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138-563: Mandalay ( / ˌ m æ n d ə ˈ l eɪ / or / ˈ m æ n d əl eɪ / ; Burmese : မန္တလေး ; MLCTS : manta.le: [màndəlé] ) is the second-largest city in Myanmar , after Yangon . Located on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River , 631 km (392 miles; road distance) north of Yangon, the city has a population of 1,225,553 (2014 census). Mandalay was founded in 1857 by King Mindon , replacing Amarapura as

276-529: A federation with Eritrea . He dissolved it in 1962 and annexed Eritrea , resulting in the Eritrean War of Independence . The part of former Mandatory Palestine occupied by Jordan during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War was renamed "the West Bank ". It was annexed to Jordan in 1950 at the request of a Palestinian delegation. It had been questioned, however, how representative that delegation was, and at

414-565: A pitch-register language like Shanghainese . There are four contrastive tones in Burmese. In the following table, the tones are shown marked on the vowel /a/ as an example. For example, the following words are distinguished from each other only on the basis of tone: In syllables ending with /ɰ̃/ , the checked tone is excluded: In spoken Burmese, some linguists classify two real tones (there are four nominal tones transcribed in written Burmese), "high" (applied to words that terminate with

552-645: A subject–object–verb word order. It is a member of the Lolo-Burmese grouping of the Sino-Tibetan language family . The Burmese alphabet is ultimately descended from a Brahmic script , either the Kadamba or Pallava alphabets. Burmese belongs to the Southern Burmish branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages , of which Burmese is the most widely spoken of the non- Sinitic languages. Burmese

690-416: A 16 square block royal palace compound at the center by Mandalay Hill. The 1,020-acre (413-hectare) citadel was surrounded by four 2,032 m (6,666 ft) long walls and a moat 64 m (210 ft) wide, 4.6 m (15 ft) deep. At intervals of 169 m (555 ft) along the wall, were turrets with gold-tipped spires for watchmen. The walls had three gates on each side, and five bridges to cross

828-528: A claimed annexation after World War II is the Kingdom of Norway 's southward expansion of the dependent territory Queen Maud Land . On most maps, there had been an unclaimed area between Queen Maud Land's borders of 1939 and the South Pole until 12 June 2015, when Norway formally claimed to have annexed that area. On 18 September 1955 at precisely 10:16 am, Rockall was declared officially annexed by

966-498: A descriptive term for a state establishing facts on the ground as the prelude to a future claim of sovereignty. The Fourth Geneva Convention (GCIV) of 1949 amplified the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 with respect to the question of the protection of civilians, and the rules regarding inviolability of rights have "an absolute character", making it much more difficult for a state to bypass international law through

1104-640: A festival at the foot of Mandalay Hill. Special commemorative stamps were issued. During Ne Win 's isolationist rule (1962–1988), the city's infrastructure deteriorated. By the early 1980s, the second largest city of Burma resembled a town with low-rise buildings and dusty streets filled mostly with bicycles. In the 1980s, the city was hit by two major fires. In May 1981, a fire razed more than 6,000 houses and public buildings, leaving more than 90,000 homeless. On 24 March 1984, another fire destroyed 2,700 buildings and made 23,000 people homeless. The fire caused US$ 96 million in property damage. Fires continue to plague

1242-432: A gesture of goodwill. The British also renamed the palace compound Fort Dufferin and used it to billet troops. Throughout the colonial years, Mandalay was the centre of Burmese culture and Buddhist learning, and as the last royal capital, was regarded by the Burmese as a primary symbol of sovereignty and identity. Between the two World Wars, the city was Upper Burma's focal point in a series of nationwide protests against

1380-564: A group of drunken soldiers set fire to the Pitakataik (Royal Library) which had contained the genealogies of kings and the kingdom's official records. Mandalay was razed. However, the palace, its structures and the city walls were spared destruction. While Mandalay would continue to be the chief city of Upper Burma during the British colonial rule, the commercial and political importance had irreversibly shifted to Yangon. The British view on

1518-550: A lesser extent, Burmese has also imported words from Sanskrit (religion), Hindi (food, administration, and shipping), and Chinese (games and food). Burmese has also imported a handful of words from other European languages such as Portuguese . Here is a sample of loan words found in Burmese: Since the end of British rule, the Burmese government has attempted to limit usage of Western loans (especially from English) by coining new words ( neologisms ). For instance, for

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1656-674: A monk]", Lower Burmese speakers use [sʰʊ́ɰ̃] instead of [sʰwáɰ̃] , which is the pronunciation used in Upper Burma. The standard dialect is represented by the Yangon dialect because of the modern city's media influence and economic clout. In the past, the Mandalay dialect represented standard Burmese. The most noticeable feature of the Mandalay dialect is its use of the first person pronoun ကျွန်တော် , kya.nau [tɕənɔ̀] by both men and women, whereas in Yangon,

1794-603: A paid channel, has also been available in Mandalay. Mandalay has two radio stations. Naypyidaw -based Myanmar Radio National Service is the national radio service and broadcasts mostly in Burmese (and in English during specific times.) Semi-state-run Mandalay City FM (87.9FM) is the Mandalay metropolitan area's pop culture oriented station. The military government, which controls all daily newspapers in Burma, uses Mandalay to publish and distribute its three national newspapers ,

1932-905: A prosperous business community. Identity cards allowed the Chinese immigrants to stay indefinitely and bypass legal barriers on foreign ownership of businesses such as hotels, shops, and restaurants. The imposition of sanctions by the United States and the European Union in the 1990s and Burma's open-door immigration policy in the 1990s encouraged Chinese entrepreneurs to move to Mandalay. A substantial increase in foreign direct investment has poured in from mainland China, mostly ending up in Mandalay's real estate sector, through Burmese citizen intermediaries of Chinese ancestry. Retail outlets were opened by Chinese entrepreneurs, ranging from cement mixing to financial services turning Mandalay into

2070-639: A small-scale yet bloody conflict with the Indonesian military since the 1960s. North Vietnam de facto annexed South Vietnam following the military defeat and effective dissolution of its government system and military on 30 April 1975. Vietnam was officially reunited one year later as the merger of the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam and North Vietnam . One example of

2208-466: A stop or check, high-rising pitch) and "ordinary" (unchecked and non-glottal words, with falling or lower pitch), with those tones encompassing a variety of pitches. The "ordinary" tone consists of a range of pitches. Linguist L. F. Taylor concluded that "conversational rhythm and euphonic intonation possess importance" not found in related tonal languages and that "its tonal system is now in an advanced state of decay." The syllable structure of Burmese

2346-678: A treaty in December 1974. During the British colonial rule in India, Sikkim had an ambiguous status, as an Indian princely state or as an Indian protectorate . Prior to Indian independence, Jawaharlal Nehru , acting as the leader of Executive Council, agreed that Sikkim would not be treated as an Indian state. Between 1947 and 1950, Sikkim enjoyed de facto independence. However, Indian independence spurred popular political movements in Sikkim and

2484-628: Is mutual intelligibility among Burmese dialects, as they share a common set of tones, consonant clusters, and written script. However, several Burmese dialects differ substantially from standard Burmese with respect to vocabulary, lexical particles, and rhymes. Spoken Burmese is remarkably uniform among Burmese speakers, particularly those living in the Irrawaddy valley, all of whom use variants of Standard Burmese. The standard dialect of Burmese (the Mandalay - Yangon dialect continuum ) comes from

2622-522: Is C(G)V((V)C), which is to say the onset consists of a consonant optionally followed by a glide , and the rime consists of a monophthong alone, a monophthong with a consonant, or a diphthong with a consonant. The only consonants that can stand in the coda are /ʔ/ and /ɰ̃/ . Some representative words are: Annexation Annexation , in international law , is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state's territory by another state, usually following military occupation of

2760-542: Is UTC/GMT +6:30 hours and is 626 km from Yangon. Mandalay lies along the Sagaing Fault , a tectonic plate boundary between the India and Sunda plates. The biggest earthquake in its history, occurred on 23 March 1839 , an estimated magnitude 8.2 destroyed the former capital Ava and caused extreme destruction in nearby cities. The most recent quake was a magnitude of 7, occurred in 1956. The devastation

2898-431: Is also ostensibly felt throughout the city, where the local inhabitants have alluded to Mandalay as a "Chinese city" dominated by an inflow of international expatriate mainland and overseas Chinese capital, with much of it invested in real estate, including hotels and restaurants. Burmese language Burmese is a tonal , pitch-register , and syllable-timed language , largely monosyllabic and agglutinative with

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3036-595: Is connected to other parts of the country and to China and India by multiple modes of transportation. Mandalay International Airport (MDL) was one of the largest and most modern airports in Myanmar until the modernization of Yangon International Airport in 2008. Built at a cost of US$ 150 million in 2000, it is highly underused; it serves mostly domestic flights with the exception of those to Kunming and to/from Bangkok and Chiang Mai, with daily flights on Air Asia and Bangkok Airways. The airport has come to represent

3174-555: Is illegal, the question as to whether title or sovereignty can be transferred in such a situation has been the subject of legal debate. '[A]nnexation by the use of force of the territory of another State or part thereof' is an act of aggression according to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court . Illegally annexed territory is considered as still occupied under international law and

3312-609: Is in violation of the international prohibition against annexation, even absent a formal declaration. Israel occupied two-thirds of the Golan Heights from Syria during the 1967 Six-Day War, and subsequently built Jewish settlements in the area. In 1981, Israel passed the Golan Heights Law , which extended Israeli "law, jurisdiction, and administration" to the area, including the Shebaa farms area. This declaration

3450-598: Is now officially known as Timor-Leste . After being allied with Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War (largely due to desiring Iraqi protection from Iran ), Kuwait was invaded and annexed by Iraq (under Saddam Hussein ) in August 1990. Hussein's primary justifications included a charge that Kuwaiti territory was in fact an Iraqi province, and that annexation was retaliation for "economic warfare" Kuwait had waged through slant drilling into Iraq's oil supplies. The monarchy

3588-523: Is prohibited under international law", adding that unilateral changes to borders violate "the rules-based international order and the UN Charter". In 1975, and following the Madrid Accords between Mauritania , Morocco , and Spain , the last Spanish troops withdrew from the territory and ceded the administration to Mauritania and Morocco. This was challenged by an independentist movement,

3726-442: Is pronounced [mõ̀ũndã́ĩ] . The vowels of Burmese are: The monophthongs /e/ , /o/ , /ə/ , /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ occur only in open syllables (those without a syllable coda ); the diphthongs /ei/ , /ou/ , /ai/ and /au/ occur only in closed syllables (those with a syllable coda). /ə/ only occurs in a minor syllable , and is the only vowel that is permitted in a minor syllable (see below). The close vowels /i/ and /u/ and

3864-414: Is the principal language of the city, while Chinese is increasingly heard in the city's commerce centers as the second language. English is the third language, only known by some urban people. Mandalay is Burma's cultural and religious center of Buddhism, having numerous monasteries and more than 700  pagodas . At the foot of Mandalay Hill sits the world's official " Buddhist Bible ", also known as

4002-584: Is the value of the four native final nasals: ⟨မ်⟩ /m/ , ⟨န်⟩ /n/ , ⟨ဉ်⟩ /ɲ/ , ⟨င်⟩ /ŋ/ , as well as the retroflex ⟨ဏ⟩ /ɳ/ (used in Pali loans) and nasalisation mark anusvara demonstrated here above ka (က → ကံ) which most often stands in for a homorganic nasal word medially as in တံခါး tankhá 'door', and တံတား tantá 'bridge', or else replaces final -m ⟨မ်⟩ in both Pali and native vocabulary, especially after

4140-638: Is the word "moon", which can be လ la̰ (native Tibeto-Burman), စန္ဒာ/စန်း [sàndà]/[sã́] (derivatives of Pali canda 'moon'), or သော်တာ [t̪ɔ̀ dà] (Sanskrit). The consonants of Burmese are as follows: According to Jenny & San San Hnin Tun (2016 :15), contrary to their use of symbols θ and ð, consonants of သ are dental stops ( /t̪, d̪/ ), rather than fricatives ( /θ, ð/ ) or affricates. These phonemes, alongside /sʰ/ , are prone to merger with /t, d, s/ . An alveolar /ɹ/ can occur as an alternate of /j/ in some loanwords. The final nasal /ɰ̃/

4278-491: The [ ɹ ] sound, which has become [ j ] in standard Burmese. Moreover, Arakanese features a variety of vowel differences, including the merger of the ဧ [e] and ဣ [i] vowels. Hence, a word like "blood" သွေး is pronounced [θw é ] in standard Burmese and [θw í ] in Arakanese. The Burmese language's early forms include Old Burmese and Middle Burmese . Old Burmese dates from

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4416-588: The /l/ medial, which is otherwise only found in Old Burmese inscriptions. They also often reduce the intensity of the glottal stop . Beik has 250,000 speakers while Tavoyan has 400,000. The grammatical constructs of Burmese dialects in Southern Myanmar show greater Mon influence than Standard Burmese. The most pronounced feature of the Arakanese language of Rakhine State is its retention of

4554-586: The Battle for Jerusalem . Only Costa Rica recognized Israel's annexation of East Jerusalem, and those countries who maintained embassies in Israel did not move them to Jerusalem. The United States Congress passed the Jerusalem Embassy Act , which recognizes Jerusalem as the united capital of Israel and requires the relocation of the U.S. embassy there in 1995. The act included a provision permitting

4692-463: The British Crown when Lieutenant-Commander Desmond Scott RN , Sergeant Brian Peel RM , Corporal AA Fraser RM, and James Fisher (a civilian naturalist and former Royal Marine), were deposited on the island by a Royal Navy helicopter from HMS  Vidal (coincidentally named after the man who first charted the island). The team cemented in a brass plaque on Hall's Ledge and hoisted

4830-475: The Burmese alphabet began employing cursive-style circular letters typically used in palm-leaf manuscripts , as opposed to the traditional square block-form letters used in earlier periods. The orthographic conventions used in written Burmese today can largely be traced back to Middle Burmese. Modern Burmese emerged in the mid-18th century. By this time, male literacy in Burma stood at nearly 50%, which enabled

4968-527: The Defence Services Academy were the only three universities in Upper Burma. Only a few other cities had "Degree Colleges" affiliated with Mandalay University that offered a limited number of subjects. Today, the city attracts a fraction of students as the military government requires students to attend their local universities in order to reduce concentration of students in one place. In November 1959, Mandalay celebrated its centennial with

5106-562: The English language in the colonial educational system, especially in higher education. In the 1930s, the Burmese language saw a linguistic revival, precipitated by the establishment of an independent University of Rangoon in 1920 and the inception of a Burmese language major at the university by Pe Maung Tin , modeled on Anglo Saxon language studies at the University of Oxford. Student protests in December of that year, triggered by

5244-694: The Jerusalem Law as part of its Basic Law , which declared Jerusalem the "complete and united" capital of Israel. In other words, Israel purported to annex East Jerusalem. The annexation was declared null and void by United Nations Security Council (UNSC) resolutions 252, 267, 271, 298, 465, 476 and 478. Jewish neighborhoods have since been built in East Jerusalem, and Israeli Jews have since also settled in Arab neighborhoods there, though some Jews may have returned from their 1948 expulsion after

5382-723: The Mon people , who until recently formed the majority in Lower Burma . Most Mon loanwords are so well assimilated that they are not distinguished as loanwords, as Burmese and Mon were used interchangeably for several centuries in pre-colonial Burma. Mon loans are often related to flora, fauna, administration, textiles, foods, boats, crafts, architecture, and music. As a natural consequence of British rule in Burma , English has been another major source of vocabulary, especially with regard to technology, measurements, and modern institutions. English loanwords tend to take one of three forms: To

5520-534: The Myanma Salonpaung Thatpon Kyan ( မြန်မာ စာလုံးပေါင်း သတ်ပုံ ကျမ်း ), was compiled in 1978 by the commission. Burmese is a diglossic language with two distinguishable registers (or diglossic varieties ): The literary form of Burmese retains archaic and conservative grammatical structures and modifiers (including affixes and pronouns) no longer used in the colloquial form. Literary Burmese, which has not changed significantly since

5658-573: The Polisario Front that waged a guerrilla war against both Mauritania and Morocco. In 1979, and after a military putsch , Mauritania withdrew from the territory that left it controlled by Morocco. A United Nations peace process was initiated in 1991, but it has been stalled, and as of mid-2012, the UN is holding direct negotiations between Morocco and the Polisario front to reach a solution to

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5796-614: The Pyu language . These indirect borrowings can be traced back to orthographic idiosyncrasies in these loanwords, such as the Burmese word "to worship", which is spelt ပူဇော် ( pūjo ) instead of ပူဇာ ( pūjā ), as would be expected by the original Pali orthography. The transition to Middle Burmese occurred in the 16th century. The transition to Middle Burmese included phonological changes (e.g. mergers of sound pairs that were distinct in Old Burmese) as well as accompanying changes in

5934-850: The Qing dynasty over Tibet was established after a Qing expedition force defeated the Dzungar Khanate which had occupied Tibet in 1720, and lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. The Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor issued in 1912 provided the legal basis for the Republic of China (ROC) to inherit all Qing territories, including Tibet. However, the ROC had no effective control over Tibet from 1912 to 1951; In

6072-458: The State Peace and Development Council came to power in 1988. Many Chinese immigrants from Yunnan and, to a lesser extent, Sichuan poured into Upper Burma in the 1990s and many ending up in Mandalay, living illegally there. In the 1990s alone, about 250,000 to 300,000 Yunnanese are estimated to have migrated to Mandalay. Today, ethnic Chinese people are believed to make up about 40%–50% of

6210-406: The annexation of territories in southern and eastern Ukraine. As a result, Russia claimed sovereignty over the territories of four Ukrainian oblasts – Luhansk , Donetsk , Zaporizhzhia and Kherson – and recognised as its federal subjects Donetsk People's Republic , Luhansk People's Republic , Zaporizhzhia and Kherson Oblasts. In 1952, Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie orchestrated

6348-413: The 11th to the 16th century ( Pagan to Ava dynasties); Middle Burmese from the 16th to the 18th century ( Toungoo to early Konbaung dynasties); modern Burmese from the mid-18th century to the present. Word order , grammatical structure, and vocabulary have remained markedly stable well into Modern Burmese, with the exception of lexical content (e.g., function words ). The earliest attested form of

6486-457: The 13th century, is the register of Burmese taught in schools. In most cases, the corresponding affixes in the literary and spoken forms are totally unrelated to each other. Examples of this phenomenon include the following lexical terms: Historically the literary register was preferred for written Burmese on the grounds that "the spoken style lacks gravity, authority, dignity". In the mid-1960s, some Burmese writers spearheaded efforts to abandon

6624-410: The 19th century, in addition to concomitant economic and political instability in Upper Burma (e.g., increased tax burdens from the Burmese crown, British rice production incentives, etc.) also accelerated the migration of Burmese speakers from Upper Burma into Lower Burma. British rule in Burma eroded the strategic and economic importance of the Burmese language; Burmese was effectively subordinated to

6762-519: The British RAF had by now withdrawn all its aircraft to India. Three-fifths of Mandalay's houses were destroyed and 2,000 civilians were killed. Many residents also fled when the city was under Japanese occupation from May 1942 to March 1945. The palace citadel, which had been turned into a supply depot by the Japanese, was in turn burnt to the ground by Allied bombing; only the royal mint and

6900-471: The British in the lead-up to the independence of Burma in 1948. The 1948 Constitution of Burma prescribed Burmese as the official language of the newly independent nation. The Burma Translation Society and Rangoon University's Department of Translation and Publication were established in 1947 and 1948, respectively, with the joint goal of modernizing the Burmese language in order to replace English across all disciplines. Anti-colonial sentiment throughout

7038-662: The British rule. The British rule brought in many immigrants from India to the city. In 1904–1905, a plague caused about one-third of the population to flee the city. During World War II , Mandalay suffered devastating air raids. On 3 April 1942, during the Japanese conquest of Burma , the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service carried out an extensive assault. The city was in effect defenseless as its firefighting resources were weak, having been lost in earlier bombing, it had no anti-aircraft capacity, and

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7176-557: The Buddhist clergy (monks) from the laity ( householders ), especially when speaking to or about bhikkhus (monks). The following are examples of varying vocabulary used for Buddhist clergy and for laity: Burmese primarily has a monosyllabic received Sino-Tibetan vocabulary. Nonetheless, many words, especially loanwords from Indo-European languages like English, are polysyllabic, and others, from Mon, an Austroasiatic language, are sesquisyllabic . Burmese loanwords are overwhelmingly in

7314-449: The Burmese language Myanmar Alin and Kyemon and the English language New Light of Myanmar . The state-run Yadanabon is published in Mandalay and serves the Upper Burma market. The Mandalay Daily newspaper is published by Mandalay City Development Committee since 30 November 1997. Mandalay's sporting facilities are quite poor by international standards but are still the best in Upper Burma. The 17,000 seat Bahtoo Stadium

7452-688: The Burmese language into Lower Burma also coincided with the emergence of Modern Burmese. As late as the mid-1700s, Mon , an Austroasiatic language, was the principal language of Lower Burma, employed by the Mon people who inhabited the region. Lower Burma's shift from Mon to Burmese was accelerated by the Burmese-speaking Konbaung Dynasty 's victory over the Mon-speaking Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom in 1757. By 1830, an estimated 90% of

7590-469: The Burmese language is called Old Burmese , dating to the 11th and 12th century stone inscriptions of Pagan . The earliest evidence of the Burmese alphabet is dated to 1035, while a casting made in the 18th century of an old stone inscription points to 984. Owing to the linguistic prestige of Old Pyu in the Pagan Kingdom era, Old Burmese borrowed a substantial corpus of vocabulary from Pali via

7728-616: The Golan Heights as sovereign Israeli territory. In response, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres stated "the status of Golan has not changed", and the decision received worldwide condemnation with European members of the United Nations Security Council noting "we raise our strong concerns about the broader consequences of recognizing illegal annexation and also about broader regional consequences" and that "annexation of territory by force

7866-709: The Government of Tibet and the PRC, and a military conflict in the Chamdo area of western Kham in October 1950. Many analysts consider the incorporation of Tibet into the PRC an annexation. If the actions of 1950 constituted an annexation, it was subsequently legalized by the Seventeen Point Agreement by the Government of Tibet in October 1951. From 1959 onwards, claims were made that this agreement

8004-661: The Indian Parliament for a change in Sikkim's status so that it could become a state of India. In April, the Indian Army moved into Sikkim, seizing the city of Gangtok and disarming the Palace Guards. A referendum was held in which 97.5% of the voting people (59% of the people entitled to vote) voted to join the Indian Union. A few weeks later, on 16 May 1975, Sikkim officially became the 22nd state of

8142-722: The Indian Union and the monarchy was abolished. Western New Guinea officially became part of Indonesia through the Act of Free Choice in 1969, supervised by the UN. Based on the New York Agreement (1962) between Indonesia and the Netherlands, the UN held the Act of Free Choice to determine whether Western New Guinea would join Indonesia or not. Through a deliberation of representatives, the majority voted to join, and this result

8280-432: The Irrawaddy River valley. Regional differences between speakers from Upper Burma (e.g., Mandalay dialect), called anya tha ( အညာသား ) and speakers from Lower Burma (e.g., Yangon dialect), called auk tha ( အောက်သား ), largely occur in vocabulary choice, not in pronunciation. Minor lexical and pronunciation differences exist throughout the Irrawaddy River valley. For instance, for the term ဆွမ်း , "food offering [to

8418-421: The Majdal Shams residents refused Israeli citizenship, and are still firmly of that opinion, in spite of the Syrian Civil War . On 29 November 2012, the United Nations General Assembly reaffirmed it was "[d]eeply concerned that Israel has not withdrawn from the Syrian Golan, which has been under occupation since 1967, contrary to the relevant Security Council and General Assembly resolutions," and "[s]tress[ed]

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8556-431: The OB vowel *u e.g. ငံ ngam 'salty', သုံး thóum ('three; use'), and ဆုံး sóum 'end'. It does not, however, apply to ⟨ည်⟩ which is never realised as a nasal, but rather as an open front vowel [iː] [eː] or [ɛː] . The final nasal is usually realised as nasalisation of the vowel. It may also allophonically appear as a homorganic nasal before stops. For example, in /mòʊɰ̃dáɪɰ̃/ ('storm'), which

8694-403: The Pali name Ratanapūra ( ရတနပူရ ) "City of Gems." It was also called Lay Kyun Aung Myei ( လေးကျွန်းအောင်မြေ , [lé dʑʊ́ɰ̃ àʊɰ̃ mjè] , "Victorious Land over the Four Islands") and Mandalay Palace ( မြနန်းစံကျော် , [mja̰ náɰ̃ sàɰ̃ tɕɔ̀] , "Famed Royal Emerald Palace"). Like most former (and present) capitals of Burma, Mandalay was founded on the wishes of the ruler of

8832-428: The President to delay its implementation due to national security concerns. This waiver was used by presidents Clinton , Bush , Obama , and Trump , but was allowed to expire in 2019. Law professor Omar M. Dajani and others discuss de facto annexation (also referred to as "creeping annexation" ). The debate considers whether, in all the circumstances, there is a pattern of behavior sufficient to conclude that Israel

8970-415: The Russian Federation an "occupying power". Russia rejects the view that this was an annexation and regards it as an accession to the Russian Federation of a state that had just declared independence from Ukraine following a disputed referendum , and considers it secession as a result of irredentism . A term often used in Russia to describe these events is "re-unification" (воссоединение) to highlight

9108-435: The UN puts Mandalay's population at nearly 1 million. The city's population is projected to reach nearly 1.5 million by 2025. While Mandalay has traditionally been the bastion of Bamar (Burman) culture and populace, the massive influx of illegal ethnic Han Chinese in the last 20 years has effectively influenced the ethnic Bamar majority there. Although many native ethnic Han Chinese could not get Burmese citizenship,

9246-462: The United Nations Charter , which is in force today: "All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations". These principles were reconfirmed by the 1970 Friendly Relations Declaration . Since the use of force against territorial integrity or political independence

9384-491: The adoption of neologisms. An example is the word "university", formerly ယူနီဗာစတီ [jùnìbàsətì] , from English university , now တက္ကသိုလ် [tɛʔkət̪ò] , a Pali-derived neologism recently created by the Burmese government and derived from the Pali spelling of Taxila ( တက္ကသီလ Takkasīla ), an ancient university town in modern-day Pakistan. Some words in Burmese may have many synonyms, each having certain usages, such as formal, literary, colloquial, and poetic. One example

9522-469: The areas after 36 hours of fighting, thus ending 451 years of Portuguese colonial rule in India. The action was viewed in India as a liberation of historically Indian territory; in Portugal, however, the loss of both enclaves was seen as a national tragedy. A condemnation of the action by the United Nations Security Council was vetoed by the Soviet Union . Goa and Daman and Diu were incorporated into India. Portugal recognized India's sovereignty over Goa in

9660-425: The city of Mandalay, with clients from Hong Kong continuing to be the source of main customers. Mandalay has been virtually sinicized economically and culturally, to the resentment of locals. More than 50 percent of the commercial business activity generated in Downtown Mandalay is derived from the eclipsing plethora of Chinese-owned shops, hotels, restaurants, and showrooms that predominate the area. About 80 percent of

9798-435: The city's output of commercial business activity relative to their small population size. Prime residential and commercial real estate in central Mandalay have been bought by wealthy Chinese businessmen and investors. As many as half of the city's residents have Chinese ancestry with the seven of the top ten entrepreneurs in Mandalay being of Chinese descent fully controlling 60 percent of its entire economy. About 50 percent of

9936-523: The city's population that is nearly the same as the natives, and are a major factor in the city's doubling of population from about 500,000 in 1980 to one million in 2008. Chinese festivals are now firmly embedded in the city's cultural calendar. The Chinese dominance in the city center has pushed out the rest to the suburbs. The urban sprawl now encompasses Amarapura, the very city King Mindon left some 150 years ago. Mandalay celebrated its 150th birthday on 15 May 2009, at precisely 4:31:36 am. Despite

10074-556: The city. A major fire destroyed Mandalay's second largest market, Yadanabon Market , in February 2008, and another major fire in February 2009 destroyed 320 homes and left over 1600 people homeless. The 1980s fires augured a significant change in the city's physical character and ethnic makeup. Huge swaths of land left vacant by the fires were later purchased, mostly by the ethnic Han Chinese , many of whom were recent immigrants from Yunnan . The Chinese influx accelerated after

10212-418: The city. Mandalay also features wet and dry seasons of nearly equal length, with the wet season running from May through October and the dry season covering the remaining six months. The highest reliably recorded temperature in Mandalay is 45.0 °C (113.0 °F) on 12 May 2010 while the lowest is 7.6 °C (45.7 °F) on 26 December 1999. There is considerably more diurnal temperature variation in

10350-534: The city. The airport serves some flights to Myanmar towns. The Ayeyarwady River remains an important arterial route for transporting goods such as farm produce including rice, beans and pulses, cooking oil, pottery, bamboo and teak. Mandalay Central Railway Station is the terminus of Myanmar Railways 's metre gauge main rail line from Yangon ( Yangon–Mandalay Railway ) and the starting point of branch lines to Pyin U Lwin (Maymyo), Lashio ( Mandalay–Lashio Railway ), Monywa , Pakokku , Kalay , Gangaw , and to

10488-525: The close portions of the diphthongs are somewhat mid-centralized ( [ɪ, ʊ] ) in closed syllables, i.e. before /ɰ̃/ and /ʔ/ . Thus နှစ် /n̥iʔ/ ('two') is phonetically [n̥ɪʔ] and ကြောင် /tɕàũ/ ('cat') is phonetically [tɕàʊ̃] . Burmese is a tonal language , which means phonemic contrasts can be made on the basis of the tone of a vowel. In Burmese, these contrasts involve not only pitch , but also phonation , intensity (loudness), duration, and vowel quality. However, some linguists consider Burmese

10626-602: The conflict. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is a partially recognized state that has claimed the entire region since 1976. In March 2014, Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsula , which had been a part of Ukraine since 1991 and administers the territory as two federal subjects – the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol . The UN General Assembly considers the Russian possession of Crimea and Sevastopol to be an "attempted annexation" and

10764-604: The country. These varieties include the Yaw , Palaw, Myeik (Merguese), Tavoyan and Intha dialects . Despite substantial vocabulary and pronunciation differences, there is mutual intelligibility among most Burmese dialects. Below is a summary of lexical similarity between major Burmese dialects: Dialects in Tanintharyi Region , including Palaw, Merguese, and Tavoyan, are especially conservative in comparison to Standard Burmese. The Tavoyan and Intha dialects have preserved

10902-428: The day. On 13 February 1857, King Mindon founded a new royal capital at the foot of Mandalay Hill , ostensibly to fulfill a prophecy on the founding of a metropolis of Buddhism in that exact place on the occasion of the 2,400th jubilee of Buddhism. The new capital city site was 66 km (25.5 sq mi) in area, surrounded by four rivers. The plan called for a 144-square block grid patterned citadel, anchored by

11040-481: The development of Mandalay (and Burma) was mainly with commercial intentions. While rail transport reached Mandalay in 1889, less than four years after the annexation, the first college in Mandalay, Mandalay College , was not established until 40 years later, in 1925. The British looted the palace, with some of the treasures going on display in the Victoria and Albert Museum ; in 1964 they were returned to Burma as

11178-462: The dry season than the wet season. The Mandalay Region Government is the government for Mandalay Region including Mandalay City. The Mandalay City Development Committee (MCDC) is municipal organization for Mandalay City. The Mandalay District consists of seven townships. Mandalay's strategic location in Central Burma makes it an important hub for transport of people and goods. The city

11316-669: The early post-independence era led to a reactionary switch from English to Burmese as the national medium of education, a process that was accelerated by the Burmese Way to Socialism . In August 1963, the socialist Union Revolutionary Government established the Literary and Translation Commission (the immediate precursor of the Myanmar Language Commission ) to standardize Burmese spelling, diction, composition, and terminology. The latest spelling authority, named

11454-755: The fact that Crimea was a part of the Russian Empire from 1783 to 1917, and part of the Russian SFSR from 1921 to 1954. Few states recognize this view. Ukraine considers Crimea and Sevastopol its own territory, and oversees the Crimea Platform , an international diplomatic initiative to restore its sovereignty. On 30 September 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine , the Russian Federation , following referendums , declared

11592-569: The foreign-born Yunnanese can easily obtain Burmese citizenship cards on the black market. Ludu Daw Amar of Mandalay, the native journalist had said it felt like "an undeclared colony of Yunnan ". Today, the percentage of ethnic Han Chinese, estimated at 50% of the city (with the Yunnanese forming an estimated 30% of Mandalay's population), is believed to be nearly the same as that of the ethnic Bamar. A sizable community of Indian immigrants (mostly Tamils ) also resides in Mandalay. Burmese

11730-598: The form of nouns . Historically, Pali , the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism , had a profound influence on Burmese vocabulary. Burmese has readily adopted words of Pali origin; this may be due to phonotactic similarities between the two languages, alongside the fact that the script used for Burmese can be used to reproduce Pali spellings with complete accuracy. Pali loanwords are often related to religion, government, arts, and science. Burmese loanwords from Pali primarily take four forms: Burmese has also adapted numerous words from Mon, traditionally spoken by

11868-399: The government allows only a few thousands of vehicles to be imported each year, motor transportation in Burma is highly expensive for most of its citizens. Most people rely on bicycles , motorcycles and/or private and public buses to get around. Back in the 2000s, the most popular car in Mandalay was the 1982/83 Nissan Sunny pickup truck . Because of its utility as a private bus or taxi,

12006-464: The hotels and guesthouses, more than 70 percent of the restaurants, more than 45 percent of gold and jewellery shops, about 30 percent of jade and gemstone trading, and nearly 100 percent of the sale centres for mainland Chinese-made commodities in Mandalay are owned and operated by the Chinese. Chinese entrepreneurs and investors have acquired much of Central Mandalay's economic crown jewels and have been disproportionately responsible for generating much of

12144-547: The illegality of the Israeli settlement construction and other activities in the occupied Syrian Golan since 1967." The General Assembly then voted by majority, 110 in favour to 6 against (Canada, Israel, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, United States), with 59 abstentions, to demand a full Israeli withdrawal from the Syrian Golan Heights. On 25 March 2019, the United States recognized

12282-578: The insistence of the Arab League , Jordan was considered a trustee only. Only Pakistan and the United Kingdom recognized the annexation by Jordan. It was not condemned by the United Nations Security Council and it remained under Jordanian rule until 1967 when it was occupied by Israel . Jordan did not officially relinquish its claim to rule the West Bank until 1988. Israel has not taken

12420-522: The introduction of English into matriculation examinations , fueled growing demand for Burmese to become the medium of education in British Burma; a short-lived but symbolic parallel system of "national schools" that taught in Burmese, was subsequently launched. The role and prominence of the Burmese language in public life and institutions was championed by Burmese nationalists, intertwined with their demands for greater autonomy and independence from

12558-649: The land plots in Downtown Mandalay are controlled by the Chinese. In addition, all of Mandalay's shopping malls and hotels were entirely built by Chinese-owned construction and real estate development companies. Besides Mandalay's economic development being shaped by the Burmese Chinese business community's immense development output, it has also been amplified with additional investment from foreign Chinese investment from mainland China and overseas bamboo networks . The apparent influence of mainland China

12696-565: The leading traditional industries are silk weaving, tapestry , jade cutting and polishing, stone and wood carving, making marble and bronze Buddha images, temple ornaments and paraphernalia, the working of gold leaves and of silver, the manufacture of matches, brewing and distilling. Since the country's post-1988 shift towards economic liberalization , large numbers of Chinese migrants in search of economic opportunity have poured into Mandalay. These migrants brought with them talent, skills, goods and services, and capital, but also purchased most of

12834-515: The literary form, asserting that the spoken vernacular form ought to be used. Some Burmese linguists such as Minn Latt , a Czech academic, proposed moving away from the high form of Burmese altogether. Although the literary form is heavily used in written and official contexts (literary and scholarly works, radio news broadcasts, and novels), the recent trend has been to accommodate the spoken form in informal written contexts. Nowadays, television news broadcasts, comics, and commercial publications use

12972-407: The military regime's propensity for bad planning and penchant for white elephant projects. Myanmar's recent opening stance on tourism means the airport is now receiving a growing number of visitors from Bangkok and Chiang Mai. The airport is far from the city, 45 km (28 mi) on a modern highway. Before the construction of this airport, Mandalay Chanmyathazi Airport was the main airport of

13110-671: The moat. In addition, the king also commissioned the Kuthodaw Pagoda , the Pahtan-haw Shwe Thein Ordination Hall , the Thudamma zayats or public houses for preaching Buddhism and a library for the Pāli Canon . In June 1857, the former royal palace of Amarapura was dismantled and moved by elephants to the new location at the foot of Mandalay Hill, although construction of the palace compound

13248-405: The nearby Mandalay Hill . The name is probably a derivative of a Pali word, although the exact word of origin remains unclear. The root word has been speculated to be maṇḍala (မဏ္ဍလ), referring to circular plains or Mandara , a mountain from Hindu mythology. When it was founded in 1857, the royal city was officially named Yadanarbon ( ရတနာပုံ , [jədənàbòʊɰ̃] ), a loan of

13386-612: The new royal capital of the Konbaung dynasty . It was Burma's final royal capital before the kingdom's annexation by the British Empire in 1885. Under British rule, Mandalay remained commercially and culturally important despite the rise of Yangon, the new capital of British Burma. The city suffered extensive destruction during the Japanese conquest of Burma in the Second World War . In 1948, Mandalay became part of

13524-468: The newly independent Union of Burma. Today, Mandalay is the economic centre of Upper Myanmar and considered the centre of Burmese culture. A continuing influx of irregular Chinese immigrants, mostly from Yunnan , since the late 20th century, has reshaped the city's ethnic makeup and increased commerce with China. Despite Naypyidaw 's recent rise, Mandalay remains Upper Myanmar's main commercial, educational and health center. The city gets its name from

13662-524: The north, Shwebo , Kawlin , Naba , Kanbalu , Mohnyin , Hopin , Mogaung and Myitkyina ( Mandalay–Myitkyina Railway ). Mandalay has a station on the standard gauge Kunming , China - Kyaukphyu port railway. Mandalay does not have an intra-city metro rail system. The former Trams in Mandalay has been decommissioned. Mandalay literally is at the center of Burma's road network. The highway network includes roads towards: Most stretches of these highways are one-lane roads in poor condition. As

13800-562: The number of cars in a city of one million is low, traffic in Mandalay is highly chaotic as thousands of bicycles and (unregistered) motorbikes freely roam around all the lanes of the streets. Unlike in Yangon where motorbikes, cycle rickshaws and bicycles are prohibited from entering downtown and busy areas, in Mandalay it is anything goes. In 2018, as part of Mandalay Smart City initiatives, new traffic lights with internet-connected sensors have been installed by Mandalay City Development Committee to manage traffic at junctions. A 2007 estimate by

13938-745: The old Mandalay city walls, surrounded by a moat, which was repaired in recent times using prison labor, comprise the Mandalay Palace , mostly destroyed during World War II . İt is now replaced by a replica, military Prison and a military garrison, the headquarters of the Central Military Command . Much of the media in Mandalay – like elsewhere in Burma – comes from Yangon. The city's non-satellite TV programming comes from Yangon-based state-run TV Myanmar and military-run Myawaddy , both of which provide Burmese language news and entertainment. Since December 2006, MRTV -4, formerly

14076-577: The opinion of the Chinese government, this condition does not represent Tibet's de jure independence as many other parts of China also enjoyed de facto independence when the Chinese state was torn by warlordism , Japanese invasion , and civil war . Tibet came under the control of the People's Republic of China (PRC) after attempts by the Government of Tibet to gain international recognition, efforts to modernize its military , negotiations between

14214-649: The population in Lower Burma self-identified as Burmese-speaking Bamars; huge swaths of former Mon-speaking territory, from the Irrawaddy Delta to upriver in the north, spanning Bassein (now Pathein) and Rangoon (now Yangon) to Tharrawaddy, Toungoo, Prome (now Pyay), and Henzada (now Hinthada), were now Burmese-speaking. The language shift has been ascribed to a combination of population displacement, intermarriage, and voluntary changes in self-identification among increasingly Mon–Burmese bilingual populations in

14352-714: The present day. On 27 June 1967, Israel unilaterally extended its law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem and some of the surrounding area, incorporating about 70 square kilometers of territory into the Jerusalem Municipality. Although at the time, Israel informed the United Nations that its measures constituted administrative and municipal integration rather than annexation. Later rulings by the Israeli Supreme Court indicated that East Jerusalem had become part of Israel. In 1980, Israel passed

14490-525: The princely states opted to join either Pakistan or India, Hyderabad State elected instead to resume full independence. Following the expiration of ultimatums from India, the Indian military launched its Operation Polo on 13 September 1948 and invaded Hyderabad. After conquering most of Hyderabad in five days of warfare, the Nizam signed a treaty on 18 September 1948 that saw Hyderabad annexed by India. In 1954,

14628-915: The prosperous business centre it is today. As Mandalay became more economically prosperous, existing Burmese Chinese have facilitated continued immigration from China. The transformation of Mandalay into a booming modern metropolis filled with foreign businesses and gem trading centers occurred under the auspices of the entrepreneurial Chinese minority. The Chinese minority in Mandalay own virtually all of Mandalay's retail gold shops, mining concessions, foreign businesses and timber trading companies. In Central Mandalay, about 80 percent or four out of five gold and jewellery shops are Chinese-owned. Many Chinese-owned and operated businesses such as trading cooperatives, market stalls, food joints, traditional Chinese medicinal clinics, hotels, gemstone mining concessions, wholesale marketing, hotels, restaurants, and real estate have also flourished. Foreign purchasers of jade and gems flock to

14766-491: The provisions of international humanitarian law continue to apply. For precision, such territory may be referred to as "occupied and illegally annexed". In a report to the United Nations General Assembly , Michael Lynk contrasted de jure annexation as a formal declaration by a state that it is claiming permanent sovereignty over territory and de facto annexation without the formal declaration as

14904-425: The region. Standardized tone marking in written Burmese was not achieved until the 18th century. From the 19th century onward, orthographers created spellers to reform Burmese spelling, because of ambiguities that arose over transcribing sounds that had been merged. British rule saw continued efforts to standardize Burmese spelling through dictionaries and spellers. Britain's gradual annexation of Burma throughout

15042-475: The residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli , a Portuguese enclave within India, ended Portuguese rule with the help of nationalist volunteers. From 1954 to 1961, the territory enjoyed de facto independence. In 1961, the territory was merged with India after its government signed an agreement with the Indian government. In 1961, India and Portugal engaged in a brief military conflict over Portuguese-controlled Goa and Daman and Diu . India invaded and conquered

15180-558: The rise of Naypyidaw, the country's capital since 2006, Mandalay remains Upper Burma's main commercial, educational and health center. In October 2018, Mandalay was ranked by CIO Asia as number fifth among the top 10 cities in Southeast Asia in the process of becoming a smart city for ASEAN Smart Cities Network . Mandalay is located in the central Dry Zone of Burma by the Irrawaddy river at 21.98° North, 96.08° East, 80 meters (260 feet) above sea level. Its standard time zone

15318-462: The ruling Chogyal came under pressure. He requested Indian help to quell the uprising, which was offered. Subsequently, in 1950, India signed a treaty with Sikkim bringing it under its suzerainty , and controlling its external affairs, defence, diplomacy and communications. A state council was established in 1955 to allow for constitutional government under the Sikkimese monarch. Meanwhile, trouble

15456-510: The said pronoun is used only by male speakers while ကျွန်မ , kya.ma. [tɕəma̰] is used by female speakers. Moreover, with regard to kinship terminology , Upper Burmese speakers differentiate the maternal and paternal sides of a family, whereas Lower Burmese speakers do not. The Mon language has also influenced subtle grammatical differences between the varieties of Burmese spoken in Lower and Upper Burma. In Lower Burmese varieties,

15594-488: The shops and real estate in the centre of Mandalay, transforming the economic dynamics of the city. This influx of poor Han Chinese immigrants mostly trace their ancestry to the Southwestern Chinese province of Yunnan . Many were able to illegally obtain identity papers on the black market to become naturalized Burmese citizens overnight. Arriving impoverished, they now sit at the helm of the Burmese economy as

15732-764: The spoken form or a combination of the spoken and simpler, less ornate formal forms. The following sample sentence reveals that differences between literary and spoken Burmese mostly occur in affixes: Burmese has politeness levels and honorifics that take the speaker's status and age in relation to the audience into account. The suffix ပါ pa is frequently used after a verb to express politeness. Moreover, Burmese pronouns relay varying degrees of deference or respect. In many instances, polite speech (e.g., addressing teachers, officials, or elders) employs feudal-era third person pronouns or kinship terms in lieu of first- and second-person pronouns. Furthermore, with regard to vocabulary choice, spoken Burmese clearly distinguishes

15870-497: The step of annexing the territory (except for the part of it that was made part of the Jerusalem Municipality). Rather, there were enacted a complex (and highly controversial) system of military government decrees in effect applying Israeli law in many spheres to Israeli settlements . Following an Indonesian invasion in 1975, East Timor (Timor-Leste) was annexed by Indonesia and was known as Timor Timur . It

16008-509: The territory. In current international law, it is generally held to be an illegal act. Annexation is a unilateral act where territory is seized and held by one state, as distinct from the complete conquest of another country, and differs from cession , in which territory is given or sold through treaty. Annexation can be legitimized if generally recognized by other states and international bodies. The illegality of annexation means that states carrying out such acts usually avoid using

16146-448: The traditional homeland of Burmese speakers. The 1891 Census of India , conducted five years after the annexation of the entire Konbaung Kingdom , found that the former kingdom had an "unusually high male literacy" rate of 62.5% for Upper Burmans aged 25 and above. For all of British Burma , the literacy rate was 49% for men and 5.5% for women (by contrast, British India more broadly had a male literacy rate of 8.44%). The expansion of

16284-588: The two-and-a-half-decade old model still had strong demand and heady prices to match—from K10 million to K14 million (US$ 8,000 to US$ 11,000) in mid-2008. To get around severe import limits, people of Mandalay had turned to illegally imported and hence unregistered (called "without" in Burmese English ) motorcycles and cars despite the government's periodic confiscation sprees then. In March 2008, Mandalay had nearly 81,000 registered motor vehicles plus an unknown number of unregistered vehicles. Although

16422-425: The underlying orthography . From the 1500s onward, Burmese kingdoms saw substantial gains in the populace's literacy rate , which manifested itself in greater participation of laymen in scribing and composing legal and historical documents, domains that were traditionally the domain of Buddhist monks, and drove the ensuing proliferation of Burmese literature , both in terms of genres and works. During this period,

16560-463: The use of annexation. During the 1967 Six-Day War , Israel captured East Jerusalem , a part of the West Bank , from Jordan . While Jordan had annexed the West Bank in 1950, it was considered an illegal occupation and Jordan was recognized as the legal sovereign by the United Kingdom and possibly Pakistan. On 31 July 1988, Jordan relinquished this claim. It has remained occupied until

16698-527: The verb ပေး ('to give') is colloquially used as a permissive causative marker, like in other Southeast Asian languages, but unlike in other Tibeto-Burman languages. This usage is hardly used in Upper Burmese varieties, and is considered a sub-standard construct. More distinctive non-standard varieties emerge as one moves farther away from the Irrawaddy River valley toward peripheral areas of

16836-470: The watch tower survived. (A faithful replica of the palace was rebuilt in the 1990s.) After the country gained independence from Britain in 1948, Mandalay continued to be the main cultural, educational and economic hub of Upper Burma. Until the early 1990s, most students from Upper Burma went to Mandalay for university education. Until 1991, Mandalay University , the University of Medicine, Mandalay and

16974-466: The wide circulation of legal texts, royal chronicles , and religious texts. A major reason for the uniformity of the Burmese language was the near-universal presence of Buddhist monasteries (called kyaung ) in Burmese villages. These kyaung served as the foundation of the pre-colonial monastic education system, which fostered uniformity of the language throughout the Upper Irrawaddy valley,

17112-410: The word "television", Burmese publications are mandated to use the term ရုပ်မြင်သံကြား (lit. 'see picture, hear sound') in lieu of တယ်လီဗီးရှင်း , a direct English transliteration. Another example is the word "vehicle", which is officially ယာဉ် [jɪ̃̀] (derived from Pali) but ကား [ká] (from English car ) in spoken Burmese. Some previously common English loanwords have fallen out of use with

17250-581: The word annexation in describing their actions; in each of the unresolved annexations by Israel , Morocco and Russia , the states have avoided characterizing their actions as such. International law regarding the use of force by states evolved significantly in the 20th century. Key agreements include the 1907 Porter Convention , the 1920 Covenant of the League of Nations and the 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact , culminating in Article 2(4) of Chapter I of

17388-437: The world's largest book, in Kuthodaw Pagoda . The styles of Mandalay Buddha Images and Buddha Statues were many since King Mandon, who was a devout Buddhist, and had filled Mandalay with them and through the years Mandalay Buddhist art became established as the pure art of Myanmar. There are 729 slabs of stone that together are inscribed with the entire Pāli Canon , each housed in its own white stupa . The buildings inside

17526-458: The year. Average temperatures in January, the mildest month, hovers around 22 °C or 71.6 °F while the hottest month, April, averages 32 °C or 89.6 °F. Mandalay is very hot in the months of April and May, with average high temperatures easily exceeding 37 °C or 99 °F. It is not uncommon to see high temperatures surpass 40 °C or 104 °F during these two months in

17664-718: Was accepted by the UN General Assembly in a session in November 1969. This decision was implicitly considered to recognize Western New Guinea as part of Indonesia, because the General Assembly did not reject the report of the UN Secretary General regarding the implementation of Act of Free Choice. West Papua is the western half of the island of New Guinea and smaller islands to its west. The separatist Free Papua Movement (OPM) has engaged in

17802-600: Was brewing in the state after the Sikkim National Congress demanded fresh elections and greater representation for the Nepalese . In the 1967 Nathu La and Cho La clashes , Chinese border attacks were repulsed. In 1973, riots in front of the palace led to a formal request for protection from India. The Chogyal was proving to be extremely unpopular with the people. In 1975, the Kazi (prime minister) appealed to

17940-544: Was built to host the Women Football matches of 27th SEA Games and became the largest stadium in Mandalay and Upper Myanmar. At Waterfall Hill, the first bolted rock climbing site in Myanmar have been developed with the help of Mandalay climbers led by Steve, Tylor and Technical Climbing Club of Myanmar since 2010. Mandalay is the major trading and communications center for Upper Myanmar . Much of Burmese external trade to China and India goes through Mandalay. Among

18078-603: Was declared "null and void and without international legal effect" by United Nations Security Council Resolution 497 . The Federated States of Micronesia recognized the annexation and in 2019, the United States joined in recognition. The vast majority of Syrian Druze in Majdal Shams , the largest Syrian village in the Golan, have held onto their Syrian passports. When Israel annexed the Golan Heights in 1981, 95% of

18216-565: Was deposed after annexation, and an Iraqi governor installed. United States president George H. W. Bush ultimately condemned Iraq's actions, and moved to drive out Iraqi forces. Authorized by United Nations Security Council resolutions, an American-led coalition of 34 nations fought the Gulf War to reinstate the Kuwaiti Emir . Iraq's invasion (and annexation) was deemed illegal and Kuwait remains an independent nation today. The rule of

18354-693: Was greatest in nearby Sagaing , and it came to be known as the Great Sagaing Quake . Bodies of water near Mandalay are Mandalay Kantawgyi, a small lake and Irrawaddy River to the west of the city. Although the rain shadow of the Arakan Mountains is powerful, the city qualifies as having a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification: Aw ), bordering a hot semi-arid climate ( BSh ), though if using 1981-2010 data, Mandalay does qualify as hot semi-arid ( BSh ). Mandalay features noticeably warmer and cooler periods of

18492-425: Was officially completed only two years later, on Monday, 23 May 1859. For the next 26 years, Mandalay was to be the last royal capital of the Konbaung dynasty , the last independent Burmese kingdom before its final annexation by the British Empire . Mandalay ceased to be the capital on 28 November 1885 when the British conquered the city and sent Thibaw Min and his queen Supayalat into exile in India. Moreover,

18630-414: Was regarded by Indonesia as the country's 27th province, but this was never recognised by the United Nations . The people of East Timor resisted Indonesian forces in a prolonged guerrilla campaign. Following a referendum held in 1999 under a UN -sponsored agreement between the two sides, the people of East Timor rejected the offer of autonomy within Indonesia. East Timor achieved independence in 2002 and

18768-628: Was signed under pressure; academics have debated this ever since, but Tibet is recognized internationally as part of China. After the withdrawal of the British Empire from India, each of the Princely States of India and Pakistan that had been protectorates of the British Empire were given the choice of either 1. opting to join India, 2. opting to join Pakistan or 3. resume their former status as fully independent states. While most of

18906-839: Was the fifth of the Sino-Tibetan languages to develop a writing system, after Classical Chinese , Pyu , Old Tibetan and Tangut . The majority of Burmese speakers, who live throughout the Irrawaddy River Valley, use a number of largely similar dialects, while a minority speak non-standard dialects found in the peripheral areas of the country. These dialects include: Arakanese in Rakhine State and Marma in Bangladesh are also sometimes considered dialects of Burmese and sometimes as separate languages. Despite vocabulary and pronunciation differences, there

19044-485: Was the largest in Upper Myanmar before the construction of Mandalarthiri Stadium and hosts mainly local and regional association football and track-and-field tournaments. Since May 2009, professional football has arrived in Mandalay, with Yadanabon FC representing the city in the newly formed Myanmar National League , the country's first professional football league. In 2013, a new stadium, Mandalarthiri Stadium

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