List of forms of government
138-569: The Army Combat Badge (ACB) is a military decoration that is awarded to any member of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) for service with an Army combat element in warlike operations. Its equivalent is the Infantry Combat Badge . In 1970, the Infantry Combat Badge was instituted to recognise the service of Army personnel in battle or on operations; however, only personnel serving as infantry were eligible for
276-414: A Clausewitzian view of war , emphasizing its political character. In the words of Georges Clemenceau , "War is too serious a matter to entrust to military men" (also frequently rendered as "War is too important to be left to the generals"), wryly reflects this view. Given that broad strategic decisions, such as the decision to declare a war, start an invasion, or end a conflict, have a major impact on
414-597: A battalion -sized Australian Army battle group (initially designated the Al Muthanna Task Group , and later Overwatch Battle Group (West) ) was stationed in southern Iraq. In addition, teams of ADF personnel were deployed to train Iraqi military units. In line with a 2007 election commitment, the Rudd government withdrew combat-related forces from Iraq in mid-2008, and most of the remaining Australian units left
552-464: A "posse" consisting of federal soldiers or airmen. There are, however, practical political concerns in the United States that make the use of federal military forces less desirable for use in domestic law enforcement. Under the U.S. Constitution, law and order is primarily a matter of state concern. As a practical matter, when military forces are necessary to maintain domestic order and enforce
690-535: A contribution to maintaining the rules-based order globally. There is also a risk that climate change , weak economic growth and social factors could cause instability in South Pacific countries. The ADF has developed strategies to respond to Australia's changing strategic environment. The 2016 Defence White Paper states that "the Government will ensure Australia maintains a regionally superior ADF with
828-404: A distinct civilian police force, militia , or other paramilitary group may mitigate to an extent the disproportionate strength that a country's military possesses; civilian gun ownership has also been justified on the grounds that it prevents potential abuses of power by authorities (military or otherwise). Opponents of gun control have cited the need for a balance of power in order to enforce
966-519: A focus on responding to China's rapidly growing influence. It included commitments to expand the RAN, including acquiring twelve submarines, and increasing defence spending by three percent per year in real terms. This increase in spending did not occur, however. The Defence White Paper 2013 had similar strategic themes, but set out a more modest program of defence spending which reflected the government's constrained finances. As part of an election commitment,
1104-424: A forward air control training squadron) as well as one Airborne Early Warning & Control squadron and a Joint Terminal Attack Controller squadron. The ground units supporting these flying squadrons include three expeditionary combat support squadrons, three security force squadrons and a range of intelligence, air traffic control, communications, radar and medical units. The ADF's logistics are managed by
1242-433: A key part of the democratic process. This poses the paradox that "because we fear others we create an institution of violence to protect us, but then we fear the very institution we created for protection". Also, military personnel, because of the nature of their job, are much more willing to use force to settle disputes than civilians because they are trained military personnel that specialise strictly in warfare. The military
1380-561: A logistics brigade (the 17th Sustainment Brigade ). Under a restructure of the Army's health capability, a new health brigade, designated the 2nd Health Brigade, will be raised in 2023. In addition, there are six Army Reserve brigades; these brigades are administered by the 2nd Division and "paired" with the three regular combat brigades. The Army's main tactical formations are combined arms battlegroups made up of elements drawn from different units. The Special Operations Command commands
1518-729: A means to assert policy and strategic control. Three examples include Abraham Lincoln 's dismissal of George McClellan in the American Civil War when McClellan failed to pursue the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia following the Battle of Antietam , Harry S. Truman relieving Douglas MacArthur of command in the Korean War after MacArthur repeatedly contradicted the Truman administration's stated policies on
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#17327830212501656-406: A military strike on China and that its federal government would remain stable. Some commentators, former military officials, and Republican members of Congress criticised Milley's actions as an undermining of civil control of the military, while Milley and others defended his actions and claimed he did not overstep his authority. Differing opinions exist as to the desirability of distinguishing
1794-549: A nations ability to prevent conflict and provide security. This can lead to the military abusing the very population it is supposed to be protecting with no real controlling mechanism. Most countries have developed similar systems of a ministry of defence to provide civilian oversight and coordination between military and government. Many of the Founding Fathers of the United States were suspicious of standing militaries . As Samuel Adams wrote in 1768, "Even when there
1932-785: A number of joint operational and training units. These include the Joint Military Police Unit and the Joint Helicopter Aircrew Training School . In 2023, after the release of the Defence Strategic Review (DSR) and a recommendation to consolidate the ADF's guided weapons and explosive ordnance (GWEO) across the services, leading to the creation of the Guided Weapons and Explosive Ordnance Group (GWEOG), and
2070-555: A number of non-commissioned vessels. In addition, the RAN maintains a force of combat, logistics and training helicopters. There are two parts to the RAN's structure. One is an operational command, Fleet Command , and the other is a support command, Navy Strategic Command . The Navy's assets are administered by five "forces" which report to the Commander Australian Fleet . These are the Fleet Air Arm ,
2208-438: A positive one, he presented the idea of a strong nation protected by a navy with no need of a standing army. The implication was that control of a large military force is, at best, difficult and expensive, and at worst invites war and division. He foresaw the necessity of creating a civil government that kept the military at a distance. James Madison , another writer of many of The Federalist Papers , expressed his concern about
2346-622: A prominent academic and former Deputy Secretary in the Department of Defence, has criticised the ADF's current command structure. White argues that the Minister plays too large a role in military decision-making and does not provide the CDF and Secretary of Defence with necessary and sufficient authority to manage the ADO effectively. Under the current ADF command structure the day-to-day management of
2484-517: A purpose-built facility near Bungendore , New South Wales. This is a joint headquarters comprising personnel from the three services and includes a continuously manned Joint Control Centre. HQJOC's main role is to "plan, monitor and control" ADF operations and exercises, and it is organised around groups of plans, operations and support staff. HQJOC also monitors the readiness of the ADF units which are not assigned to operations and contributes to developing Australia's military doctrine. As well as HQJOC,
2622-548: A share of the national budget. Nuclear weapons of the United States are controlled by the civilian Department of Energy , not by the Department of Defense . During the 1990s and 2000s, public controversy over LGBT policy in the U.S. military led to many military leaders and personnel being asked for their opinions on the matter and being given deference although the decision was ultimately not theirs to make. During his tenure, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld raised
2760-441: A signals regiment and three training and personnel support units. The Australian Army's main combat forces are grouped in brigades. Its main conventional forces are three regular combat brigades which are organised on a common structure; the 1st , 3rd and 7th Brigades . Support for the units in these formations is provided by an aviation brigade ( 16th Aviation Brigade ), a combat support and ISTAR brigade ( 6th Brigade ) and
2898-644: A standing military in comments before the Constitutional Convention in June 1787: In time of actual war, great discretionary powers are constantly given to the Executive Magistrate. Constant apprehension of War, has the same tendency to render the head too large for the body. A standing military force, with an overgrown Executive, will not long be safe companions to liberty. The means of defense against foreign danger, have been always
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#17327830212503036-430: A study of South Korea , the military is responsible for enacting the policy and decisions handed down from the government. This is dependent on the civil government maintaining a strong grip on the power to enact binding decision and the military following these decisions in the agreed approach. Civil control is the authority of a nations political structure to make policy and implementation decisions that can be directed to
3174-475: A way to maintain the control by political rulers. Historically they are associated most strongly with the Soviet Union and China rather than liberal democracies. While civil control forms the normative standard in almost every society outside of military dictatorships, its practice has often been the subject of pointed criticism from both uniformed and non-uniformed observers, who object to what they view as
3312-621: Is a necessity of the military power, within a land, a wise and prudent people will always have a watchful and jealous eye over it". Even more forceful are the words of Elbridge Gerry , a delegate to the Constitutional Convention , who wrote that "[s]tanding armies in time of peace are inconsistent with the principles of republican Governments, dangerous to the liberties of a free people, and generally converted into destructive engines for establishing despotism." In Federalist No. 8 , one of The Federalist Papers documenting
3450-464: Is authoritative and hierarchical, rarely allowing discussion and prohibiting dissension. For instance, in the Empire of Japan , prime ministers and almost everyone in high positions were military personnel like Hideki Tojo , and advocated and basically pressured the leaders to start military conflicts against China and others because they believed that they would ultimately be victorious. According to
3588-569: Is called a military dictatorship . A lack of control over the military may result in a state within a state , as observed in countries like Pakistan. One author, paraphrasing Samuel P. Huntington 's writings in The Soldier and the State , has summarised the civil control ideal as "the proper subordination of a competent, professional military to the ends of policy as determined by civilian authority". Advocates of civil control generally take
3726-551: Is exercised through a formal command chain headed by the CJOPS, who reports directly to the CDF. The CJOPS commands the Headquarters Joint Operations Command (HQJOC) as well as temporary joint task forces. These joint task forces comprise units assigned from their service to participate in operations or training exercises. Operational command of the ADF is exercised by HQJOC, which is located at
3864-520: Is not a fact but a process". Affirmations of respect for the values of civil control notwithstanding, the actual level of control sought or achieved by the civil leadership may vary greatly in practice, from a statement of broad policy goals that military commanders are expected to translate into operational plans, to the direct selection of specific targets for attack on the part of governing politicians . National leaders with limited experience in military matters often have little choice but to rely on
4002-602: Is responsible for committing Australia to war. Contemporary practice, is that a decision to commit the ADF to an "international armed conflict is an exercise of prerogative power pursuant to section 61 of the Constitution " that is made by the NSC without involving the Governor-General. The NSC may refer its decision to the full Cabinet for its endorsement. The Commonwealth Government has never been required by
4140-506: Is responsible for preparing units and individuals for operations. Headquarters 1st Division is responsible for high-level training activities and is capable of being deployed to command large scale ground operations. Only a small number of units are permanently assigned to the 1st Division; these include the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment which forms the pre-landing force for the Australian Amphibious Force,
4278-638: Is stated in the 2016 Defence White Paper that Australia's changing security environment will lead to new demands being placed on the Australian Defence Force. Although it is not expected that Australia will face any threat of direct attack from another country, terrorist groups and tensions between nations in East Asia pose threats to Australian security. More broadly, the Australian Government believes that it needs to make
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4416-478: Is supported by the Department of Defence alongside other civilian entities. During the first decades of the 20th century, the Australian Government established the armed services as separate organisations, with each service having an independent chain of command . In 1976, the government made a strategic change and established the ADF to place the services under a single headquarters. Over time,
4554-436: Is that they may ignore or supplant the democratic decision-making process, and use physical force, or the threat of physical force, to achieve their preferred outcomes; in the worst cases, this may lead to a coup or military dictatorship . A related danger is the use of the military to crush domestic political opposition through intimidation or sheer physical force, interfering with the ability to have free and fair elections,
4692-486: Is the Minister for Defence Industry . The CDF is the most senior appointment in the ADF and commands the force. The CDF is the only four-star officer in the ADF and is a general, admiral or air chief marshal . As well as having command responsibilities, the CDF is the Minister for Defence's principal military adviser. General Angus Campbell is the current CDF, and assumed this position on 1 July 2018. Hugh White ,
4830-723: Is the air power branch of the ADF. The RAAF has modern combat and transport aircraft and a network of bases in strategic locations across Australia. The RAAF has a single operational command, Air Command . Air Command is the operational arm of the RAAF and consists of Air Combat Group , Air Mobility Group , Surveillance and Response Group , Combat Support Group , Air Warfare Centre and Air Force Training Group . Each group consists of several wings . The RAAF has nineteen flying squadrons ; five combat squadrons, two maritime patrol squadrons, six transport squadrons, six training squadrons (including three Operational Conversion Units and
4968-679: Is the responsibility of the Joint Logistics Command (JLC) and the single service logistic units, instead CASG has responsibility for the supply and transport of materiel from manufacturers to supply depots. These units include the Navy's Strategic Command and replenishment ships, the Army's 17th Sustainment Brigade and Combat Service Support Battalions, and the Combat Support Group RAAF . The ADF maintains stockpiles of ammunition, fuel and other supplies. Since
5106-545: Is to enforce U.S. laws, even though it is an armed service. The act is often misunderstood to prohibit any use of federal military forces in law enforcement, but this is not the case. For example, the President has explicit authority under the Constitution and federal law to use federal forces or federalised militias to enforce the laws of the United States. The act's primary purpose is to prevent local law enforcement officials from utilising federal forces in this way by forming
5244-407: Is to make security subordinate to the larger purposes of a nation, rather than the other way around. The purpose of the military is to defend society, not to define it." A state's effective use of force is an issue of great concern for all national leaders, who must rely on the military to supply this aspect of their authority . The danger of granting military leaders full autonomy or sovereignty
5382-632: The Liberal–National Coalition Abbott government commissioned a further defence white paper that was published in 2016. This document also included a commitment to expand the ADF's size and capabilities. There has generally been bipartisan agreement between the ALP and the Liberal–National Coalition on the ADF's role since the mid-1970s. Both political groupings currently support the ADF's focus on expeditionary operations, and
5520-754: The Albanese Ministry two cabinet-level ministers have been responsible for the Defence portfolio since May 2022: the position of Minister for Defence held by the Deputy Prime Minister Richard Marles , and Matt Keogh is the Minister for Defence Personnel and the Minister for Veterans' Affairs . In addition, there are two junior ministers: Matt Thistlethwaite is the Assistant Minister for Defence and Assistant Minister for Veterans' Affairs and Pat Conroy
5658-815: The Australian Defence Organisation (ADO), which is often referred to as "Defence". A diarchy of the Chief of the Defence Force (CDF) and the Secretary of the Department of Defence administers the ADO. The Department of Defence is staffed by both civilian and military personnel, and includes agencies such as the Defence Intelligence Organisation (DIO) and Defence Science and Technology Group (DST Group). The ADF's command arrangements are specified in
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5796-406: The Battle of Mogadishu ) that he was ignoring military goals out of political and media pressure—a phenomenon termed the " CNN effect ". Politicians who personally lack military training and experience but who seek to engage the nation in military action may risk resistance and being labeled " chickenhawks " by those who disagree with their political goals. In contesting these priorities, members of
5934-482: The Defence Act 1903 and subordinate legislation. This act states that the Minister for Defence "has general control and administration of the Defence Force" and that the CDF and the Secretary of the Department of Defence must "comply with any directions of the Minister". The leaders of the ADO are also responsible to the junior ministers who are appointed to manage specific elements of the defence portfolio. Under
6072-702: The Indo-Pacific region. It also concluded that there was no longer a ten-year period of strategic warning before Australia could be involved in a major war. The document stated that the ADF's funding would be expanded, and its capacity to strike at targets from a long distance be improved. In September 2021, Australia entered into the AUKUS trilateral security partnership with the United Kingdom and United States. As part of this partnership, Australia will obtain nuclear attack submarines to significantly improve
6210-605: The Vietnam War (which had proved disastrous for the morale and fighting integrity of the U.S. military) by proposing that the nation should only go to war in matters of "vital national interest", "as a last resort", and, as updated by Weinberger 's disciple Colin Powell , with "overwhelming force". The process of setting military budgets forms another contentious intersection of military and non-military policy, and regularly draws active lobbying by rival military services for
6348-695: The executive government sections of the Australian Constitution . Section 51(vi) gives the Commonwealth Government the power to make laws regarding Australia's defence and defence forces and Section 114 prevents the States from raising armed forces without the permission of the Commonwealth. Under Section 119 the Commonwealth is assigned responsibility for defending Australia from invasion. This section also sets out
6486-460: The invasion of Iraq . The ADF was subsequently involved in the reconstruction of Iraq. From 2003 until 2005 this was mainly limited to a Security Detachment which protected the Australian embassy, the attachment of officers to multi-national headquarters, small numbers of transport and maritime patrol aircraft, and teams of air traffic controllers and medical personnel. From 2005 until 2008
6624-525: The trade sanctions imposed on Iraq . In 1996, John Howard led the Liberal Party's election campaign and became prime minister. Subsequently, there were significant reforms to the ADF's force structure and role. The new government's defence strategy placed less emphasis on defending Australia from direct attack and greater emphasis on working in co-operation with regional states and Australia's allies to manage potential security threats. From 1997
6762-521: The " Revolution in Military Affairs ") has allowed civilian leaders removed from the theatre of conflict to assert greater control over the actions of distant military forces. Precision-guided munitions and real-time videoconferencing with field commanders now allow the civilian leadership to intervene even at the tactical decision-making level, designating particular targets for destruction or preservation based on political calculations or
6900-519: The "garrison" support services at military bases have been provided by private firms . The reforms also led to many of the ADF's logistics units being disbanded or reduced in size. Since this time private firms have increasingly been contracted to provide critical support to ADF units deployed outside Australia. This support has included transporting equipment and personnel and constructing and supplying bases. The Australian Defence Force's intelligence collection and analysis capabilities include each of
7038-458: The "societal imperative that the military remain subordinate to civil authority and that it reflect, to an appropriate degree, societal values and norms". Civil oversight over militaries puts the power to take military action in the hands of a civil authority, such as through government ministers or legislative bodies, or the democratic apparatus of the Crown in constitutional monarchies . Allowing
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#17327830212507176-597: The 1970s, Australia's military strategy centred on the concept of "forward defence", in which the role of the Australian military was to co-operate with allied forces to counter threats in Australia's region. In 1969, when the United States began the Guam Doctrine and the British withdrew east of Suez , Australia developed a defence policy which emphasised self-reliance and the defence of continental Australia. This
7314-520: The 1991 Gulf War was the first time Australian personnel were deployed to an active war zone since the establishment of the ADF. Although the warships and clearance diving team deployed to the Persian Gulf did not see combat, the deployment tested the ADF's capabilities and command structure. Following the war the Navy regularly deployed a frigate to the Persian Gulf or Red Sea to enforce
7452-674: The ACB, a member must have: Australian Defence Force The Australian Defence Force ( ADF ) is the military organisation responsible for the defence of the Commonwealth of Australia and its national interests. It consists of three branches: the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). The ADF has a strength of just over 89,000 personnel and
7590-664: The ADF has permanent joint operational commands responsible to the CJOPS. Joint Operations Command (JOC) includes the two headquarters responsible for patrolling Australia's maritime borders on a day-to-day basis, Northern Command and Maritime Border Command . Other JOC units include the Joint Movements Group and the Air and Space Operations Centre. Individual ADF units and Joint Task Groups are assigned to JOC during operations, and HQJOC includes officers responsible for submarine and special operations forces. The ADF includes
7728-424: The ADF is distinct from the command of military operations. The services are administered through the ADO, with the head of each service (the Chief of Navy , Chief of Army and Chief of Air Force ) and the service headquarters being responsible for raising, training and sustaining combat forces. Each chief is also the CDF's principal adviser on matters concerning the responsibilities of their service. The CDF chairs
7866-611: The Albanese government commissioned the Defence Strategic Review that was publicly released in April 2023. The review found that the security challenges facing Australia had continued to worsen, and called for the ADF to be restructured to meet the threats. This includes transitioning the ADF from its traditional structure of a "balanced force" capable of a range of activities to a "focused force" tailored mainly to protecting Australia from military attack or coercion . As part of this change,
8004-458: The Army or the Air Force (since the U.S. Air Force evolved from the U.S. Army) from engaging in domestic law enforcement activities unless they do so pursuant to lawful authority. Similar prohibitions apply to the Navy and Marine Corps by service regulation, since the actual Posse Comitatus Act does not apply to them. The Coast Guard is exempt from Posse Comitatus as one of its primary missions
8142-666: The Army's special forces units. It comprises the Special Air Service Regiment , the 2nd Commando Regiment , the reserve 1st Commando Regiment and the Special Operations Engineer Regiment as well as logistics and training units. The Army's special forces units have been expanded since 2001 and are well equipped and capable of being deployed by sea, air or land. As of 2014, Special Operations Command comprised approximately 2,200 personnel. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF)
8280-503: The Chiefs of Service Committee which comprises the service chiefs, Vice Chief of the Defence Force and the Chief of Joint Operations (CJOPS). The CDF and service chiefs are supported by an integrated ADF Headquarters, which replaced separate service headquarters on 1 July 2017. While the individual members of each service ultimately report to their service's Chief, the Chiefs do not control military operations. Control of ADF operations
8418-480: The Constitution or legislation to seek parliamentary approval for decisions to deploy military forces overseas or go to war. By 1870, each of the then Australian colonies maintained their own military forces . On 1 January 1901, the colonies federated into a new nation and on 1 March 1901, these colonial forces were amalgamated to establish the Australian Army and Commonwealth Naval Force. In 1911,
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#17327830212508556-453: The Department of Defence's Capability Acquisition and Sustainment Group (CASG). The CASG was established in 2015 from the previously semi-independent Defence Materiel Organisation . CASG is responsible for the acquisition of all materiel (except guided weapons and explosive ordnance) and services used by the ADF and maintaining this equipment throughout its life of type. CASG is not directly responsible for supplying deployed ADF units; this
8694-423: The Government also implemented a series of changes to the ADF's force structure to increase the proportion of combat units to support units and improve the ADF's combat effectiveness. The ADF's experiences during the deployment to East Timor in 1999 led to significant changes in Australia's defence policies and, an enhancement of the ADF's ability to conduct operations outside Australia. This successful deployment
8832-483: The Governor-General does not play an active part in the ADF's command structure and the elected government controls the ADF through the Minister for Defence . The Minister for Defence exercises control of the ADF under section 8 of the Defence Act 1903 that states "the Minister has general control and administration of the Defence Force". The Constitution does not contain a provision that expressly states who
8970-698: The Middle East during Operation Okra as part of the international war against the Islamic State . The RAAF aircraft conducted air strikes in Iraq and Syria and provided airborne command and control and air-to-air refuelling for the coalition forces. The special forces advised the Iraqi Army and the training unit trained Iraqi soldiers. The RAAF combat aircraft completed operations in January 2018, and
9108-405: The Mine Warfare, Clearance Diving, Hydrographic, Meteorological and Patrol Force, Shore Force, Submarine Force and Surface Force. The Army is organised into three main elements which report to the Chief of Army; the Headquarters of the 1st Division , Special Operations Command and Forces Command . As of 2017, approximately 85% of Army personnel were in units assigned to Forces Command, which
9246-429: The National Guard) being the least politically palatable option. Strong democratic control of the military is a prerequisite for membership in NATO . Strong democracy and rule of law, implying democratic control of the military, are prerequisites for membership in the European Union . Maoist military-political theories of people's war and democratic centralism also support the subordination of military forces to
9384-400: The People's Liberation Army by the CCP and greater political training of officers and enlistees as a means of reducing military autonomy. In Mao's theory, the military—which serves both as a symbol of the revolution and an instrument of the dictatorship of the proletariat —is not merely expected to defer to the direction of the ruling non-uniformed Party members (who today exercise control in
9522-451: The People's Republic of China through the Central Military Commission ), but also to actively participate in the revolutionary political campaigns of the Maoist era. Civilian leaders cannot usually hope to challenge their militaries by means of force, and thus must guard against any potential usurpation of powers through a combination of policies, laws, and the inculcation of the values of civil control in their armed services. The presence of
9660-482: The RAN's capabilities - this replaced a plan to acquire 12 conventionally powered Attack -class submarines in partnership with France. The three AUKUS countries also agreed to collaborate on a range of military technologies. An investigation of allegations of Australian war crimes in Afghanistan was completed in November 2020. The Brereton Report found that there was evidence that 25 Australian special forces personnel committed war crimes on 25 occasions, resulting in
9798-418: The Secretary of the Department of Defence , Arthur Tange , submitted a report to the Government that recommended the unification of the separate departments supporting each service under a single Department of Defence, and the creation of the position of Chief of the Defence Force Staff. The government accepted these recommendations, and the Australian Defence Force was established on 9 February 1976. Until
9936-564: The Taliban. An Army infantry company was deployed to Kabul as part of this operation. More than 3,500 people were evacuated by the RAAF. Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 Australia provided military assistance to Ukraine. As of April 2023 , this included the transfer of military equipment from the ADF worth $ A475 million and the deployment of an Army training team to
10074-597: The United Kingdom to train Ukrainian soldiers. The election of the ALP Albanese government in May 2022 did not significantly change Australia's defence posture, as the ALP and Coalition parties have broadly similar defence policies. This includes an agreement on China posing a threat to Australia's security. The main difference is that the ALP sees climate change as an important security issue. After coming to power,
10212-623: The United States, Article I of the Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war (in the War Powers Clause ), while Article II of the Constitution establishes the President as the commander-in-chief. Ambiguity over when the President could take military action without declaring war resulted in the War Powers Resolution of 1973. American presidents have used the power to dismiss high-ranking officers as
10350-423: The adequacy of the fuel stockpile, especially as Australia is largely dependent on imports which could be disrupted in the event of war. The increasing role of the private sector forms an important trend in the ADF's logistics arrangements. During the 1990s many of the ADF's support functions were transferred to the private sector to improve the efficiency with which they were provided. Since these reforms most of
10488-433: The advice of professional military commanders trained in the art and science of warfare to inform the limits of policy; in such cases, the military establishment may enter the bureaucratic arena to advocate for or against a particular course of action, shaping the policy-making process and blurring any clear cut lines of civil control. The reverse situation, where professional military officers control national politics,
10626-428: The appointment of Air Marshal Leon Phillips, OAM as its head. This moved the responsibility of acquisition and sustainment of the ADF's explosive materiel from CASG to the newly formed GWEOG. The Royal Australian Navy is the naval branch of the Australian Defence Force. The RAN operates just under 50 commissioned warships , including destroyers , frigates , submarines , patrol boats and auxiliary ships, as well as
10764-459: The award. The Army Combat Badge (ACB) was instituted in 2005 to recognise the unique service of non infantry personnel operating with an Arms Corps unit within a warlike area of operations. The decoration is one of the few awarded by Army Headquarters; the majority of other Australian military honours and awards are issued by the Directorate of Honours and Awards. To be eligible to be issued
10902-405: The broad funding target set out in the 2016 Defence White Paper . The ADF's broad force structure has also experienced little change since the 1980s. For instance, throughout this period the Army's main combat formations have been three brigades and the RAAF has been equipped with around 100 combat aircraft. Most of the equipment used by the services has been replaced or upgraded, however. It
11040-460: The capabilities of the RAN and RAAF and relocating regular Army units to northern Australia. At this time, the ADF had no military units on operational deployment outside Australia. In 1987, the ADF made its first operational deployment as part of Operation Morris Dance , in which several warships and a rifle company deployed to the waters off Fiji in response to the 1987 Fijian coups d'état . While broadly successful, this deployment highlighted
11178-504: The citizens of the country, they are seen by civil control advocates as best guided by the will of the people (as expressed by their political representatives ), rather than left solely to an elite group of tactical experts. The military serves as a special government agency , which is supposed to implement , rather than formulate , policies that require the use of certain types of physical force. Richard Kohn, Professor Emeritus of History at UNC , summarises, "The point of civilian control
11316-539: The city was close to being defeated, ordering him to return East to assist with the defense of the empire against Khosrow 's invasion of the Roman Empire and instructed him to agree to a peace deal with the Goths under conditions considerably favourable to the Goths, but Belisarius objected to the order and delayed his return. It was a common issue in the Roman Empire that rebellious generals would be able to overthrow
11454-432: The civil component of government to retain control over the military or state security illustrates the power of the citizenry, a healthy respect for democratic values, and what can be described as good governance. Giving power to the civil component of the government over what the military can do and how much money it can spend protects the democratic process from abuse. Nations that can achieve legitimate relationship between
11592-436: The civil control model, a state's government and military are confined to the rule of law and submit to civil oversight to make an effective security apparatus possible. Transparency has taken hold throughout the international system to improve bureaucracy and the democratisation of both democratic countries and resistant authoritarian holdovers. This has grown to involve the armed forces/security forces themselves to work towards
11730-468: The civil control of the military. The establishment of a civilian head of state, head of government, or other government figure as the military's commander-in-chief within the chain of command is one legal construct for the propagation of civilian control. However, in many constitutional monarchies, the monarch is both commander-in-chief and a member of the country's military, thus civil control does not necessitate complete control of only civilians. In
11868-461: The civil government, requiring some degree of deference on the part of officers seeking advancement through the ranks. Historically, direct control over military forces deployed for war was hampered by the technological limits of command, control, and communications ; national leaders, whether democratically elected or not, had to rely on local commanders to execute the details of a military campaign , or risk centrally-directed orders' obsolescence by
12006-670: The conditions under which the government can deploy the defence force domestically. The Constitution states that the Governor-General is the commander in chief of the ADF. In practical terms, this role is largely ceremonial. The Governor-General exercises this power based on advice from the Prime Minister following deliberations of the National Security Committee of Cabinet (NSC) that considers important national security matters. In practice,
12144-516: The counsel of non-uniformed advisors. In the United States the Hatch Act of 1939 does not directly apply to the military, however, Department of Defense Directive 1344.10 (DoDD 1344.10) essentially applies the same rules to the military. This helps to ensure a non-partisan military and ensure smooth and peaceful transitions of power. Political officers screened for appropriate ideology have been integrated into supervisory roles within militaries as
12282-711: The country the next year. The ADF also undertook several operations in Australia's immediate region during the 2000s. In 2003, elements of all three services were dispatched to Solomon Islands as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands . Regular deployments of Australian forces continued to the islands until 2017. Between December 2004 and March 2005, 1,400 ADF personnel served in Indonesia as part of Operation Sumatra Assist , which formed part of Australia's response to
12420-639: The deaths of 39 people and the mistreatment of two others. General Angus Campbell accepted all of the 143 recommendations made in the report. An Office of the Special Investigator was subsequently established to conduct criminal investigations, and the first soldier was charged with war crimes in March 2023. During August 2021, RAAF aircraft participated in an international airlift to evacuate people from Kabul in Afghanistan after it fell to
12558-467: The degree of integration has increased, and tri-service headquarters, logistics, and training institutions have supplanted many single-service establishments. The ADF has been deployed around the world in combat, peacekeeping and disaster-relief missions. The ADF is technologically sophisticated but relatively small for its landmass. Although the ADF's 57,346 full-time active-duty personnel and 32,049 active reservists as of 30 June 2023 make it
12696-692: The devastating 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . In May 2006, approximately 2,000 ADF personnel deployed to East Timor in Operation Astute following unrest between elements of the Timor Leste Defence Force . This deployment concluded in March 2013. From 2006 until 2013 a battalion-sized Australian Army task force operated in Urozgan Province , Afghanistan; this unit was primarily tasked with providing assistance for reconstruction efforts and training Afghan forces, but
12834-674: The dictates of military strategy are subsumed to the political, with the effect of unduly restricting the fighting capabilities of the nation's armed forces for what should be immaterial or otherwise lower priority concerns. In the wars between the Roman Empire and the Goths in Italy during the 500s CE , the incentives of the military and military necessity clashed with the incentives of the civilian leadership in Constantinople led by Emperor Justinian I . Supreme command in principle
12972-536: The directives of the communist party (although the guerrilla experience of many early leading Chinese Communist Party figures may make their status as civilians somewhat ambiguous). In a 1929 essay On Correcting Mistaken Ideas in the Party , Mao Zedong explicitly refuted "comrades [who] regard military affairs and politics as opposed to each other and [who] refuse to recognize that military affairs are only one means of accomplishing political tasks", prescribing control of
13110-462: The emperor, and emperors commonly clipped the wings of generals who were too successful and too popular, one such assassination of a popular general named Vitelian occurred under the recent reign of Emperor Justin I , the uncle of Justinian. It was a particular issue in the case of Justinian as he had no biological children nor had ever legally adopted a son. During the Plague of Justinian , Belisarius
13248-436: The good nature of the incumbent to ensure proper government was folly. Institutions must be in place to check incompetent or malevolent leaders. Most importantly, no single branch of government ought to have control over any single aspect of governing. Thus, all three branches of government must have some control over the military, and the system of checks and balances maintained among the other branches would serve to help control
13386-578: The government established the Royal Australian Navy , which absorbed the Commonwealth Naval Force. The Army established the Australian Flying Corps in 1912 which was separated to form the Royal Australian Air Force in 1921. The services were not linked by a single chain of command, as they each reported to their own separate Minister and had separate administrative arrangements. The three services saw action around
13524-456: The hands of the state's civil authority , rather than completely with professional military leadership itself. As such, a "fundamental requirement of any nation is to ensure that the activities of its armed forces are subordinated to the political purposes of constitutional government; hence, the armed forces must be under civil control". The concept of civil control falls within the overarching concept of civil-military relations representing
13662-554: The highest levels of military capability and scientific and technological sophistication". To this end, the government intends to improve the ADF's combat power and expand the number of military personnel. This will include introducing new technologies and capabilities. The ADF is also seeking to improve its intelligence capabilities and co-operation between the services. Beginning in August 2014, RAAF combat forces, an Army special forces task force and an Army training unit were deployed to
13800-509: The idea that every qualified citizen was responsible for the defense of the nation and the defense of liberty, and would go to war, if necessary. Combined with the idea that the military was to embody democratic principles and encourage citizen participation, the only military force suitable to the Founders was a citizen militia, which minimized divisions between officers and the enlisted. In a less egalitarian practice, societies may also blur
13938-544: The ideas of some of the Founding Fathers, Alexander Hamilton expressed concern that maintaining a large standing army would be a dangerous and expensive undertaking. In his principal argument for the ratification of the proposed constitution, he argued that only by maintaining a strong union could the new country avoid such a pitfall. Using the European experience as a negative example and the British experience as
14076-467: The instruments of tyranny at home. Among the Romans it was a standing maxim to excite a war, whenever a revolt was apprehended. Throughout all Europe, the armies kept up under the pretext of defending, have enslaved the people. The United States Constitution placed considerable limitations on the legislature . Coming from a tradition of legislative superiority in government , many were concerned that
14214-425: The international norm of fully liberalising these organisations. Civil control is often seen as a prerequisite feature of a stable liberal democracy . Use of the term in scholarly analyses tends to take place in the context of a democracy governed by elected officials , though the subordination of the military to political control is not unique to these societies. For example, there is often civilian control of
14352-472: The ire of the military by attempting to reform its structure away from traditional infantry and toward a lighter, faster, more technologically driven force. In April 2006, Rumsfeld was severely criticised by some retired military officers for his handling of the Iraq War , while other retired military officers came out in support of Rumsfeld. Although no active military officers have spoken out against Rumsfeld,
14490-467: The kind of relationship to avoid civil-military conflict, needs like-minded officials in both organisations to agree and work together. “Democratically accountable civilian control is also associated with more prudent internal uses of armed force.” The main focus of civil control in developing countries remains on ensuring a democratic restraint on militaries acting in their own self-interest. Militaries given too much power or too ethnically focused undermines
14628-454: The largest military in Oceania, it is smaller than most Asian military forces. However with a national population of just over 27 million, the ADF has an average ratio of military personnel per capita . The ADF is supported by a significant budget by worldwide standards and is well equipped and trained, with defence spending at 2.04% of GDP (as of 2023/24). The ADF's legal standing draws on
14766-493: The late 1990s, ammunition for the three services has been stored in a network of facilities managed by the JLC. The creation of a GWEO Group moved the responsibility of acquisition and sustainment of Explosive Materiel within the ADF from JLC and CASG to itself. The ADF also holds several months' worth of fuel for the Navy's vessels and several weeks' worth for aircraft and vehicles. A number of defence analysts have raised concerns over
14904-479: The laws, state militia forces under state control i.e., that state's Army National Guard and/or Air National Guard are usually the force of first resort, followed by federalized state militia forces i.e., the Army National Guard and/or Air National Guard "federalized" as part of the U.S. Army and/or U.S. Air Force, with active federal forces (to include "federal" reserve component forces other than
15042-535: The line between "civilian" and "military" leadership by making direct appointments of non- professionals (frequently social elites benefitting from patronage or nepotism ) to an officer rank. A more invasive method, most famously practiced in the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, involves active monitoring of the officer corps through the appointment of political commissars , posted parallel to
15180-449: The military as a body separate from the larger society. In The Soldier and the State , Samuel Huntington argued for what he termed "objective civilian control", "focus[ing] on a politically neutral, autonomous, and professional officer corps". This autonomous professionalism, it is argued, best inculcates an esprit de corps and sense of distinct military corporateness that prevents political interference by sworn servicepersons. Conversely,
15318-536: The military in communist states , such as the People's Republic of China . Mao Zedong stated that " Our principle is that the Party commands the gun, and the gun must never be allowed to command the Party ," reflecting the primacy of the Chinese Communist Party over the People's Liberation Army . As noted by University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill professor Richard H. Kohn, "civilian control
15456-442: The military to enact and then oversaw throughout. Internationally, in the developed world democratic countries have embraced a well-established civil-military relationship that has matured over time into a good working relationship. Newer democracies, depending on their political and military situations, have had to work through overcorrecting towards one side or the other on the seesaw of government control. A government establishing
15594-401: The military. Hamilton and Madison thus had two major concerns: (1) the detrimental effect on liberty and democracy of a large standing army and (2) the ability of an unchecked legislature or executive to take the country to war precipitously. These concerns drove U.S. military policy for the first century and a half of the country's existence. While the armed forces were built up during wartime,
15732-549: The most significant leader of the United States Army . Another exception occurred in the 2020-21 United States election crisis when Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Mark Milley began requiring subordinates to check with him before carrying out orders from President Donald Trump ; he also called People's Liberation Army Commander-in-Chief Li Zuocheng to assure him that the United States would not launch
15870-598: The need for the ADF to improve its capability to rapidly respond to unforeseen events. Since the late 1980s, the Government has increasingly called upon the ADF to contribute forces to peacekeeping missions around the world. While most of these deployments involved only small numbers of specialists, several led to the deployment of hundreds of personnel. Large peacekeeping deployments were made to Namibia in early 1989, Cambodia between 1992 and 1993, Somalia in 1993, Rwanda between 1994 and 1995 and Bougainville in 1994 and from 1997 onwards. The Australian contribution to
16008-477: The other aircraft were withdrawn in September 2020. The Army training force departed in mid-2020. The Australian Government believes that the country's strategic circumstances are worsening due to the threat posed by China. This has led to decisions to expand the ADF and enhance its ability to participate in high intensity combat. The 2020 Defence Strategic Update called for the ADF's efforts to be focused on
16146-543: The pattern after every war up to and including World War II was to demobilise quickly and return to something approaching pre-war force levels. However, with the advent of the Cold War in the 1950s, the need to create and maintain a sizable peacetime military force "engendered new concerns" of militarism and about how such a large force would affect civil–military relations in the United States. The United States' Posse Comitatus Act , passed in 1878, prohibits any part of
16284-486: The professional military leadership and their non-uniformed supporters may participate in the bureaucratic bargaining process of the state's policy-making apparatus, engaging in what might be termed a form of regulatory capture as they attempt to restrict the policy options of elected officials when it comes to military matters. An example of one such set of conditions is the " Weinberger Doctrine ", which sought to forestall another U.S. intervention like that which occurred in
16422-589: The proposed Constitution would place so many limitations on the legislature that it would become impossible for such a body to prevent an executive from starting a war. Hamilton argued in Federalist No. 26 that it would be equally as bad for a legislature to be unfettered by any other agency and that restraints would actually be more likely to preserve liberty. James Madison, in Federalist No. 47 , continued Hamilton's argument that distributing powers among
16560-516: The readiness and equipment of ADF units, expanding the ADF and increasing real Defence expenditure by 3% per year; in the event, expenditure increased by 2.3% per annum in real terms in the period to 2012–13. In 2003 and 2005, the Defence Updates emphasised this focus on expeditionary operations and led to an expansion and modernisation of the ADF. Since 2000, the ADF's expanded force structure and deployment capabilities have been put to
16698-407: The review recommended reducing the planned size of the Army's mechanised forces and expanding its long-range firepower. The review also identified climate change as a threat to Australia and called for a "whole of nation effort" to defending Australia that goes beyond the ADF. The government accepted most of the review's recommendations. The Australian Defence Force and Department of Defence make up
16836-401: The services' intelligence systems and units, two joint civilian-military intelligence gathering agencies and two strategic and operational-level intelligence analysis organisations. Civilian control of the military Civil control of the military is a doctrine in military and political science that places ultimate responsibility for a country's strategic decision-making in
16974-493: The test on several occasions. Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Australia committed a special forces task group and an air-to-air refuelling aircraft to operations in Afghanistan , and naval warships to the Persian Gulf as Operation Slipper . In 2003, approximately 2,000 ADF personnel, including a special forces task group, three warships and 14 F/A-18 Hornet aircraft, took part in
17112-460: The three services remained fully independent. The absence of a central authority resulted in poor coordination between the services, with each service organising and operating under different military doctrine . The need for an integrated command structure received more emphasis due to inefficient arrangements during the Vietnam War which at times hindered the military's efforts. In 1973,
17250-519: The time they reached the front lines . The remoteness of government from the action allowed professional soldiers to claim military affairs as their own particular sphere of expertise and influence; upon entering a state of war, it was often expected that the generals and field marshals would dictate strategy and tactics, and the civilian leadership would defer to their informed judgments. Improvements in information technology and its application to wartime command and control (a process sometimes labeled
17388-438: The tradition of the citizen-soldier holds that "civilianizing" the military is the best means of preserving the loyalty of the armed forces towards civil authorities, by preventing the development of an independent " caste " of warriors that might see itself as existing fundamentally apart from the rest of society. In the early history of the United States, according to Michael Cairo, [the] principle of civilian control... embodied
17526-423: The two structures serve to be more effective and provide accountability between government and military. Civil control can be accomplished in a number of ways, for example through complete civilian control or for a mixed civilian-military approach, for example, "typical for the British model of armed forces administration is the balanced ratio of civilian and military personnel in key ministerial positions". Under
17664-401: The undue "politicisation" of military affairs, especially when elected officials or political appointees micromanage the military, rather than giving the military general goals and objectives (like "Defeat Country X"), and letting the military decide how best to carry those orders out. By placing responsibility for military decision-making in the hands of non-professional civilians, critics argue,
17802-431: The uniformed chain of command and tasked with ensuring that national policies are carried out by the armed forces. The regular rotation of soldiers through a variety of different postings is another effective tool for reducing military autonomy, by limiting the potential for soldiers' attachment to any one particular military unit . Some governments place responsibility for approving promotions or officer candidacies with
17940-407: The various branches of government would prevent any one group from gaining so much power as to become unassailable. In Federalist No. 48 , however, Madison warned that while the separation of powers is important, the departments must not be so far separated as to have no ability to control the others. Finally, in Federalist No. 51 , Madison argued that to create a government that relied primarily on
18078-529: The war's conduct, and Barack Obama 's acceptance of Stanley McChrystal 's resignation in the War in Afghanistan after a Rolling Stone article was published where he mocked several members of the Obama administration , including Vice President Joe Biden . A major exception occurred during World War II, when Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall displaced the civilian Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson as
18216-612: The withdrawal of the combat forces in 2013, ADF training teams have continued to be stationed in the country to train Afghan forces. The Australian Labor Party (ALP) governments led by prime ministers Kevin Rudd and Julia Gillard between 2007 and 2013 commissioned two defence white papers, which were published in 2009 and 2013. The 2009 document, Defending Australia in the Asia Pacific Century: Force 2030 , had
18354-510: The world during World War I and World War II , and took part in conflicts in Asia during the Cold War . The importance of joint warfare was made clear to the Australian military during World War II when Australian naval, ground and air units frequently served as part of single commands. Following the war, several senior officers lobbied for the appointment of a commander-in-chief of the three services. The government rejected this proposal and
18492-420: Was frequently involved in combat. In addition, Special Forces Task Groups were deployed from 2005 to 2006 and 2007 until 2013. Other specialist elements of the ADF, including detachments of CH-47 Chinook helicopters and RAAF radar and air traffic control units, were also periodically deployed to the country. A total of 40 ADF personnel were killed in Afghanistan between 2002 and 2013, and 262 wounded. Following
18630-456: Was held by the magister militum Flavius Belisarius , but his command in Italy was dissented from on a number of instances. Other representatives of the imperial court and generals allied with those representatives disagreed with Belisarius on decisions made, resulting in only a pyrrhic victory in Italy. Justinian sent a message to Belisarius while besieging Ravenna and when the Gothic garrison in
18768-522: Was known as the Defence of Australia Policy . Under this policy, the focus of Australian defence planning was to protect Australia's northern maritime approaches (the Air-Sea Gap) against enemy attack. In line with this goal, the ADF was restructured to increase its ability to strike at enemy forces from Australian bases and to counter raids on continental Australia. The ADF achieved this by increasing
18906-569: Was restricted to Constantinople under the influence of Empress Theodora who was concerned about the risk of a coup while Justinian was struck with a coma as a result of the epidemic. The " Revolt of the Admirals " that occurred in 1949 was an attempt by senior U.S. Navy & Marine Corps personnel, to force a change in budgets directly opposed to the directives given by the civilian leadership. U.S. President Bill Clinton faced frequent allegations throughout his time in office (particularly after
19044-432: Was the first time a large ADF force had operated outside of Australia since the Vietnam War and revealed shortcomings in its ability to mount and sustain such operations. In 2000, the Government released a new Defence White Paper, Defence 2000 – Our Future Defence Force , that placed a greater emphasis on preparing the ADF for overseas deployments. The Government committed to improve the ADF's capabilities by improving
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