Misplaced Pages

#274725

55-645: France and Britain imposed a five-year-long naval blockade on the Argentine Confederation ruled by Juan Manuel de Rosas . It was imposed in 1845 to support the Colorado Party in the Uruguayan Civil War , and closed Buenos Aires to naval commerce. Anglo-French merchantmen trespassed into the internal waters of Argentina in order to sell their products, as Rosas maintained a firm protectionist policy. A key engagement in

110-451: A distant blockade, the blockaders stay well away from the blockaded coast and try to intercept any ships going in or out. This may require more ships on station, but they can usually operate closer to their bases, and are at much less risk from enemy raids. This was almost impossible prior to the 16th century due to the nature of the ships used. A loose blockade is a close blockade where the blockading ships are withdrawn out of sight from

165-435: A blockade is a legal method of warfare at sea but is governed by rules. The manual describes what can never be contraband. The blockading nation is free to select anything else as contraband in a list, which it must publish. The blockading nation typically establishes a blockaded area of water, but any ship can be inspected as soon as it is established that it is attempting to break the blockade. This inspection can occur inside

220-514: A commercial failure, as Paraguay proved to be less wealthy than expected and merchant ships were forced to return with many of their goods unsold. On their return the convoy again faced fierce resistance, with several merchant ships sunk by the cannon fire of the Argentine forces. Whilst the British commander William Ouseley requested additional forces to support a new and continued campaign,

275-462: A lull in the siege and blockade of Buenos Aires, between 10 and 13 July 1853, Urquiza signed navigation agreements with agents of Great Britain, France and the United States which guaranteed the free navigation of Argentine inland rivers for foreign trade. In the opinion of James Scobie, his intention was to obtain a legal instrument to force these governments to protect freedom of navigation in

330-585: A navigation agreement opening up the rivers for navigation. The Foreign Office contacted France for this end, and both countries sent a diplomatic mission to Argentina in May 1852, led by Sir Charles Hotham and Michel de Saint-Georges, to put an end to the restrictions of the Arana–Southern Treaty and Arana-Lepredour Treaty . They had an interview with Urquiza in August, who agreed with their proposals. During

385-450: A number of factors compelled the British to break with their French allies; the outcome of the expedition, and the total cost of the short victory and limited commercial opportunities quickly changed British attitudes. Besides, Argentina owed a substantial debt to Barings Bank and the country's suspension of payments due to the blockade had caused financial concerns for the British. The Times had also printed an allegation that Ouseley had

440-697: A part of a war. This changed when France, Russia and Britain came to the aid of the Greek rebels against Turkey . They blockaded the Turkish-occupied coast, which led to the battle of Navarino . War was never declared, however, so it is considered the first pacific — i.e. peaceful — blockade. The first truly pacific blockade , involving no shooting at all, was the British blockade of the Republic of New Granada in 1837, established to compel New Granada to release an imprisoned British consul. Since 1945,

495-555: A personal financial interest in the blockade, causing a political scandal. Tomás Samuel Hood was sent to Buenos Aires with the instruction to negotiate a settlement with Rosas at all costs. Although the Anglo-French force defeated Argentine forces, the cost of victory proved excessive in light of the military acumen displayed by the Argentines. As a result, the British sought to exit from the confrontation. Negotiations to end

550-531: A report by management consultant group Collinson Grant was made public by Andrew Mackinlay . The report severely criticised the FCO's management structure, noting: The Foreign Office commissioned the report to highlight areas which would help it achieve its pledge to reduce spending by £87 million over three years. In response to the report being made public, the Foreign Office stated it had already implemented

605-482: A review of the FCO's strategic priorities. One of the key messages of these discussions was the conclusion that the existing framework of ten international strategic priorities, dating from 2003, was no longer appropriate. Although the framework had been useful in helping the FCO plan its work and allocate its resources, there was agreement that it needed a new framework to drive its work forward. The new strategic framework consists of three core elements: In August 2005,

SECTION 10

#1732801561275

660-400: Is also distinct from a siege in that a blockade is usually directed at an entire country or region, rather than a fortress or city and the objective may not always be to conquer the area. A blockading power can seek to cut off all maritime transport from and to the blockaded country, although stopping all land transport to and from an area may also be considered a blockade. Blockades restrict

715-448: Is also referred to as a blockade. When coastal cities or fortresses were besieged from the landward side, the besiegers would often blockade the seaward side as well. Most recently, blockades have sometimes included cutting off electronic communications by jamming radio signals and severing undersea cables . Blockades often result in the starvation of the civilian population, notably during the blockade of Germany during World War I and

770-729: Is now also been done by aircraft, forming airbridges , such as over the Berlin Blockade after World War II . Foreign Office King Charles III [REDACTED] William, Prince of Wales [REDACTED] Charles III ( King-in-Council ) [REDACTED] Starmer ministry ( L ) Keir Starmer ( L ) Angela Rayner ( L ) ( King-in-Parliament ) [REDACTED] Charles III [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Lord Reed The Lord Hodge Andrew Bailey Monetary Policy Committee The Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office ( FCDO )

825-660: Is responsible for representing and promoting British interests worldwide. The head of the FCDO is the secretary of state for foreign, Commonwealth and development affairs , commonly abbreviated to "foreign secretary". This is regarded as one of the four most prestigious positions in the Cabinet – the Great Offices of State – alongside those of Prime Minister , Chancellor of the Exchequer and Home Secretary . David Lammy

880-727: Is the ministry of foreign affairs and a ministerial department of the Government of the United Kingdom . The office was created on 2 September 2020 through the merger of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) and the Department for International Development (DFID). The FCO was itself created in 1968 by the merger of the Foreign Office (FO) and the Commonwealth Office . The department in its various forms

935-477: Is to support efforts to achieve a two-state solution . Funding a particular project for a limited period of time does not mean that we endorse every single action or public comment made by an NGO or by its employees." In September 2012, the FCO and the Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs signed a Memorandum of Understanding on diplomatic cooperation, which promotes the co-location of embassies,

990-648: The Colonial Office , from 1966 to 1968 by the Commonwealth Office , from 1968 to 2020 by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office , and since 2020 by the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (this did not include protectorates , which fell under the purview of the Foreign Office , or to British India , which had been administered by the East India Company until 1858, and thereafter by

1045-590: The Falkland Islands in the Convention, which would be a major point of contention and even military conflict during the next century. The treaty settled "the existing differences" between the two nations. The Convention was signed on 24 November 1849 and ratified on 15 May 1850. The treaty came into force after ratification. Details of the Arana–Southern Treaty were published by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, volume 37. The Anglo-French blockade of

1100-775: The First World War , the Arab Bureau was set up within the British Foreign Office as a section of the Cairo Intelligence Department . During the early Cold War an important department was the Information Research Department (IRD) which was used to create propaganda against socialist and anti-colonial movements. The Foreign Office hired its first woman diplomat, Monica Milne , in 1946. The FCO

1155-583: The India Office ). This arrangement has been subject to criticism in the UK and in the overseas territories. For example, the chief minister of Anguilla , Victor Banks , said: "We are not foreign; neither are we members of the Commonwealth , so we should have a different interface with the UK that is based on mutual respect". There have been numerous suggestions on ways to improve the relationship between

SECTION 20

#1732801561275

1210-679: The United Nations Security Council determines the legal status of blockades and by article 42 of the UN Charter , the council can also apply blockades. The UN Charter allows for the right of self-defense but requires that this must be immediately reported to the Security Council to ensure the maintenance of international peace. According to the not ratified document San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea, 12 June 1994,

1265-563: The blockade of Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War . According to modern international law, blockades are an act of war. When used as a part of an effort to starve the civilian population, they are illegal as part of a war of aggression or when used against a civilian population, instead of a military target. In such case, they are a war crime and potentially a crime against humanity . Although primitive naval blockades had been in use for millennia, they were limited by

1320-402: The 19th century, it was not infrequent for the Foreign Office to approach The Times newspaper and ask for continental intelligence, which was often superior to that conveyed by official sources. Examples of journalists who specialized in foreign affairs and were well connected to politicians included: Henry Southern , Valentine Chirol , Harold Nicolson, and Robert Bruce Lockhart . During

1375-421: The Argentine Confederation should have included its restitution in the treaty. Naval blockade A blockade is the act of actively preventing a country or region from receiving or sending out food , supplies , weapons , or communications , and sometimes people, by military force . A blockade differs from an embargo or sanction , which are legal barriers to trade rather than physical barriers. It

1430-639: The Colonial Office in 1925. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office held responsibility for international development issues between 1970 and 1974, and again between 1979 and 1997. The National Archives website contains a government timeline to show the departments responsible for foreign affairs from 1945. From 1997, international development became the responsibility of the separate Department for International Development . When David Miliband took over as Foreign Secretary in June 2007, he set in hand

1485-774: The Convention of Settlement progressed, it became apparent that Argentina was prepared to acquiesce Britain's possession of the Falklands. On 27 July 1849, the British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston stated in the House of Commons: … a claim had been made many years ago, on the part of Buenos Ayres, to the Falkland Islands, and had been resisted by the British Government. Great Britain had always disputed and denied

1540-706: The FCDO are scrutinised by the Foreign Affairs Select Committee . According to the FCDO website, the department's key responsibilities (as of 2020) are as follows: In addition to the above responsibilities, the FCDO is responsible for the British Overseas Territories , which had previously been administered from 1782 to 1801 by the Home Office , from 1801 to 1854 by the War and Colonial Office , from 1854 to 1966 by

1595-535: The Message to Congress, thereby maintaining Argentina's claim to the islands". Following the treaty, such protests ceased and Argentina did not protest again diplomatically until 1888. The matter was not raised again before the Argentine Congress until 1941. The British government cites this change as evidence that "there is no question over the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands ". As negotiations on

1650-581: The Río de la Plata was followed by a rebellion of Justo José de Urquiza against Rosas. In February 1852 Urquiza defeated Rosas at the battle of Caseros and replaced him. Shortly after Urquiza's victory, Sir Charles Hotham, who took part in the early conflict, wrote to the Earl of Malmesbury (who had replaced Lord Palmerston) suggesting that it was time to consider breaking the Arana-Southern treaty and allow

1705-472: The acquiescence of one party and the maintenance of the other. Manuel Moreno , the Argentine ambassador wrote to Lord Palmerston protesting against this statement. The Moreno letter referred to Palmerston's description of "the acquiescence of one party and the maintenance of the other" and several recent protests including the Messages to Congress. Palmerston replied, stating that “I have always understood

Arana–Southern Treaty - Misplaced Pages Continue

1760-612: The blessing of a same-sex marriage . In 2012, the Foreign Office was criticised by Gerald Steinberg of the Jerusalem-based research institute NGO Monitor , saying that the Foreign Office and the Department for International Development provided more than £500,000 in funding to Palestinian NGOs which he said "promote political attacks on Israel". In response, a spokesman for the Foreign Office said "we are very careful about who and what we fund. The objective of our funding

1815-595: The blockade was the Battle of Vuelta de Obligado , where a combined British and French fleet forced their way into the Paraná River despite fierce resistance from the Argentine forces: although the British and French forces routed the Argentine forces, inflicting significant casualties, the damage to European fleet was so extensive that they had to stay for 40 days in Obligado to make repairs. The expedition also proved

1870-404: The blockaded area or in international waters, but never inside the territorial waters of a neutral nation . A neutral ship must obey a request to stop for inspection from the blockading nation. If the situation so demands, the blockading nation can request that the ship divert to a known place or harbour for inspection. If the ship does not stop, then the ship is subject to capture. If people aboard

1925-454: The blockaded coast or port, to ensure the immediate interception of any ship entering or leaving. It is both the most effective and the most difficult form of blockade to implement. Difficulties arise because the blockading ships must remain continuously at sea, exposed to storms and hardship, usually far from any support, and vulnerable to sudden attack from the blockaded side, whose ships may stay safe in harbor until they choose to come out. In

1980-566: The blockading fleet off Brest and extended the blockade to cover the entire French Atlantic coast from Dunkirk to Bordeaux , and also to Marseilles on France's Mediterranean coast. The strategic importance of blockade was shown during the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars , when the Royal Navy successfully blockaded France, leading to major economic disruptions. The Union blockade of southern ports

2035-402: The claim of Spain to the Falkland Islands, and she was not therefore willing to yield to Buenos Ayres what had been refused to Spain. 10 or 12 years ago the Falkland Islands, having been unoccupied for some time, were taken possession of by Great Britain, and a settlement had ever since been maintained there; and he thought it would be most unadvisable to revive a correspondence which had ceased by

2090-599: The claim to the Falklands in order to end Britain's involvement in the River Plate blockade. The impact of the treaty was also raised in a 1950 debate on Argentina's claim to the Falklands by a member of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies, Absalón Rojas. Other Argentine historians have commented on the impact that the Convention of Settlement has upon Argentina's modern sovereignty claim, such as historian Alfredo R. Burnet-Merlín. Ernesto J. Fitte considers that

2145-416: The coast (behind the horizon) but no farther. The object of loose blockade is to lure the enemy into venturing out but to stay close enough to strike. British admiral Horatio Nelson applied a loose blockade at Cádiz in 1805. The Franco-Spanish fleet under Pierre-Charles Villeneuve then came out, resulting in the Battle of Trafalgar . Until 1827, blockades, as part of economic warfare , were always

2200-502: The conflict took nearly two years from 1848 to 1849. The final result was a peace treaty, the Arana–Southern Convention known as "Convention for the perfect restoration of friendly relations between the Argentine Confederation and Her Britannic Majesty" (Convención para restablecer las perfectas relaciones de amistad entre la Confederación Argentina y Su Majestad Britanica). It is also known as the " Convention of Settlement " or

2255-529: The event that the province of Buenos Aires tried to cut the Confederate communications with the outside. The free navigation of the rivers was included in the Constitution of Argentina of 1853 . It has been asserted that "Between the re-establishment of British rule on the Falkland Islands in 1833 and the ratification of the treaty, Argentina sent annual protests to the British government by means of

Arana–Southern Treaty - Misplaced Pages Continue

2310-498: The free navigation of the Argentine rivers. Urquiza held two interviews with the British representative Robert Gore, and in the second one he expressed his "plans to develop the resources of this great and rich country; the opening of the rivers to all nations, being the ships free to sail rivers and lift or drop cargo without having to stop previously in Buenos Aires." The British focused their diplomatic efforts on obtaining

2365-463: The joint provision of consular services, and common crisis response. The project has been criticised for further diminishing the UK's influence in Europe. In 2011, the then Foreign Secretary, William Hague , announced the government's intention to open a number of new diplomatic posts in order to enhance the UK's overseas network. As such, eight new embassies and six new consulates were opened around

2420-473: The matter in question to stand exactly in the way described by you in your letter.” Lord Palmerston's letter is interpreted either as recognition that Argentina continued to protest or as a belief that the Falklands issue had been settled by Argentina's acquiescence. A number of historians have commented on the relation of the Convention of Settlement to the Falklands dispute. The Mexican diplomat and historian Carlos Pereyra considers that General Rosas gave up

2475-573: The overseas territories and the UK. Suggestions have included setting up a dedicated department to handle relations with the overseas territories, and the absorption of the Overseas Territories Directorate (OTD) in the Cabinet Office , thus affording the overseas territories with better connections to the centre of government. The FCDO ministers are as follows, with cabinet ministers in bold: The Foreign Office

2530-438: The report's recommendations. In 2009, Gordon Brown created the position of Chief Scientific Adviser (CSA) to the FCO. The first science adviser was David Clary . On 25 April 2010, the department apologised after The Sunday Telegraph obtained a "foolish" document calling for the upcoming September visit of Pope Benedict XVI to be marked by the launch of "Benedict-branded" condoms , the opening of an abortion clinic and

2585-558: The ship resist capture, they can be lawfully attacked. Whether or not a blockade was seen as lawful depended on the laws of the nations whose trade was influenced by the blockade. The Brazilian blockade of Río de la Plata in 1826 during the Cisplatine War , for instance, was considered lawful according to British law but unlawful according to French and American law. The latter two countries announced they would actively defend their ships against Brazilian blockaders, while Britain

2640-692: The time ships were able to stay at sea uninterruptedly. The first successful attempts at establishing a full naval blockade were made by the British Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War (1754–1763) against France . Following the British naval victory at Quiberon Bay , which ended any immediate threat of a major invasion of Britain , Britain established a close blockade on the French coast. This starved French ports of commerce, weakening France's economy. Admiral Edward Hawke took command of

2695-411: The trading rights of neutrals, who must submit for inspection for contraband, which the blockading power may define narrowly or broadly, sometimes including food and medicine. In the 20th century, air power has also been used to enhance the effectiveness of blockades by halting air traffic within the blockaded airspace. Close patrol of hostile ports, in order to prevent naval forces from putting to sea,

2750-444: The “Arana-Southern Treaty”. The treaty is viewed as a considerable triumph for the Argentine caudillo and Governor of Buenos Aires General Rosas , as it was the first time that one of the emerging South American nations were able to impose their will on two European powers (Britain and France). However, Rosas—as he had previously considered over the country's debt to Barings Bank —was also prepared to concede Argentina's claim to

2805-843: Was a major factor in the American Civil War . During World War I , the Allies blockaded the Central Powers , depriving them of food and other strategic materials. Germany's attempted U-boat blockade caused some shortages in Britain, but ultimately failed. This outcome was repeated in World War II . Naval strategic thinkers, such as Sir Julian Corbett and Alfred Thayer Mahan , wrote that naval conflicts were won primarily by decisive battles, but also by blockade. A close blockade entails placing warships within sight of

SECTION 50

#1732801561275

2860-450: Was appointed Foreign Secretary on 5th July 2024 following the 2024 general election . The FCDO is managed day-to-day by a civil servant , the permanent under-secretary of state for foreign affairs , who also acts as the Head of His Majesty's Diplomatic Service . Sir Philip Barton took office as permanent under-secretary on 2 September 2020. The expenditure, administration and policy of

2915-411: Was forced to steer for a peaceful solution between Brazil and Argentina . Blockades depend on four general factors Blockade running is the practice of delivering cargo (food, for example) to a blockaded area. It has mainly been done by ships (called blockade runners ) across ports under naval blockade. Blockade runners were typically the fastest ships available and often lightly armed and armored. It

2970-687: Was formed in March 1782 by combining the Southern and Northern Departments of the Secretary of State, each of which covered both foreign and domestic affairs in their parts of the Kingdom. The two departments' foreign affairs responsibilities became the Foreign Office, whilst their domestic affairs responsibilities were assigned to the Home Office. The Home Office is technically the senior. During

3025-781: Was formed on 17 October 1968, from the merger of the short-lived Commonwealth Office and the Foreign Office . The Commonwealth Office had been created only in 1966, by the merger of the Commonwealth Relations Office and the Colonial Office , the Commonwealth Relations Office having been formed by the merger of the Dominions Office and the India Office in 1947—with the Dominions Office having been split from

#274725