sponsored the construction of madrasas (Islamic theological schools) in the pilgrimage cities of Makkah and Madinah . The schools became known as
5967-526: The iqta' of neighbouring Awadh region at this time, to invade Bengal while Ghiyasuddin was away on a plundering campaign in Kamrup. Nasiruddin captured his capital Lakhnauti, and defeated and executed him on his return to Bengal. Following this conquest, the coinage in the Bengal region was issued in the name of Iltutmish, and the khutba in Lakhnauti was also read in his name. During the first half of
6120-410: The jagirdar system of land ownership. The production of silver coins inscribed with the name of the Sultan of Bengal was a mark of Bengali sovereignty. Bengal was more successful in perpetuating purely silver coinage than Delhi and other contemporary Asian and European governments. There were three sources of silver. The first source was the leftover silver reserve of previous kingdoms. The second source
6273-407: The "national literature" of Bengali Muslims . In 1968, Muhammad Abdul Hye and Syed Ali Ahsan published their History of Bengali literature where they coined the name Dobhashi , meaning ‘bilingual’, which came to be the most popular name for the register. Kazi Abdul Mannan was an advocate for the name Dobashi, as he opines that the register's usage was not limited to Muslims. Dobhashi Bengali
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6426-463: The "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct Bengali style. The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the history of Bengal . Bengal was gradually absorbed into the Delhi Sultanate during
6579-525: The 1200s. It began with Bakhtiyar 's conquest of Gauda between 1202 and 1204 during the reign of Muhammad of Ghor . This saw the beginning of the rise of Turko - Afghans in the Indian subcontinent. Bakhityar Khalji served as a military general of the Ghurid ruler Muhammad of Ghor. He formed the Khalji dynasty of Bengal . After the assassination of Bakhtiar Khalji by his own officer Ali Mardan in 1206, Bengal
6732-784: The 1220s, Iltutmish had avoided Indus River Valley, which was contended by the Mongols, the Khwarazm kings, and Qabacha. After the decline of the Mongol and the Khwarazmian threat, Qabacha gained control over this region. Shortly after, during 1228–1229, Iltutmish invaded Qabacha's territory. By this time, the conflicts with the Khwarazmians and the Mongols had weakened Qabacha's power. The writings of Hasan Nizami and Muhammad Aufi suggest that Qabacha had earlier signed some treaties with Iltutmish, probably to secure his support against
6885-844: The 16th century, the Lodi dynasty of Delhi again attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Sultan of Jaunpur. The Lodis eventually agreed to a peace treaty with Bengal. The Jaunpur Sultanate attacked Bengal during the 15th century. With diplomatic help from Ming China and the Timurid ruler of Herat , Bengal fended off the Jaunpuri invasion. Arakan and the Brahmaputra Valley was often subjected to Bengali invasions. The Bengal Sultanate defeated Burmese forces in Arakan and restored Min Saw Mon as
7038-415: The 19th century, an Anglican priest called James Long coined the term Musalmani Bengali , which was also adopted by linguists such as Suniti Kumar Chatterji in the early 20th century. Sukumar Sen referred to it as Muslim Bengali . In 1921, the Islam Darshan monthly published an article on Bengali Muslim literature which referred to the register as Islami Bangla and considered its literature to be
7191-429: The Abyssinians. Muslim poets were writing in the Bengali language by the 15th century. By the turn of the 16th century, a vernacular literature based on concepts of Sufism and Islamic cosmology flourished in the region. Bengali Muslim mystic literature was one of the most original in Islamic India. And with the three washers [cups of wine], this dispute is going on. All the parrots [poets] of India have fallen into
7344-405: The Bengal Sultanate until the reign of the Hussain Shahi dynasty , when it was formally annexed by the sultanate. In the northeastern Barak Valley , the ruler Bazid of the Pratapgarh Kingdom declared himself as a Sultan on par with the Sultan of Bengal. This invited the retribution of Alauddin Husain Shah , who dispatched Sarwar Khan to suppress the newly formed sultanate in Pratapgarh. Bazid
7497-433: The Bengal Sultanate's territory extended from Koch Bihar in the north to Puri in the south and from the Son River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east. The Mughals became determined to bring an end to the expansionism of the Bengal Sultanate; while eager to absorb the Bengal region for its riches. The Battle of Tukaroi in Orissa saw Mughal forces led by Akbar overwhelm the Bengal Sultanate's forces led by
7650-402: The Bengal-Jaunpur War after a request from Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah. Ming China considered Bengal to be "rich and civilized" and one of the strongest countries in the entire chain of contacts between China and Asian states during the 15th century. Sino-Bengali contacts was the main feature of relations between China and the Indian subcontinent during the 15th century. The Bengali language
7803-468: The Bengali Sultans by copying clothes, coins, titles and administrative techniques. Bengali Muslim influence on Arakan lasted for 350 years. In the Indian Ocean, the Bengal Sultanate was involved in trading with the Maldives where Bengali rice was exchanged for Maldivian shell currency. Historians have focused on Bengal's relations with Ming China during the early 15th century. For example, Trade and Diplomacy in India-China Relations: A Study of Bengal During
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#17327572710907956-477: The Bengali forces in the Conquest of Kamata , conquering large parts of Assam. After overthrowing the Hindu Khen dynasty , Prince Danyal was appointed the governor of the new region. Hussain Shah also restored Bengali sovereignty in Chittagong and northern Arakan after the Bengal Sultanate–Kingdom of Mrauk U War of 1512–1516 . Hussain Shah minted coins with the proclamation "conqueror of Kamrupa, Kamata, Jajnagar and Orissa". According to historian Jadunath Sarkar ,
8109-488: The Buddhist Pala Empire from as early as the 7th century led to Islamic influence in the modern-day Bengal region. After Bakhtiyar Khalji 's conquest in the 13th century, subsequent Muslim expeditions to Bengal encouraged the migration of Arabic and Persian -speaking Muslims, who settled among the native population and greatly influenced the local language. Thus Bengali derived a large number of words from Persian and Arabic, which then seeped into its literature. Bengali
8262-477: The Delhi Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq reorganized the province into three administrative regions, with Sonargaon ruling eastern Bengal; Gauda ruling northern Bengal; and Satgaon ruling southern Bengal. Even this arrangement broke down. By 1338, the three administrative regions had separatist Sultans , including Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah in Sonargaon; Alauddin Ali Shah in Gauda, and Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in Satgaon. Fakhruddin conquered Chittagong in 1340 and
8415-569: The Delhi Sultan's permission to pass through India. No extant sources provide any information about the result of this embassy, but it appears that Genghis Khan abandoned his plan to pass through India. According to the Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni , Genghis Khan advanced eastwards into India, but failed to find a suitable route, and therefore, exited the country via Peshawar . It is possible that Genghis Khan, through his envoys, asked Iltutmish to not aid Jalal ad-Din: Iltutmish seems to have obliged. Meanwhile, Jalal ad-Din established himself in
8568-409: The Delhi Sultanate and the Jaunpur Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate initially received tributes from the Bengal Sultanate between 1353 and 1359. Tributes stopped after a war and peace treaty in 1359. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam sent envoys to the neighboring Jaunpur Sultanate . He sent elephants as gifts to Sultan Malik Sarwar Khwajah-i-Jahan. The two sultanates fought a war between 1415 and 1420. The end of
8721-429: The East African city-state of Malindi being hosted in the Bengali court. Animals constituted a significant part of tributes in medieval courts. The East African envoys brought giraffes, which were also noticed by the Chinese envoys in Bengal. In Central Asia, there are records of contacts between Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah and Sultan Shahrukh Mirza of the Timurid Empire. In Southeast Asia, European accounts refer to
8874-419: The Emperor are Arabic , Persian and Hindustani . I had studied these languages, and I could use them; but they are difficult for people to understand. They lack grace and juice (poetic quality). I have chosen, therefore, the Yāvanī -mixed (language)". The term "Yāvanī" literally referred to the Greeks , however was later repurposed to indicate Muslims . Dobhashi literature is not considered to merely be
9027-507: The Fifteenth Century chronicles the relationship between the Bengal Sultanate and Ming China. This relationship was also noted by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru in his book The Discovery of India . Political relations between China and the Indian subcontinent became nonexistent after the decline of Buddhism in India. In the 15th century, the Bengal Sultanate revived the subcontinent's relations with China through regular contacts. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah began sending envoys to
9180-655: The Ghurid territories in India, with his headquarters at Lahore . After Aibak's death, Iltutmish dethroned his unpopular successor Aram Shah in 1211, and set up his capital at Delhi . He then consolidated his rule by subjugating several dissidents, and fighting against other former Ghurid slaves, such as Taj al-Din Yildiz and Nasir ad-Din Qabacha . During 1225–1227, he subjugated Aibak's former subordinates who had carved out an independent kingdom headquartered at Lakhnauti in eastern India. He also asserted his authority over Ranthambore (1226) and Mandore (1227), whose Hindu chiefs had declared independence after Aibak's death. In
9333-445: The God's Deputy") and Nasir Amir al-Mu'minin ("Auxiliary of the Commander of the Faithful"). On 18 February 1229, the embassy arrived in Delhi with a deed of investiture . Although the Caliphate's status as a pan-Islamic institution had been declining, the Caliph's recognition was seen as a religious and political legitimization of Iltutmish's status as an independent ruler rather than a Ghurid subordinate. The Caliph's recognition
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#17327572710909486-461: The Indus River on the night of 26 May 1228. Iltutmish then placed Multan and Uch under his own governors, and had his forces occupy several strategic forces, expand his authority up to Makran in the west. Malik Sinanuddin, the wāli (governor) of coastal Sindh, also recognized Iltutmish's authority, and thus Iltutmish's empire spread as far as the Arabian Sea. Qabacha's son and surviving followers also accepted Iltutmish's suzerainty. In 1220-,
9639-417: The Islamic world, the sultanate pledged allegiance to the contemporary Abbasid Caliphate , which was at the time held by the Mamluk Sultan of Cairo . The Abbasid caliph was still considered to be the symbolic leader of Sunni Islam at the time, despite dwindling territory under direct caliphate rule. For the Bengali Sultans, relations with the caliphate provided legitimacy among the Muslim clergy. For example,
9792-627: The Khwarazm prince Jalal ad-Din. These treaties probably involved Qabacha's recognition of Iltutmish's sovereignty, or promises to surrender some territories to the Delhi Sultan. Qabacha's failure to abide by these treaties may have prompted Iltutmish to wage a war against him. Iltutmish's forces captured Tabarhinda , Kuhram , Sarsati (or Sursuti), and Lahore from Qabacha. Iltutmish appointed Nasir al-Din Aytemur al-Baha'i as his provincial governor ( muqta ) of Lahore. He then sent Nasir al-Din to capture Multan, while he himself invaded Uch . Nasir al-Din captured Lahore, and Iltutmish captured Uch after
9945-399: The Khwarazmian invasion, expresses hope that his patron Qabacha will soon conquer the whole of Hindustan. Aufi also mentions that Ahmad Jamaji, who was Iltutmish's governor of Bahraich , defected to Qabacha in 1220. The Khwarazmshahs , who had taken over the western part of the former Ghurid Empire, suffered a Mongol invasion in 1220. After being defeated at the Battle of Indus in 1221,
10098-415: The Khwarazmian ruler Jalal-ad-Din in Iraq, while Other local commanders - including Hasan Qarluq - surrendered to Iltutmish. Qarluq later changed his allegiance to the Mongols. During his last days, in 1235–1236, Iltutmish is known to have aborted a campaign in the Binban area: this campaign was probably directed against Qarluq . Hammira-mada-mardana , a Sanskrit play by Jayasimha Suri, mentions that
10251-410: The Khwarazmshah Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu escaped to the Punjab region. He entered into a matrimonial alliance with the local Khokhar chief Rai Khokhar Sankin, and defeated other regional rulers, including Qabacha. The Mongol leader Genghis Khan briefly considered returning to Mongolia through a shorter route which involved crossing the Himalayan foothills. He sent envoys to Iltutmish, asking for
10404-405: The Lingam) stolen during the invasion. By 1229–1230, the north-western boundary of Iltutmish's kingdom appears to have extended up to the Jhelum River , as Nasawi states that he controlled the area "up to the neighbourhood of the gates of Kashmir". During this period, Iltutmish invaded the territories controlled by the Khwarazmian subordinate Ozbeg-bei, in present-day Pakistan. Ozbeg-bei fled to
10557-594: The Maldives, based on rice and cowry shells, was probably done on Arab-style baghlah ships. Chinese accounts point to Bengali ships being prominent in Southeast Asian waters. A vessel from Bengal, probably owned by the Sultan of Bengal, could accommodate three tribute missions- from Bengal, Brunei and Sumatra- and was evidently the only vessel capable of such a task. Bengali ships were the largest vessels plying in those decades in Southeast Asian waters. All large business transactions were done in terms of silver taka. Smaller purchases involved shell currency . One silver coin
10710-445: The Middle East. The Bengal Sultanate had robust foreign relations . Records show that the Bengal Sultanate exchanged embassies with states in China, Europe, Africa, Central Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia. Diplomatic allies helped Bengal to fend off invasions from neighbouring kingdoms. For example, the Timurid ruler of Herat and the Ming emperor of China helped bring an end to the Bengal Sultanate–Jaunpur Sultanate War . Bengal
10863-516: The Middle East. In 1406, Ma Huan found Sonargaon as a large metropolis. Other Chinese envoys provided descriptions of a fortified walled city. Sonargaon was a center of Sufi education and Persian literature and Azam Shah even invited Hafez to settle there. The institutions founded by Abu Tawwama during the Delhi Sultanate were maintained by his successors in the Bengal Sultanate, including the Sufi preachers Ibrahim Danishmand , Saiyid Arif Billah Muhammad Kamel, Saiyid Muhammad Yusuf and others. During
11016-774: The Mughals and Bengal Sultans. Humayun later took refuge in the Safavid Empire in Persia. Sher Shah Suri succeeded in conquering Bengal, forming the Sur Empire , which was of Afghan origin. During this period, the Grand Trunk Road was renovated, while the Sur rulers placed successive governors in Bengal. The third governor Muhammad Khan Sur declared independence after the death of Islam Shah Suri . Muhammad Khan ended
11169-714: The Persian poet Hafez . The Bengal Sultans pledged nominal allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo. The coins of the Bengal Sultans often bore the name of the contemporary Abbasid Caliph. Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah held his court in the central Bengali city of Sonargaon, in addition to Pandua. The travel accounts of Chinese envoys state that the Sultan lived in a palace near the river port of Sonargaon. The river port had shipping links to China, Southeast Asia, and
11322-415: The Sultan of Delhi attacked the newly formed Bengal Sultanate. After the siege of Ekdala Fort, Bengal agreed to pay a tribute to the Sultan of Delhi. In 1359, Delhi again invaded Bengal after the previous peace treaty collapsed. However, negotiations ultimately resulted in a new treaty in which Delhi recognized the independence of Bengal. The Bengal Sultans also received support from South Indian allies. During
11475-659: The Suri Empire. The invasion prompted the Mughal Empire to occupy parts of Bengal. Both the Mughals and Bengal Sultanate were overrun by the Suri forces. Bengal regained its independence after Suri governors rebelled and re-established the sultanate. The first Mughal emperor Babur turned his sights on Bengal after the Battle of Panipat in 1526. At the Battle of Ghaghra in 1529, Bengal reached a peace treaty with Babur. During
11628-550: The Tripuri throne. Tripura was a prominent vassal of Bengal. In the southwest, Orissa was prominent in the military history of the Bengal Sultanate. The first Bengali Sultan Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah defeated the rulers of Orissa and extended his realm up to Chilika Lake . He raided Jajpur and Cuttack. Ilyas Shah returned to Bengal with plunders from Orissa, including 44 elephants. During the reign of Alauddin Hussain Shah, Orissa
11781-412: The agricultural land was controlled by Hindu zamindars , which caused tensions with Muslim taluqdars . Bengal became the eastern frontier kingdom among medieval Islamic states. In the 14th century, Islamic kingdoms stretched from Muslim Spain in the west to the Indian subcontinent in the east. The Islamic kingdoms had multiethnic elites. Persian and Arabic were used alongside local languages. Persian
11934-517: The architecture and governance of the sultanate. He was initially loyal to the Abbasid Caliph but later declared himself as the Caliph in a sign of Bengali Muslim independence. The Ilyas Shahi dynasty was restored in 1432. Nine kings ruled Bengal from Pandua over the course of ten decades. They built palaces, forts, bridges, mosques, and mausoleums. Chinese envoy Ma Huan described the city at
12087-516: The authority in Bengal. Iltutmish invaded Bengal, and defeated him in 1230. He then appointed Malik Alauddin Jani as the governor of Bengal. Meanwhile, Mangal Deva, the Parihara chief of Gwalior in central India, had declared independence. In 1231, Iltutmish besieged the city, and captured it after 11 months of conflict, on 12 December 1232. After Mangal Deva fled, and Iltutmish left the fort under
12240-548: The capital from Pandua to Gaur in 1450. One of the probable reasons behind the move was a change in the course of nearby rivers. The reign of Mahmud Shah witnessed greater control over the Sundarbans . The governor of the Sundarbans, Khan Jahan Ali , built the mint town of Khalifatabad . Like many other officials, Khan Jahan had settled in Bengal after Timur 's sack of Delhi. During the reign of Rukunuddin Barbak Shah ,
12393-475: The charge of his officers Majdul Mulk Ziyauddin. In 1233–1234, Iltutmish placed Gwalior under Malik Nusratuddin Taisi, who was also assigned the iqta's of Sultankot and Bayana , and made in-charge of the military contingents at Kannauj , Mehr, and Mahaban . Shortly after, Taisi attacked the Chandela fort of Kalinjar , and subsequently plundered the area for around 50 days. During this campaign, he acquired
12546-626: The considerable overland distance with Bengal. Ambitious governors rebelled and ruled as independent rulers until being suppressed militarily by the Delhi Sultanate. However, there were capable rulers among the rebels, including Yuzbak Shah (1257), Tughral Khan (1271–1282), and Shamsuddin Firoz Shah (1301–1322). The latter achieved the Conquest of Sylhet and established a strong administration in eastern and south-western Bengal. In 1325,
12699-657: The early 1220s, Iltutmish had largely stayed away from the Indus Valley region, which was embroiled in conflicts between Qabacha, the Khwarazmian dynasty , and the Mongols . In 1228, he invaded the Indus Valley region, defeated Qabacha, and annexed large parts of Punjab and Sindh to his empire. Subsequently, the Abbasid caliph al-Mustansir recognized his authority in India. Over the next few years, Iltutmish suppressed
12852-511: The early 15th century, the Ilyas Shahi rule was challenged by Raja Ganesha , a powerful Hindu landowner, who managed to place his son (a convert to Islam), Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah , on the throne. Jalaluddin had a relatively short-lived but significant reign, during which he helped an Arakanese king to achieve the reconquest of Arakan . Jalaluddin established control over Fatehabad . Jalaluddin also promoted more native Bengali elements into
13005-649: The eastern subcontinent. He conquered eastern Bengal and northern Bihar. He led the first Muslim army into Nepal , raided the Kathmandu Valley , and returned to Bengal with treasures. He controlled an area stretching from Assam in the east to Varanasi in the west. In 1353, Ilyas Shah was defeated by Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq in the Siege of Ekdala Fort during the Bengal Sultanate-Delhi Sultanate War . Bengal agreed to pay
13158-508: The family of Sadr-i Jahan treated Iltutmish well, and later sold him to a merchant called Bukhara Haji. Iltutmish was subsequently sold to a merchant called Jamaluddin Muhammad Chust Qaba, who brought him to Ghazni . The arrival of a handsome and intelligent slave in the town was reported to the Ghurid king Mu'izz ad-Din , who offered 1,000 gold coins for Iltutmish and another slave named Tamghaj Aibak. When Jamaluddin refused
13311-440: The former Ghurid dominions of India ( Mamalik-i-Hindustan ) had been divided into four parts, centred at: Several Muslim officers, who administered Delhi's dependencies during Aibak's reign, did not recognize Iltutmish's authority. According to Minhaj , Iltutmish re-asserted Delhi's control over Badaun , Awadh , Banaras , and Siwalik in a series of campaigns. For example, Iltutmish captured Banaras after defeating Qaymaz, who
13464-429: The houses of the rich during dawn and play music; and they would be rewarded with wine, food and money during breakfast hours. Some men would have performances with a chained tiger. The Hindu minority did not eat beef. The streets and markets included bathing areas, eating and drinking places, and dessert shops. Betel nut was offered to guests. The population included royalty, aristocrats, natives and foreigners. Many of
13617-496: The independence of the latter. Firuz Shah Tughluq gave a golden crown estimated to be worth 80,000 taka to Sikandar Shah. The peace treaty ensured Bengal's independence for two centuries. Sikandar Shah's reign lasted three decades. The Adina Mosque was built during his reign. The mosque's design was based on the Great Mosque of Damascus - a style used during the introduction of Islam in new areas. During this time, much of
13770-546: The interrupting period of Delhi's rule and re-established the Bengal Sultanate under the Muhammad Shahi dynasty, which was also of Afghan origin. The Afghan Karrani dynasty was the last ruling dynasty of the sultanate. According to the Riyaz-us-Salatin , Sultan Sulaiman Khan Karrani shifted the capital from Gaur to Tanda in 1565. Sulaiman Khan Karrani annexed large parts of Orissa. During his reign,
13923-400: The invasion of Sher Shah Suri, the second Mughal emperor Humayun occupied Gaur . The third Mughal emperor Akbar launched a war against Bengal at the Battle of Tukaroi in 1575. Akbar finally defeated the last Sultan of Bengal at the Battle of Raj Mahal in 1576. The economy of the Bengal Sultanate inherited earlier aspects of the Delhi Sultanate, including mint towns, a salaried bureaucracy and
14076-626: The iqta' of Badaun , which according to Minhaj, was the most important one in the Delhi Sultanate . In 1205–1206, Sultan Mu'izz ad-Din summoned Qutb al-Din's forces for his campaign against the Khokhar rebels. During this campaign, Iltutmish's Badaun contingent forced the Khokhars into the middle of the Jhelum river , and killed them there. Mu'izz ad-Din noticed Iltutmish, and made inquiries about him. The Sultan subsequently presented Iltutmish with
14229-498: The kingdom" in Turkic. Since vowel marks are generally omitted in the historical Persian language manuscripts, different 19th-20th century writers read Iltutmish's name variously as "Altamish", "Altamsh", "Iyaltimish", and "Iletmish". However, several verses by contemporary poets, in which the Sultan's name occurs, rhyme properly only if the name is pronounced "Iltutmish". Moreover, a 1425-1426 ( AH 829) Tajul-Ma'asir manuscript shows
14382-592: The kingdom. However, the nobles in other parts of the Sultanate opposed this decision, and proposed Iltutmish as an alternative, because Aibak used to call him a son, and because he had a distinguished record of service. These nobles, led by the military justiciar ( Amir-i Dad ) Ali-yi Ismail, invited him to occupy the throne. Iltutmish marched to Delhi, where he seized the power, and later defeated Aram Shah's forces. Some nobles rebelled against his seizure of power, but Iltutmish subjugated them, and had many of them beheaded. Minhaj-i-Siraj states that after Aibak's death,
14535-495: The landing of Vasco Da Gama in the principality of Calicut. Individual Portuguese merchants are recorded to have lived in the Bengal Sultanate's capital of Gaur. Portuguese politics played out in Gaur as a reflection of contradictions in contemporary Portugal. The Portuguese provided vivid descriptions of Gaur. They compared the affluence of Gaur with Lisbon . The city included a citadel, a royal palace and durbar , mosques, houses for
14688-511: The last Sultan Daud Khan Karrani , resulting in the Treaty of Cuttack . Mughal rule formally began with the Battle of Raj Mahal when the last reigning Sultan of Bengal was defeated by the forces of Akbar. The Mughal province of Bengal Subah was created. The eastern deltaic Bhati region remained outside of Mughal control until being absorbed in the early 17th century. The delta was controlled by
14841-726: The market. Iltutmish lost the money on the way to the market, and started crying fearing punishment from his master. A dervish ( Sufi religious leader) noticed him, and bought the grapes for him in exchange for a promise that he would treat religious devotees and ascetics well upon becoming powerful. The writings of Isami and some other sources suggest that Iltutmish also spent some time in Baghdad , where he met noted Sufi mystics such as Shahab al-Din Abu Hafs Umar Suhrawardi and Auhaduddin Kermani . Minhaj states that
14994-536: The military command of Shah Ismail Ghazi , the Bengali army overthrew the Kamata Kingdom 's Hindu Khen dynasty in 1498, extending the Sultanate as far as Hajo and preparing to advance towards central Assam. Assamese Bhuyans eventually overthrew the local administrations within a few years and restored local rule. Bengal was overwhelmed during the pan-Indian invasion of Sher Shah Suri and became part of
15147-415: The most customary form for composing puthi poetry predominantly using the traditional Bengali alphabet . However, Dobhashi literature was produced in the modified Arabic scripts of Chittagong and Nadia . The standardisation of the modern Bengali language during the colonial period , eventually led to its decline. No name has been recorded for this register during its development and practice. In
15300-582: The newly common language as " jabônī miśal ", meaning Yāvanī -mixed. He says: মানসিংহ পাতশায় হইল যে বাণী, উচিত যে আরবী পারসী হিন্দুস্থানী; পড়িয়াছি সেই মত বৰ্ণিবারে পারি, কিন্তু সে সকল লোকে বুঝিবারে ভারি, না রবে প্রসাদ গুণ না হবে রসাল, অতএব কহি ভাষা যাবনী মিশাল। mansingh patshay hôilô je baṇī, uchit je arôbī, parsī, hindustanī poriyachhi shei môtô bôrṇibare pari, kintu she shôkôl loke bujhibare bhari na rôbe prôshad guṇ na hôbe rôshal, ôtôeb kôhi bhasha jabônī mishal This translates to: "The appropriate language for conversation between Mansingh and
15453-770: The offer, the king banned the sale of these slaves in Ghazni. A year later, Jamaluddin went to Bukhara, and stayed there for three years with the slaves. Subsequently, Iltutmish's master Jamaluddin returned to Ghazni, where Mu'izz ad-Din's slave-commander Qutb al-Din Aibak noticed Iltutmish. Qutb al-Din, who had just returned from a campaign in Gujarat (c. 1197), sought Mu'izz ad-Din's permission to purchase Iltutmish and Tamghaj. Since their sale had been banned in Ghazni, Mu'izz ad-Din directed them to be taken to Delhi . In Delhi, Jamaluddin sold Iltutmish and Tamghaj to Qutb al-Din for 100,000 jitals (silver or copper coins). Tamghaj rose to
15606-487: The other hand, many Hindus such as Rabindranath Tagore also opposed the highly Sanskritised variant and opted for a standard based on the colloquial dialect of Nadia . In 1863, Nawab Abdul Latif founded the Mohammedan Literary Society , which also rejected the idea of a single Standard Bengali and promoted the separation of Bengali based on religious background. Nowadays, traditional Dobhashi
15759-411: The political affairs of the country. The chief of the admiralty had various responsibilities, including shipbuilding , river transport, to fit out strong boats for transporting war elephants; to recruit seamen; to patrol the rivers and to collect tolls at ghats. The efficiency of the navy eroded during the Hussain Shahi dynasty. The Sultans also built forts, including temporary mud walled forts. In 1353,
15912-569: The politics of the Indus valley region to avoid a potential conflict with the Mongols. Iltutmish's predecessor Aibak had appointed Ali Mardan Khalji as the governor of Sultanate's territories in eastern India. After Aibak's death, the region became independent, with Lakhnauti as its capital, and Ali Mardan's successor Ghiyasuddin Iwaj Shah (alias Husamuddin Iwaz Khalji) styled himself as
16065-625: The position of the muqta (provincial governor) of Tabarhinda (possibly modern Bathinda ), while Iltutmish became the sar-jandar (head of bodyguard). Iltutmish rose rapidly in Qutb al-Din's service, attaining the rank of Amir-i Shikar (superintendent of the hunt). After the Ghurid conquest of Gwalior in 1200, he was appointed the Amir of the town, and later, he was granted the iqta' of Baran . His efficient governance prompted Qutb al-Din to grant him
16218-662: The presence of a large number of Bengali merchants in the Malacca Sultanate . The merchants were wealthy shipowners. It is yet to be ascertained whether these merchants had a significant role in the Sultan's court. Ship-owning merchants were often royal envoys. Contacts between Bengal and the Bruneian Empire and the Sumatran Aceh Sultanate are recorded in Chinese accounts. Within the subcontinent, Bengal had both tense and peaceful relations with
16371-513: The presence of a large number of wealthy Bengali merchants and shipowners in Malacca . Historian Rila Mukherjee wrote that ports in Bengal may have been entrepots , importing goods and re-exporting them to China. A vigorous riverine shipbuilding tradition existed in Bengal. The shipbuilding tradition is evidenced in the sultanate's naval campaigns in the Ganges delta. The trade between Bengal and
16524-598: The rich built ships and went abroad for trade. Many were agriculturalists. Punishments for breaking the law included expulsion from the kingdom, as well as bamboo flogging. Bengal received settlers from North India, the Middle East and Central Asia. They included Turks, Afghans, Persians and Arabs. An important migrant community were Persians. Many Persians in Bengal were teachers, lawyers, scholars and clerics. Mercenaries were widely imported for domestic, military and political service. One particular group of mercenaries were
16677-568: The rich, and bustling bazaars. Portuguese historian Castenhada de Lopez described the houses of Gaur as being one-storeyed with ornamental floor tiles, courtyards, and gardens. Gaur was the centre of regional politics. The Sultan of Bengal gave permission for establishing the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong . During the period of the Iberian Union , there was no official Portuguese sovereignty over Chittagong. The Portuguese trading post
16830-528: The royal capital of Gaur was the fifth-most populous city in the world. Other notable cities included the initial royal capital of Pandua , the economic hub of Sonargaon , the Mosque City of Bagerhat , and the seaport and trading hub of Chittagong . The Bengal Sultanate was connected to states in Asia, Africa, the Indian Ocean, and Europe through maritime links and overland trade routes. The Bengal Sultanate
16983-533: The silver tanka and the copper jital – the two basic coins of the Sultanate period, with a standard weight of 175 grains. He set up the Iqtadari system: division of empire into Iqtas, which were assigned to the nobles and officers in lieu of salary. He erected many buildings, including mosques , khanqahs (monasteries), dargahs (shrines or graves of influential people) and a reservoir ( hawz ) for pilgrims. The name "Iltutmish" literally means "maintainer of
17136-407: The slave of a slave. Iltutmish rose to prominence in Aibak's service, and was granted the important iqta' of Badaun . His military actions against the Khokhar rebels in 1205–1206 gained attention of the Ghurid ruler Muhammad of Ghor , who manumitted him even before his master Aibak was manumitted. After Muhammad of Ghor's assassination in 1206, Aibak became a practically independent ruler of
17289-420: The sovereign title of Sultan, and controlled a vast territory that included coastal Sindh, Siwistan , Bhakkar, and Multan. Subsequently, Qabacha tried to conquer a greater part of Punjab: according to Firishta , he sought to extend his authority as far as Sirhind in the east. This prompted Iltutmish to march against him in 1217. Qabacha initially retreated, but Iltutmish's army chased him and defeated him at
17442-502: The time in his travel accounts, which state that "the city walls are very imposing, the bazaars well-arranged, the shops side by side, the pillars in orderly rows, they are full of every kind of goods". Pandua was an export center for cloth and wine. At least six varieties of fine muslin and four types of wine were found in Pandua. High-quality paper was produced from the bark of Pandua's mulberry trees. Sultan Mahmud Shah of Bengal shifted
17595-581: The time of his ascension a few years later, an ulama deputation led by Qazi Wajihuddin Kashani waited to find if he had obtained a deed of manumission or not. After Mu'izz ad-Din's death in 1206, Qutb al-Din became the ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, which evolved independent of the former Ghurid Empire. In 1210, when Qutb al-Din Aibak died unexpectedly in Lahore during a sport game, the local nobles appointed Aram Shah as his successor to prevent instability in
17748-594: The title Nasir Amir al-Mu'minin , but he did so unilaterally without the Caliph's sanction. The Caliph probably saw Iltutmish as an ally against his Khwarazmian rival, which may have prompted him to recognize Iltutmish's authority in India. After the Caliph's recognition, Iltutmish began inscribing the Caliph's name on his coins, including the new silver tanka introduced by him. In March–April 1229, Iltutmish's son Nasiruddin Mahmud , who had been governing Bengal since 1227, died unexpectedly. Taking advantage of this, Malik Balkha Khalji , an officer of Iltutmish, usurped
17901-503: The title of Shah and minting coins in Arabic and Bengali inscriptions. A close cultural and commercial relationship developed across the Bay of Bengal. Eventually, Arakan asserted its independence. The Kingdom of Mrauk U became a formidable coastal power. In southern Bengal, the island of Chandradwip hosted remnants of the pre-Islamic Hindu Deva dynasty . The kingdom was a vassal state of
18054-516: The use of Persian loanwords in Bengali literature became common, such as the works of Zainuddin , Syed Sultan , Bahram Khan Abdul Hakim and Heyat Mahmud . The influence also reached Bengali Hindu writers too, with medieval authors such as Bipradas Pipilai and the Chandimangal poets implementing a large quantity of loanwords, as well as the courts of Arakan through the likes of Alaol and Daulat Qazi . Bharatchandra Ray , referred to
18207-468: The use of Persian loanwords in Bengali literature, but rather represents a phenomenon which developed much later, in the 17th century. Shah Faqir Gharibullah of Howrah is considered to be the pioneer of this new strand of Bengali literature, which actively utilised Perso-Arab vocabulary as opposed to only using established loanwords. He initiated the trend of Muslim puthis with the puthi Amir Hamza and his successors even transcribed his Bengali works using
18360-495: The usefulness of elephants, though very slow, could not be minimised. The navy was of prime necessity in riverine Bengal. In fact, the cavalry could ensure the hold over this country for a period of six months whereas the boats backed by the paiks could command supremacy over the other half of the year. Since the time of Iwaz Khalji, who first organised a naval force in Islamic Bengal, the war boats played an important role in
18513-425: The vital part of the Bengal infantry during this period. There were occasions when the paiks also tackled political situations. The particular battle array of the foot-soldiers who used bows, arrows and guns attracted the attention of Babur. War elephants played an important part in the Bengal army. Apart from carrying war materials, elephants were also used for the movement of the armed personnel. In riverine Bengal
18666-534: The vowel "u" in the Sultan's name, which confirms that "Iltutmish" is the correct reading of the name. Iltutmish's inscriptions mention several of his grandiloquent titles, including: In Sanskrit language inscriptions of the Delhi Sultanate, he has been referred to as "Lititmisi" (a rendering of "Iltutmish"); Suritan Sri Samasadin or Samusdina (a rendering of his title "Sultan Shamsuddin"); or Turushkadhipamadaladan ("the Turushka Lord"). Iltutmish
18819-523: The war brought a long period of peace between the neighbouring states. In 1494, the Jaunpuri Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi was given refuge in Bengal after being defeated by the Lodi dynasty of Delhi. On the coastline of the Bay of Bengal, the Bengal Sultanate became influential in the control of Arakan. Min Saw Mon , a deposed Arakanese king, fled to Bengal after a Burmese invasion. With the support of Bengali forces led by
18972-501: The west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. Its decline began with an interregnum by the Suri Empire , followed by Mughal conquest and disintegration into petty kingdoms. The Bengal Sultanate was a Sunni Muslim monarchy with Bengali , Turco-Persian , Afghan and Abyssinian elites. The most prominent dynasties were the Ilyas Shahi , House of Ganesha and Hussain Shahi. The kingdom
19125-572: The world traded in the Bay of Bengal . Cotton textile exports were a unique aspect of the Bengali economy. Marco Polo noted Bengal's prominence in the textile trade. In 1569, Venetian explorer Caesar Frederick wrote about how merchants from Pegu in Burma traded in silver and gold with Bengalis. Overland trade routes such as the Grand Trunk Road connected Bengal to northern India, Central Asia and
19278-411: The year in Bengal. The cavalry was probably the weakest component of the Bengal Sultanate's army, as the horses had to be imported from foreign countries. The artillery was an important section. Portuguese historian João de Barros opined that the military supremacy of Bengal over Arakan and Tripura was due to its efficient artillery. The artillery used cannons and guns of various sizes. The paiks formed
19431-588: Was a late Dobhashi writer who wrote a puthi about ill-fated lovers in 1864, taking inspiration from the 16th century Bengali poet Dawlat Wazir Bahram Khan . The English Education Act 1835 banned the use of Persian and Arabic in education. Nathaniel Brassey Halhed , an employee of the East India Company , worked towards standardising modern Bengali and considered the Perso-Arab loanwords as pollutants and dismissed them from his work. Dobhashi
19584-521: Was a major trading center on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. It attracted immigrants and traders from different parts of the world. Bengali ships and merchants traded across the region, including in Malacca, China, and the Maldives. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a prosperous kingdom. Due to the abundance of goods in Bengal, the region was described as
19737-468: Was a mere formality, but Iltutmish celebrated it in a big way, by decorating the city of Delhi and honouring his nobles, officers, and slaves. Iltutmish's own court poets eulogize the event, and the 14th century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta describes him as the first independent ruler of Delhi. Iltutmish is the only ruler of India to have the Caliph's recognition. Ghiyasuddin Iwaj Shah , the ruler of Bengal defeated by Iltutmish's forces, had earlier assumed
19890-474: Was a prominent vassal of the Bengal Sultanate. In 1430, the Bengal Sultanate restored the Arakanese throne in Mrauk U after driving out Burmese invaders who came from Bagan . The Kingdom of Mrauk U paid tributes to the Sultan of Bengal for a sustained period, with the timeframe ranging between estimates of a century or a few decades. Arakanese rulers replicated the Sultan's governing techniques, including adopting
20043-480: Was a vassal state of Bengal. Northern Orissa was directly ruled by Bengal. During the Karrani dynasty, Orissa was the scene of the Battle of Tukaroi and the Treaty of Cuttack between the Mughals and Bengal Sultanate in 1575. The Sultans had a well-organised army, including cavalry, artillery, infantry and war elephants; and a navy. Due to the riverine geography and climate, it was not feasible to use cavalry throughout
20196-544: Was administered by various Maliks belonging to the Khalji tribe (except a brief interregnum by Ali Mardan himself) until Delhi Sultan Iltutmish sent forces under his son, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, to bring Bengal under the direct control of the Delhi Sultans. Iltutmish declared Bengal as a province of Delhi in 1225. The Delhi Sultans attempted to govern Bengal through appointed governors, however, Delhi could not succeed given
20349-615: Was also a renowned Dobhashi puthi writer who was known to have written a 30-quatrain chautisa (poetic genre using all letters of the alphabet) using Arabic letters, totalling 120 lines. The famous Bangladeshi academic, Wakil Ahmed , states that Jaiguner Puthi (Puthi of Jaigun), written by Syed Hamzah of Udna, Hooghley in 1797, is "one of the finest examples" of puthis in Dobhashi. It took inspiration from earlier Bengali Muslim works such as Hanifar Digbijoy by Shah Barid Khan and Hanifar Lorai by Muhammad Khan (1724). Muhammad Khater
20502-478: Was also active in regional diplomacy. For example, the ship of the Bengali embassy to China also transported the envoys of Brunei and Aceh ( Sumatra ) to China. Bengal gave consent to envoys from Portuguese India for setting up Portuguese trading posts in coastal areas. Other European visitors included Niccolo De Conti , Ludovico di Varthema and Caeser Fredrick from the Republic of Venice and Bologna . In
20655-408: Was an absolute monarchy , and took influence from Persianate traditions. Its revenue system was maintained in the Bengali language throughout the course of its history. The government employed both Muslims and Hindus, promoting a form of religious pluralism. In addition to the royal family and government body, the Sultan also relied on the support of the ulama (Islamic scholars). The Sultanate
20808-579: Was born in an affluent family: his father Ilam Khan was a leader of the Ilbari Turkic tribe. According to Minhaj 's Tabaqat-i Nasiri , he was a handsome and intelligent boy, because of which his brothers grew jealous of him; these brothers sold him to a slave dealer at a horse show. Minhaj's narrative appears to be inspired by the Quranic story of Hazrat Yusuf ( Joseph ), who was sold into slavery by his jealous brothers. According to Minhaj, as
20961-506: Was controlled by Taj al-Din Yildiz , a former slave who claimed to be the rightful successor to the Ghurid emperor. After Iltutmish suppressed the rival claimants to the throne, Yildiz sent him a royal umbrella ( chatr ) and a baton ( durbash ): these gifts implied that Iltutmish was a subordinate ruler. Iltutmish did not want an immediate confrontation, and accepted these gifts. Iltutmish's earliest inscription, dated October 1211, styles him as
21114-460: Was defeated and agreed to pay a tribute to the Sultan of Bengal. He was also made to relinquish his claims over Sylhet , which was under direct Sultanate rule. In the east, Tripura was vital to Bengal for the supply of gold, silver and other commodities. Tripura had coarse gold mines and mountain trade networks linked to the Far East. In 1464, the Sultan of Bengal helped Ratna Manikya I assume
21267-405: Was divided into administrative subdivisions such as arsa and iqlim , which were further divided into mahals , thanas and qasbas . Mint towns consisted of royal and provincial capitals where taka coins were minted, thus developing the areas as important economic urban centres within the Sultanate. With the expansion of the empire, the number of mint towns increased gradually. The following
21420-472: Was dominated by pirates who allied with the Arakanese against Bengal. The absorption of Bengal into the Mughal Empire was a gradual process. It began with the defeat of Bengal forces under Sultan Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah by the first Mughal ruler Babur at the Battle of Ghaghra. The second Mughal ruler Humayun occupied the Bengal capital of Gaur during the invasion of Sher Shah Suri against both
21573-731: Was during this time that the register came to be known as Musalmani Bengali by the Christian Missionaries in Bengal, who had begun translating the Bible in order to reach the Bengali-speaking Muslim community. This was achieved by William Goldsack who composed the first Mussalmani Bengali-English dictionary. In the mid-nineteenth century, printing houses in Calcutta and across Bengal , were producing hundreds and hundreds of Musalmani Bengali literature. On
21726-404: Was highly influenced by Arabic and Persian and in poetry, could grammatically change to adapt to Persian grammar without sounding odd to the reader. Arabic and Persian words in the register accounted for the majority of its vocabulary. As in most other foreign languages of Islamic communities , the Arabic borrowings were borrowed through Persian, not through direct exposure of Bengali to Arabic,
21879-467: Was injured by an arrow and captured on the battlefield. Yildiz was later taken to Iltutmish's stronghold of Badaun , where he was killed. Iltutmish's success in this conflict reinforced the Delhi Sultanate's independent status. Iltutmish's victory over Yildiz did not result in any substantial increase in his territory. He did not immediately assert his control over the Punjab region, and Qabacha regained control of Lahore. By this time, Qabacha had assumed
22032-443: Was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. While Persian was used as the primary official, diplomatic and commercial language, it was under the Sultans that Bengali first received court recognition as an official language. The cities of the Bengal Sultanate are termed as Mint Towns where the historical taka was minted . These cities were adorned with stately medieval buildings. In 1500,
22185-426: Was made in Bengal from the bark of mulberry trees. The high quality of paper was compared with the lightweight white muslin cloth. Europeans & Ming Chinese referred to Bengal as "the richest country to trade with". Bengal was the eastern pole of Islamic India. Like the Gujarat Sultanate in the western coast of India, Bengal in the east was open to the sea and accumulated profits from trade. Merchants from around
22338-430: Was practised and taught culturally among households, and was also promoted and supported by the Muslim dynasties who ruled over Bengal. Under the Sultanate of Bengal , Bengali was established as an official language, contrary to previous states which had exclusively favoured Sanskrit , Pali and Persian. The 14th-century Bengali Islamic scholar Nur Qutb Alam composed poetry in both Persian and Bengali using only
22491-534: Was presumably a former officer of Aibak. By the time of Iltutmish's ascension, Delhi's hold over various Hindu chiefs had weakened, and some of them - such as those of Ranthambore and Jalor - had declared independence. During the first few years of his reign, Iltutmish other preoccupations appear to have prevented him from campaigning against these chiefs. Hasan Nizami refers to an undated expedition against Jalor, which may have taken place sometime after his victory over Aram Shah. The Ghurid capital of Ghazni
22644-491: Was succeeded by his son Ikhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah in 1349. Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah (or just Ilyas Shah ) defeated Alauddin Ali Shah and secured control of Gauda. He then defeated Ikhtiyaruddin of Sonargaon. By 1352, Ilyas Shah emerged victorious among the Bengali triad. Ilyas Shah established his capital in Pandua . He unified the delta of Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers into the Sultanate of Bengal. Ilyas Shah waged wars and raids against several city-states and kingdoms in
22797-437: Was the most spoken language while Persian was an administrative and commercial language. Men wore white shirts, cotton fabrics of various colors, turbans, sarongs, lungis, dhutis, leather shoes, and belts to wrap their robes on the waist. Women wore cotton saris. Upper-class women wore gold jewelry. There were various classes of artisans, as well as physicians and fortune tellers. There was a class of musicians who would gather by
22950-448: Was the third of the Mamluk kings who ruled the former Ghurid territories in northern India. He was the first Muslim sovereign to rule from Delhi , and is thus considered the effective founder of the Delhi Sultanate . Sold into slavery as a young boy, Iltutmish spent his early life in Bukhara and Ghazni under multiple masters. In the late 1190s, the Ghurid slave-commander Qutb ud-Din Aibak purchased him in Delhi, thus making him
23103-415: Was the tribute payments of subordinate kingdoms which were paid in silver bullion. The third source was during military campaigns when Bengali forces sacked neighboring states. The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to Delhi, which ceased after Bengali independence and stopped the outflow of wealth. Ma Huan 's testimony of
23256-508: Was used as a diplomatic and commercial language. Arabic was the liturgical language of the clergy. In Bengal, the Bengali language became a court language and was the main vernacular language under Muslim rule. The third Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah began expanding Bengal's influence abroad. He began to send embassies to Ming China , which continued as a tradition during the reigns of his successors. Ghiyasuddin also sponsored construction projects in Arabia . He exchanged letters and poetry with
23409-696: Was worth 10,250 cowry shells. Bengal relied on shiploads of cowry shell imports from the Maldives. Due to the fertile land, there was an abundance of agricultural commodities, including bananas, jackfruits, pomegranate, sugarcane, and honey. Native crops included rice and sesame. Vegetables included ginger, mustard, onions, and garlic among others. There were four types of wines, including coconut, rice, tarry and kajang . Bengali streets were well provided with eating establishments, drinking houses and bathhouses. At least six varieties of fine muslin cloth existed. Silk fabrics were also abundant. Pearls , rugs and ghee were other important products. The finest variety of paper
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