118-483: The House of Canossa was an Italian noble family from Lucca holding the castle of Canossa , from the early tenth to the early twelfth century. Sigifred of Lucca built the castle at Canossa around 940. Adalbert Atto appears in Canossa in time to give refuge to Queen Adelaide when she was fleeing Berengar II and Willa in 955. Last ruler of the dynasty was Matilda of Tuscany (c. 1046 – 1115). Her court became
236-551: A Veneti uprising in northwestern Gaul. These campaigns led Caesar to seek a five-year extension of his command; to do this, he too would need the support of his allies once more. Over the summer of 56 BC, Caesar met with the leaders of various factions across Cisalpine Gaul. He met with Crassus at Ravenna and Pompey at the town of Luca , the southern-most city in Cisalpine Gaul . The agreement emerged from three relatively compatible aims: Crassus and Pompey desired
354-480: A convocation organized by Pope Gregory XII with his cardinals intended to end the schism in the papacy. Lucca managed, at first as a democracy , and after 1628 as an oligarchy , to maintain its independence alongside of Venice and Genoa , and painted the word Libertas on its banner until the French Revolution in 1789. Lucca had been the second largest Italian city state (after Venice ) with
472-492: A puppet state of the Germans, political prisoners , foreigners, common law prisoners and Jews were interned there, and it functioned as a concentration camp . In June 1944, the prisoners were moved to Bagni di Lucca . Lucca is the birthplace of composers Giacomo Puccini ( La Bohème and Madama Butterfly ), Nicolao Dorati , Francesco Geminiani , Gioseffo Guami , Luigi Boccherini , and Alfredo Catalani . It
590-505: A "three-headed monster"; later historians such as Suetonius and Livy referred to the three as a societas or conspiratio ; the allies themselves "would presumably have referred to it simply as amicitia ". The usage of the term "triumvirate" to describe this political alliance was unattested during the Renaissance . First attested in 1681, the term emerged into widespread use only during the 18th century; for some time, knowledge that
708-459: A capable supporter of Pompey for the last decade, he was also indebted to Crassus, who was a guarantor of Caesar's debts. Upon his early return from Spain in June 60 BC, he was forced to choose between entering the city to declare candidacy for the consulship, which would dissolve his military command and make him ineligible for a triumph , or staying outside of the city in an attempt to work
826-513: A draft proposal for a lex Julia agraria and set it on the senate's agenda. He took a conciliatory approach, respecting the normal order of the senate and also writing a bill that rectified all the criticisms to Rullus' land bill in 63 BC (Cicero opposed that bill in De lege agraria ): Caesar would preserve public lands in Campania, repopulate desolate areas of Italy, move citizens from Rome onto
944-420: A feature of Roman administration, but this alliance was not counted among them. The term appears nowhere in any ancient source, refers to no official position, and is "completely and obviously erroneous". In the ancient world, the triple alliance was referred to with varying terms: Cicero, contemporaneously, wrote of "three men" ( tris homines ) exercising a regnum ; a satire by Marcus Terentius Varro called it
1062-416: A few months for his provincial assignment to Gaul. His legislative activity, however, came under immediate attack from Domitius and Memmius, who had been elected as praetors during Caesar's electoral comitia the last year, claiming that Caesar had passed the legislation against the auspices. These efforts were utterly unsuccessful – the pro-triumviral consuls allowed debate on the topic for three days – and
1180-495: A joint consulship; they also wanted good provincial assignments. Caesar needed an extension in his command to prevent a possible usurpation by Ahenobarbus. Some two hundred senators, mostly of lower rank, attended upon the three men, seeking to ingratiate themselves. The conference also forced a re-evaluation of alliances across the wider aristocracy: the Claudii – both Appius and Publius – and Gaius Cato switched sides back to
1298-412: A large part of today's Tuscany and the province of Viterbo , during this time the city also minted its own coins. The Holy Face of Lucca (or Volto Santo), a major relic supposedly carved by Nicodemus , arrived in 742. Among the population that inhabited Lucca in the medieval era, there was also a significant presence of Jews . The first mention of their presence in the city is from a document from
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#17327767780601416-429: A magistrate would address the people) where he requested Bibulus explain his opposition. When Bibulus failed to articulate any meaningful objections, beyond that "he would not permit any innovation", Caesar pled with him before the people, leading Bibulus to exclaim in frustration that "you will not have this law this year, not even should you all want it!", a violation of the norm of popular sovereignty. Seeking to avoid
1534-679: A number of public squares, most notably the Piazza dell'Anfiteatro , (site of the ancient Roman amphitheater), the Piazzale Verdi, the Piazza Napoleone, and the Piazza San Michele. There are many medieval, a few as old as the eighth century, basilica -form churches with richly arcaded façades and campaniles Since 2005, Lucca hosts IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca , a selective graduate and doctoral school which
1652-478: A one-third write-down of the tax bills owed by the publicani for Crassus, and second, for ratification of Pompey's eastern settlement. Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the senate. Lucullus, attempting to oppose Pompey's eastern settlement, was "forced into public humiliation on his knees before Caesar" when the consul threatened prosecution. When Cicero, defending his former co-consul Gaius Antonius Hybrida , made an off-hand remark complaining about
1770-429: A pact was sought – places the formation of the alliance some time between July 60 and January 59 BC. The purpose of the alliance was to secure something that none of the three men could secure alone. If Pompey and Caesar aligned alone, they would not likely be able to overcome opposition to Pompey's proposals in the senate. Pompey and Crassus were personal rivals who could only align through an intermediary. Caesar
1888-474: A policy of confrontation with Caesar. Deteriorating trust through 50 BC, along with the influence of Catonian anti-Caesarian hardliners on Pompey, eventually pushed Caesar into open rebellion in January 49 BC. The term "First Triumvirate", while well-known, is a misleading one which is regularly avoided by modern scholars of the late republic. Boards of a certain number of men such as decemviri were
2006-422: A powerful popular following which the fraying alliance was unwilling to oppose. He also quickly won over the consuls of that year by promising them the plum provincial assignments they needed to avoid bankruptcy. Later in the year 58, Clodius started to openly criticise the triumvirs, especially Pompey, forcing him into self-seclusion in his home. He also attacked Caesar's legislation on religious grounds. Pompey
2124-422: A previous command against Mithridates , Pompey's recent divorce of Celer's half-sister in a failed attempt to form a marriage alliance with Cato, and also by their fear of Pompey's power, led to an obstructive coalition. Lucullus returned from his semi-retirement to demand an in-depth review of every aspect of Pompey's eastern arrangements ; "this would take a tremendous amount of time and would prevent passage of
2242-614: A refuge for many displaced persons during the turmoil of the investiture dispute and experienced a cultural boom. In 1111 Matilda was reportedly crowned Imperial Vicar and Vice-Queen of Italy by Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor . With her death, the House of Canossa became extinct in 1115. Sigifredo of Lucca along with his three sons built the Castle of Canossa. He died after 940. His sons were- Lucca Lucca ( / ˈ l uː k ə / LOO -kə ; Italian: [ˈlukka] )
2360-537: A republican constitution ("comune") to remain independent over the centuries. Between 1799 and 1800, it was contested by the French and Austrian armies. Finally the French prevailed and granted a democratic constitution in the 1801. However, already in 1805 the Republic of Lucca was converted into a monarchy by Napoleon , who installed his sister Elisa Bonaparte Baciocchi as "Princess of Lucca". From 1815 to 1847, it
2478-473: A series of favourable senatorial decrees to provide more funds for his troops in Gaul – above Cicero's objections that Caesar could have paid for them out of his spoils – and granted his request to have ten legates ( decem legati ) sent to aid in administration and senatorial settlement of the region's affairs. Caesar's successes at this point had made him extremely popular among the people and in general across
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#17327767780602596-473: A silk fabric that was woven with gold or silver threads. It was a popular type of textile in Lucca throughout the mediaeval period. Lucca became prosperous through the silk trade that began in the eleventh century, and came to rival the silks of Byzantium . During the tenth–eleventh centuries Lucca was the capital of the feudal margraviate of Tuscany , more or less independent but owing nominal allegiance to
2714-543: A similar bill distributing land to his veterans; he also had sent subordinates back to Rome to stand for the tribunate in attempts to bring the relevant legislation forward (an attempt in 63 BC was opposed by then-consul Cicero in De lege agraria ). Further attempts in 62 BC had led to his allied tribune fleeing the city. While he was successful in getting one of his men, Marcus Pupius Piso Frugi Calpurnianus , elected consul for 61 BC, an intervening religious scandal had made it impossible for him to push forward
2832-629: A strong figure in the consulship". Against the later literary sources, however, a contemporaneous letter to Cicero, where Caesar asked to form a political alliance, also implies Caesar had not yet reconciled Pompey and Crassus by December of 60, months after his election in the summer. Erich Gruen, in Last Generation of the Roman Republic , believes this letter, combined with the fact that Pompey and Crassus would have alienated each-other with any overt support for Caesar's candidacy, places
2950-418: A tribunician veto, Caesar exposed his alliance, summoning Pompey and Crassus. Pompey, when asked what he would do if opponents should use violence to disrupt the bill's passage, said "he would provide a shield if anyone dared to raise a sword in opposition". Bibulus responded by mobilising three tribunes to veto the bill (alternatively, he may have wanted to declare bad omens to prevent voting, or both). During
3068-471: A triumph from the senate. While the senate had regularly permitted candidacies in absentia , Cato filibustered Caesar's request; Caesar, shockingly, gave up his triumphal eligibility to declare his candidacy. Caesar was the known favorite for the consulship; to hobble him, Cato and his allies took two actions. They sought to assign the yet-to-be-elected consuls of 59 BC to home defence in Italy and sought
3186-502: A tyrant, with "dire warnings of the impending overthrow of the republican government" that discredited the alliance and forced senators to re-evaluate their tacit support. Crassus revelled in Pompey's discomfitures before the people; this unpopularity frayed at the alliance between the three men, which was meant only to secure for them aims which they could not achieve by themselves. Upon the conclusion of Caesar's consulship, he left after
3304-417: A wavering ally, a supporter of the triumvirate ( Gaius Memmius ), and an opponent ( Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus ) banded together. The consuls, concerned that they would be precluded from holding military command due to the lack of a requisite lex curiata , promised to throw their support behind the two candidates in exchange for choice provinces and their securing false testimony from three augurs to swear that
3422-482: A whole, these various elections showed the weakness of the triumviral coalition: Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus were unable to produce consistently favourable results except when their aims were entirely united; the joint consulship in 55 BC was brought about by force and, "thereafter, their [the alliance's] stock with the voters rapidly depreciated". In spring of 53 BC, while Rome dealt with its own political crisis, Crassus launched his invasion of Syria and Caesar
3540-613: Is Machiavelli 's third famous book on political rule. Occupied by the troops of Louis of Bavaria, the city was sold to a rich Genoese, Gherardino Spinola, then seized by John, king of Bohemia. Pawned to the Rossi of Parma, by them it was ceded to Mastino II della Scala of Verona , sold to the Florentines, surrendered to the Pisans, and then nominally liberated by the emperor Charles IV and governed by his vicar. In 1408, Lucca hosted
3658-485: Is "misleading in equating the position of the 50s with the official triumvirate of Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian", preferring "alliance" and "Big Three". Books by Andrew Lintott and Richard Billows also have avoided invocation of "First Triumvirate". Others add more reasons to avoid its use, for example, Robert Morstein-Marx in the 2021 book Julius Caesar and the Roman People , "it is almost impossible to use
House of Canossa - Misplaced Pages Continue
3776-605: Is a city and comune in Tuscany , Central Italy , on the Serchio River, in a fertile plain near the Ligurian Sea . The city has a population of about 89,000, while its province has a population of 383,957. Lucca is known as an Italian "Città d'arte" (City of Art) from its intact Renaissance -era city walls and its very well preserved historic center, where, among other buildings and monuments, are located
3894-505: Is also the birthplace of artist Benedetto Brandimarte . Since 2004, Lucca is home to IMT Lucca , a public research institution and a selective graduate school and part of the Superior Graduate Schools in Italy ( Grandes écoles ). Lucca hosts the annual Lucca Summer Festival. The 2006 edition featured live performances by Eric Clapton , Placebo , Massive Attack , Roger Waters , Tracy Chapman , and Santana at
4012-603: Is part of the Italian superior graduate school system . Its main educational facilities are located at the San Francesco Convent Complex and Campus , and the former Renaissance -style Roman Catholic church of San Ponziano now hosts the university library. Association football arrived in Lucca in 1905 and has its roots in Brazil , thanks to a number of fans that helped found the club who had learned
4130-591: The Etruscans , and it also has traces of a probable earlier Ligurian presence (called Luk meaning "marsh", which was previously speculated as a possible origin of the city's name), dating from the 3rd century BC. However, it was only with the arrival of the Romans that the area took on the appearance of a real town. It obtained the status of a Roman colony in 180 BC and of a municipality ( municipium ) in 89 BC. The rectangular grid of its historical centre preserves
4248-548: The First Triumvirate . Frediano , an Irish monk , was bishop of Lucca in the early sixth century. At one point, Lucca was plundered by Odoacer , the first Germanic King of Italy. Lucca was an important city and fortress even in the sixth century, when Narses besieged it for several months in 553. From 576 to 797, under the Lombards , it was the capital of a duchy, known as Duchy of Tuscia , which included
4366-579: The Holy Roman Emperor . In 1057, Anselm of Baggio (later Pope Alexander II) was appointed bishop of Lucca, a position he held also during the papacy. As bishop of Lucca he managed to rebuild the patrimony of the Church of Lucca, recovering alienated assets, obtaining numerous donations thanks to his prestige, and had the Cathedral of the city rebuilt. From 1073 to 1086, the bishop of Lucca
4484-647: The Piazza dell'Anfiteatro , which has its origins in the second half of the 1st century A.D., the Guinigi Tower , a 45-metre-tall (150 ft) tower that dates from the 14th century and the Cathedral of San Martino. The city is the birthplace of numerous world-class composers, including Giacomo Puccini , Alfredo Catalani , and Luigi Boccherini . To the Ancient Romans , Lucca was known as Luca . From more recent and concrete toponymic studies,
4602-561: The Parthians. Still at this point, Caesar and Pompey were on friendly terms. Caesar praised Pompey, for example, for lending one of Pompey's Spanish legions to help against the Gauls, a private military arrangement which Cato criticised in the senate for usurping senatorial prerogatives on legionary assignments. The consuls immediately prepared to hold elections for 52 BC, which proved impossible when they were injured by stones thrown by
4720-408: The Piazza Napoleone. Lucca hosts the annual Lucca Comics and Games festival, Europe's largest festival for comics , movies , games and related subjects. Other events include: Moreover, Lucca hosts Lucca Biennale Cartasia , an international biennial contemporary art exhibition focusing solely on Paper Art . Mauro Bolognini 's 1958 film Giovani mariti , with Sylva Koscina , is set and
4838-704: The Roman street plan, and the Piazza San Michele occupies the site of the ancient forum . The outline of the Roman amphitheatre is still seen in the Piazza dell'Anfiteatro , and the outline of a Roman theater is visible in Piazza Sant'Augostino . Fragments of the Roman-era walls are incorporated into the church of Santa Maria della Rosa. At the Luca Conference , in 56 BC, Julius Caesar , Pompey , and Crassus reaffirmed their political alliance known as
House of Canossa - Misplaced Pages Continue
4956-526: The West Wing was hand-laid and is constructed entirely of Italian, Lucca marble. The walls encircling the old town remain intact, even though the city has expanded and been modernised, which is unusual for cities in this region. These walls were built initially as a defensive rampart which, after losing their military importance, became a pedestrian promenade (the Passeggiata delle Mure Urbane) atop
5074-530: The adoption of Publius Clodius Pulcher into a plebeian clan. Clodius was an independent agent who was adept at playing political enemies off of each other. Soon after Clodius' adoption was ratified, he, against Caesar's wishes, successfully stood for a tribunate for 58 BC. After some slights from Caesar and Pompey relating to assignment of a foreign mission, he broke with them. At the start of his tribunate, Clodius pushed forward four popular bills to expand grain imports, provide free grain to Roman citizens in
5192-418: The alliance's formation decisively after Caesar's consular election. Some historians believe Caesar, in his letter to Cicero, may have been coy ("it may also be that Caesar was not yet showing Cicero all of his cards" ) but it did show that Caesar "was not specifically looking at building a triumvirate, but rather was looking to build as strong a coalition as possible". This evidence – especially disclosure that
5310-491: The appropriate land resettlement legislation. Through massive bribes, Pompey also secured the election of more of his men to offices in 60 BC ( Lucius Afranius as consul; Lucius Flavius as one of the plebeian tribunes ), but they too were stymied. Cato the Younger and Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer , motivated in part by their dislike of Pompey's having previously and irregularly displaced their friend Lucullus from
5428-439: The assent of the senate. Little reasoned opposition emerged. In general, that an agrarian bill was desirable and "well justified... could not reasonably be denied... many senators must have felt that it was not high time to make good on the promise made long ago to the long-suffering veterans". Some ancient sources describe Caesar's conciliatory tone as a cynical plot to roll over the senators; Caesar's goal may have been to provide
5546-445: The attempt, he was assaulted by a mob, which threw him from the rostra and broke his fasces , symbolically rejecting Bibulus' consular authority. The law was then passed; the next day, Bibulus called a meeting of the senate seeking to annul the law on grounds that it was passed contrary to the auspices and with violence; annulment on such grounds was extremely rare and the senate, regardless, refused. Caesar "provocatively demanded from
5664-573: The bill for the foreseeable future". Without capable allies in the magistracies – both Piso and Afranius were ineffective – Pompey was forced to look elsewhere for allies. Crassus was one of the richest men in Rome, having made his fortune by profiting from the Sullan proscriptions . He was a patron for Rome's equestrian businessmen . With Pompey, he had served as consul in 70 BC. Those public contractors had massively over-bid on tax contracts for
5782-662: The bill passed, they also made good on their promise to Caesar, putting forward legislation extending Caesar's term in Gaul for five more years. Pompey threw lavish games in September as part of his dedication of the Theatre of Pompey . News also came of Caesar's expedition beyond the Rhine to Britain; for these, the senate voted him twenty days of thanksgiving. The opposing tribunes attempted to obstruct recruitment for Crassus and Pompey's armies, but were unsuccessful. When Crassus left
5900-780: The city in November, escorted by Pompey, they announced bad omens, attempted to arrest him, and cursed him at the city's gate. Part of the justification against Crassus' campaign was in terms of immorality: "several in Cato's circle argued... the Parthians had given no justification for war". The elections for the year, however, went strongly against the allies. Unwilling to repeat their mob tactics due to their unpopularity, Pompey campaigned for one of his clients, Titus Ampius Balbus, but those efforts were in vain. The voters returned Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus , denied victory by Pompey and Crassus' violence, and Appius Claudius Pulcher . Also elected
6018-485: The city to another condottiero , Castruccio Castracani , under whose rule it became a leading state in central Italy. Lucca rivalled Florence until Castracani's death in 1328. On 22 and 23 September 1325, in the battle of Altopascio , Castracani defeated Florence 's Guelphs. For this he was nominated by Louis IV the Bavarian to become duke of Lucca. Castracani's tomb is in the church of San Francesco. His biography
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#17327767780606136-570: The city, restore the collegia (professional organisations), regulate the use of auspices as obstructive tactics, and regulate the power of the censors to remove senators. He also moved agitating against Cicero 's illegal execution of the Catilinarian conspirators during his consulship in 63 BC. While Cicero had secured some promises of protection from Pompey, Crassus, Caesar, and the consuls for 58 BC, "the promised assistance... never materialised" because Clodius had quickly gained
6254-498: The consuls of 57 and 56 BC were, if not opponents of, indifferent to both Caesar and Pompey; the failure to maintain their political influence put the alliance into a "shambles". Cicero, describing Pompey's plight, mentions the contio -goers estranged, the nobility hostile, and the senate unfair. Without the ability to make allies with the rest of the aristocracy, who had closed ranks against him, Pompey had to double down with his existing allies. Through this whole period, Caesar
6372-453: The consulship of 53 BC, he broke with Pompey and launched a prosecution against Scaurus. The alliance's opponents, led by Cato's coterie, also launched a broadside against their supporters in the courts: At least three more supporters of the triumvirate were prosecuted; they too were all acquitted. Cato and his coterie's judicial attacks were unsuccessful "in large part because the complex network of connections among senators meant that
6490-429: The deadline. Faced with political disaster, they decided instead of "scuttle the whole election process" for 56 BC. Election of Pompey and Crassus was by no means certain. By the time of the conference, to produce the conditions needed for victory, the alliance stoked mob violence and interposed a permanent tribunician veto – courtesy of Clodius' ally, Gaius Cato, who was tribune that year – to block elections until
6608-465: The death of Matilda of Tuscany , the city began to constitute itself an independent commune with a charter in 1160. For almost 500 years, Lucca remained an independent republic. There were many minor provinces in the region between southern Liguria and northern Tuscany dominated by the Malaspina ; Tuscany in this time was a part of feudal Europe. Dante 's Divine Comedy includes many references to
6726-520: The dynasts. Cicero, dependent on and indebted to Pompey for his return from exile, was also enlisted to lend rhetorical support. The alliance was renewed and expanded to include the Claudii Pulchri, turning Clodius from an opponent to a supporter. In return for their help, the allies would support Appius – whose chances of election to a consulship without their support was slim – in his goal of being elected consul for 54. The remaining opposition
6844-458: The election of an uncooperative consular colleague. In both respects, they were successful: the consuls of 59 received commands that put them in a holding pattern and Cato secured election of his son-in-law and a personal enemy of Caesar's, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus , as Caesar's co-consul. Caesar won his election handily, but to turn his provincial assignment into glory and defeat Bibulus' obstruction, he would need allies. Scholars have debated
6962-399: The electoral comitia also to secure the election of their allies to the praetorship (both Milo and Vatinius were returned) while excluding opponents (Cato was not). These strong-arm tactics were exceptional and resulted from the alliance's realisation that failure to secure the consulship in this year would result in their political extinction. While they certainly won a temporary victory,
7080-426: The fact that, in almost every case, former amici of Pompey are first seen to be ranged with the opposition in the year 59... by maintaining a consciously moral posture, driving the triumvirs to extreme measures, and parading their own martyrdom, Cato and his associates ruined triumviral credit among the people and assembled aristocratic collaboration in resistance". Early in 59 BC, Caesar and Pompey had ratified
7198-415: The following year. The terms of the consuls having expired, elections were conducted instead by temporary extraordinary magistrates, interreges , and with the arrival of Caesar's soldiers from Gaul on winter furlough, elections were held. Employing force to drive other candidates away and distributing bribes to ensure their victory, Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls. They then used their control over
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#17327767780607316-578: The game in Brazil. The Lucchese 1905 , or simply Lucchese, plays in Serie C , the third tier of Italian football , having last been in top tier Serie A in 1952. The club plays its home games at Stadio Porta Elisa , just outside the northeast wall of the city. Consorzio Lucchese Autotrasporti Pubblici , also known as CLAP , was established in 1969, as the main company in the Province of Lucca to manage
7434-429: The great feudal families who had huge jurisdictions with administrative and judicial rights. Dante spent some of his exile in Lucca. In 1273 and again in 1277, Lucca was ruled by a Guelph capitano del popolo (captain of the people) named Luchetto Gattilusio . In 1314, internal discord allowed Uguccione della Faggiuola of Pisa to make himself lord of Lucca. The Lucchesi expelled him two years later, and handed over
7552-592: The gridlocked state of Roman politics in the years before 60 BC. All three had wanted something but were stymied by their rivals in the senate and assemblies. Pompey, having returned two years earlier from the Third Mithridatic War , wanted ratification of his peace settlements in the east. He also sought lands for his veterans to retire on. After Pompey's return from the Sertorian War from Hispania in 71 BC, he had been able secure
7670-399: The image of the city dominated by one man's sole power, unchecked by a colleague". Pompey and Caesar attempted public protests against Bibulus' edicts and seclusion, respectively, to little response from the people. By then, the popular fervour of the agrarian bills had died down and the public likely desired a return to normal politics. The ancient sources claimed that for most of the year,
7788-458: The land (reducing the chance of riots), distribute credit for the bill among twenty commissioners (of which Caesar was not to be one), purchase property for redistribution only from willing sellers based on censorial assessments, pay for the entire project from monies won by Pompey, and extend the land grants to Pompey's veterans in return for their service. Caesar had the bill read out line-by-line and promised to make any changes needed to receive
7906-680: The litigants could not be reduced to stark choices between two political parties or ideologies". This year also saw the death of Caesar's daughter, and Pompey's wife, Julia, in childbirth. Caesar offered in marriage his grand-niece Octavia , but was rebuffed. Pompey's refusal, however, did not indicate a break between the two allies. At the time, there was "no demonstrable rupture"; Pompey and Caesar continued to support each other politically for several years. The elections for 53 BC were hugely delayed due to political violence and bribery. Domitius and Appius Claudius engaged in bribery pact with two consular candidates. Thus, an anti-triumviral consul,
8024-473: The local public transport. In 2005, following the decision of the Region to assign the local public transport to a single operator for each of the 14 lots constituted, CLAP merged with the companies Lazzi and C.LU.B. Scpa to form the consortium VaiBus which was absorbed by the newly formed company CTT Nord in 2012. VaiBus was part of ONE Scarl the consortium holder of the two-year (2018-2019) contract for
8142-405: The longer-term fallout of intimidation tactics and the validation of Cato's warnings proved especially harmful "among the basically conservative Roman voters". Pompey and Crassus moved first to elect censors and pass new legislation regulating juries and punishing bribery. The main piece of legislation was brought by an allied tribune, Gaius Trebonius , to grant for five years Crassus and Pompey
8260-441: The magistrates for 57 were friendly; in the elections of 57 (for magistrates in 56) his allies were repulsed from both the aedileship and the praetorship, while his political enemies won two praetorships. Caesar's political support in Rome was largely dependent on Pompey and Crassus, rather than his own legates or allies. By 56 BC, Caesar's enemies were mobilising against him: a tribune attempted to recall him for trial – which
8378-617: The management of the TPL throughout the Region. Since 1 November 2021 the public local transport is managed by Autolinee Toscane . Lucca is twinned with: First Triumvirate The First Triumvirate was an informal political alliance among three prominent politicians in the late Roman Republic : Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus , Marcus Licinius Crassus , and Gaius Julius Caesar . The republican constitution had many veto points. In order to bypass constitutional obstacles and force through
8496-743: The most to lose. After alienating the Metelli by divorcing Mucia, Pompey's alliance with Caesar and Crassus alienated some former allies in the 60s as well, including the Cornelii Lentuli. The triple alliance also led to other formerly rivalrous families mending their relationships. The Luculli and Servilii, who had been rivals for decades, "combined to withstand the triumvirs". Similarly, the Scibonii Curiones, Cornelii Sullae, and Memmii switched from supporting Pompey into opposing him and Caesar. In general, "there can be no coincidence in
8614-421: The name Lucca has references that lead to "sacred grove" ( Latin : lucus ), "to cut" (Latin: lucare ) and "luminous space" ( leuk , a term used by the first European populations). The origin apparently refers to a wooded area deforested to make room for light or to a clearing located on a river island of Serchio debris, in the middle of wooded areas. The territory of present-day Lucca was certainly settled by
8732-418: The others. The walled city is encircled by Piazzale Boccherini, Viale Lazzaro Papi, Viale Carlo Del Prete, Piazzale Martiri della Libertà, Via Batoni, Viale Agostino Marti, Viale G. Marconi ( vide Guglielmo Marconi ), Piazza Don A. Mei, Viale Pacini , Viale Giusti, Piazza Curtatone, Piazzale Ricasoli, Viale Ricasoli, Piazza Risorgimento ( vide Risorgimento ), and Viale Giosuè Carducci . The town includes
8850-449: The passage of a law granting to Caesar the provinces of Illyricum and Cisalpine Gaul for five years. Doing so replaced Caesar's assigned province of the woods and paths of Italy with Gaul; this was in response to growing tensions between the republic and the recent victors of a power struggle in Gaul, which had destabilised the geopolitical situation in the region. After the death of the governor of Transalpine Gaul – one of Cato's allies –
8968-465: The people would be too gracious to Caesar for bringing the bill and that the current situation was fine. The extent to which Caesar's prestige during his first consulship was a topic of debate is unclear; the later sources may here be injecting their knowledge of Caesar's later victories into the narrative. Caesar, seeking to break the filibuster, therefore threatened to have Cato sent to the carcer , Rome's small jail, which elicited mass indignation from
9086-460: The phrase 'First Triumvirate' without adopting some version of the view that it was a kind of conspiracy against the republic... Nomenclature matters... I eschew the traditional 'First Triumvirate' altogether". Classicists writing for more general audience also have shied away from use of the term "First Triumvirate". Mary Beard , for example, uses "Gang of Three" in her 2015 book SPQR . Yet others, such as Adrian Goldsworthy , have not, staying with
9204-443: The political class; Cicero, who had been sullen during Caesar's consulship, sang his praises, saying "If perhaps Gaius Caesar was too contentious in any matter, if the greatness of the struggle, his zeal for glory, if his irrepressible spirit and high nobility drove him on [that] should be tolerated in the case of a man of his quality". This popularity, however, did not translate into political victories for his political allies: none of
9322-517: The political goals of the three men, they forged an alliance in secret where they promised to use their respective influence to support each other. The "triumvirate" was not a formal magistracy, nor did it achieve a lasting domination over state affairs. It was formed among the three men due to their mutual need to overcome opposition in the senate against their proposals in the previous years. Initially secret, it emerged publicly during Caesar's first consulship in 59 BC to push through legislation for
9440-576: The political situation, his "deadly enemy P. Clodius [had] his long-obstructed 'transition' to the plebs rushed through by Caesar... in good time to stand for the tribunate". Caesar then moved to lift the exemption of Campania from his agrarian bill some time in May; its passage may have proved the last straw for Bibulus, who then withdrew to his house. Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance. An ally of Caesar's, Publius Vatinius (then-plebeian tribune), also secured
9558-579: The province of Asia (parts of modern western Turkey ) because they failed to account for the devastation of the Third Mithridatic War . His clients demanded a reduction in the taxes they were contractually obliged to deliver to the treasury, a goal also stymied by Cato and Celer in December 61 BC. While senators such as Cicero personally believed "it was ridiculous for [the tax farmers] to seek to have their contracts renegotiated or cancelled simply because they had overestimated their potential profits",
9676-525: The provinces of Syria and Hispania (they would draw lots for the specific assignment). Crassus envisioned possible campaigns against Egypt or the Parthians; Pompey envisioned similar campaigns against the Spanish hinterlands. Fearing vetoes from two of his tribunician colleagues, Trebonius had one of them locked in the senate house and prevented the other from entering the Forum with an obstructive mob. With
9794-676: The requisite lex had been passed. When Memmius exposed the conspiracy, likely to implicate Domitius, all four were indicted for bribery. The senate delayed elections to hold an inquiry, but the specific steps forward became quickly contested and various tribunes vetoed the elections. Coupled with raging street battles in the city between Milo and Clodius' armed gangs, elections were finally held after more than seven months without any magistrates, in July 53 BC. Dio attributed these delays to tribunician vetoes against elections of interreges designed to incite appointment of Pompey as dictator. Pompey
9912-618: The returned Cicero's support, was able to secure a prestigious command over Rome's grain supply in September 57 BC. However, Pompey's very success renewed the coalition against him: a coalition of the Claudii, including Clodius, the Lentuli, and the Catonians – with little meaningful opposition from Caesar and Crassus – were able to shut off any hope of Pompey being granted a new military command in Egypt to restore Ptolemy XII Auletes to
10030-403: The senate an oath of obedience to the law and got it" after some pushing and resistance from Cato and some of his allies. Some time after passage of the agrarian bill, Bibulus withdrew from public business to his home to declare unfavourable omens on all future voting days; the specific time in the year he did so, however, is not known. Caesar moved two further bills, first, for ratification of
10148-399: The senate had been on the verge of approving the legislation before Celer's intervention. Crassus, a personal enemy of Pompey, also opposed Pompey's settlements and land bills in 60 BC, successfully mobilising his support among the lower-ranked senators to defeat Pompey's proposals. His opposition to Pompey may have been in attempt to win over the senators blocking his own goals, but this
10266-504: The senate rejected the claims. In later years, Caesar's laws were accepted writ large (perhaps with the exception of Bibulus), disregarding any technical religious objections: "If Cicero and Cato both went along with the laws of Vatinius and Caesar, we can fairly assume the rest of the senators did so as well... For Bibulus, it was something of a personal campaign to seek to undermine... Caesar's legislation... but his protests in 59 and later hardly 'kept [it] technically invalid'". Pompey had
10384-462: The senate was not called and that the people and senators were intimidated and cowed into passing whatever the three allies put before them. These claims are incompatible with the attested events of that year. For example, in that year, Caesar's ally Vatinius was defeated in an election to the augurate and later elections for the magistracies returned Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Memmius , both opponents of Pompey and Caesar, as praetors. He
10502-448: The senate was persuaded also to assign to Caesar that province as well. Both bills were met with little resistance, likely due to Cato and his allies' boycotting of public business. By the summer, however, popular opinion had started to turn against Caesar's methods. Pompey also was distancing himself from Caesar. This was in part due to the success to Cato and Bibulus' campaign: Bibulus' choice to confine himself to his home "presented
10620-407: The senators an opportunity to "adopt symbolic leadership and demonstrate its solicitude for the interests... of the people... [giving] the body a chance to co-opt the cause of agrarian legislation in its own favour". Whether a cynical ploy or not, the senate voiced little opposition until the speaking order eventually wound its way to Cato; Cato immediately started a filibuster, arguing instead that
10738-416: The senators. In doing so, Cato succeeded in provoking Caesar into giving credence to Cato's claims that Caesar was a would-be tyrant. Recognising the mistake, Caesar quickly had Cato released. After facing these hurdles in the senate, Caesar moved to bring the agrarian law before the people on his own authority, without senatorial consent. Moving to the forum, Caesar summoned a contio (a meeting wherein
10856-434: The specific date at which the alliance was formed. Plutarch , Livy , and Appian placed the formation of the alliance before Caesar's election; Vellius , Suetonius and Cassius Dio instead put its formation after his election. During the elections to the consulship, Caesar certainly received support from both Pompey and Crassus, though "each for his own reasons... Crassus cultivated promising adherents[;] Pompey needed
10974-434: The subordinate stature of Pompey's other amici ", defeat the political opposition, and win a profitable command. It was well known prior to Caesar's assumption of the consulship with the new year that he would propose a lex agraria . With powerful and secret political allies, Caesar started his consulship of 59 BC relatively traditionally. After ordering that minutes of the senate's debates be published, he published
11092-401: The success of Cato and Bibulus' tactics at discrediting Caesar and Pompey made the two greatly unpopular during and after the summer: "[Caesar and Pompey's] public appearances were received coldly or with open antagonism... Bibulus, far from being a pitiable figure, had never enjoyed such wide repute". Cato and Bibulus, for their part, mobilised a large propaganda campaign seeking to brand Caesar
11210-602: The term was a modern coinage was unknown, "revealed" only in 1807. By the 19th century, usage was somewhat regular – mostly in English and French sources, though not in German ones, – usually prefaced with clarifications that the term did not refer to any official position. More recently, scholars have started to avoid the term in publications altogether. Harriet Flower in Roman Republics writes that "First Triumvirate"
11328-400: The threat of Domitius' consulship by asking Crassus to stand and veto any actions to take away his command. Pompey chose to stand for the consulship as well, possibly unilaterally, met with the support (if not entirely willing), of his allies. However, by the time this arrangement was decided, the current consul – Marcellinus – refused to accept their candidacy on grounds that they had passed
11446-441: The three allies. Caesar secured passage of an agrarian law which helped resettle Pompey's veterans, a law ratifying Pompey's settlements after the Third Mithridatic War , and legislation on provincial administration and tax collection. Caesar also was placed in a long-term governorship in Gaul. The early success of the alliance, however, triggered substantial political backlash. Political alliances at Rome reorganised to counterbalance
11564-632: The three men in the coming years. By 55 BC, the alliance was fraying. The three men, however, came together in mutual interest to renew their pact. By force and with political disruption aided by their allies, they delayed consular elections into 55 BC and intimidated the comitia into electing Pompey and Crassus again as consuls. Caesar's command in Gaul was then renewed for another five years; plum provincial commands placed Pompey in Spain and Crassus in Syria . Amid even stronger backlash at Rome against
11682-444: The throne. In a clash of mutually exclusive proposals raised by different factions in January 56 BC, all proposals were unacceptable to at least one party, leading to nothing being done about Egypt. At the same time, Pompey's grain command had not produced reduced prices, further reducing his popularity; under attack by Clodius, whom Pompey suspected Crassus was supporting, the conservatives around Bibulus and Curio watched. All
11800-597: The traditional nomenclature while explaining that the term is inaccurate. The fourth edition of the Oxford Classical Dictionary , for example, similarly says "the coalition formed between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus in 60 BCE was wholly unofficial and never described at the time as a triumvirate... 'First' and 'Second Triumvirate' are modern and misleading terms". The alliance between Pompey , Crassus , and Caesar emerged due to their failure to pass various core portions of their programmes in
11918-497: The use of naked force and chaos to achieve political ends, Crassus died in 53 BC during his failed invasion of Parthia . Caesar and Pompey, the two remaining allies, maintained friendly relations for a few years. They remained allies even after Pompey's assumption of a sole consulship in 52 BC and the death of Julia (Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife). Pompey, however, moved to form alliances to counterbalance Caesar's influence after Crassus' death. These drew him slowly into
12036-481: The walls which not only links the Bastions of Santa Croce, San Frediano, San Martino, San Pietro/Battisti, San Salvatore, La Libertà/Cairoli, San Regolo, San Colombano, Santa Maria, San Paolino/Catalani and San Donato but also passes over the gates (Porte) of San Donato, Santa Maria, San Jacopo, Elisa, San Pietro, and Sant'Anna. Each of the four principal sides of the structure is lined with a tree species different from
12154-576: The year 859. The Jewish community was led by the Kalonymos family (which later became a major component of proto- Ashkenazic Jewry ). Thanks above all to the Holy Face and to the relics of important saints, such as San Regolo and Saint Fridianus , the city was one of the main destinations of the Via Francigena , the major pilgrimage route to Rome from the north. The Lucca cloth was
12272-518: Was Cato for a praetorship; the next year, he would chair the court on extortion. The new consul Appius Claudius Pulcher seemed an ally, but as the political winds blew against the alliance, he quickly defected. Early in the year, he cooperated with them in securing the appointment of a Pompeian ally as one of Caesar's tribunes and obstructed Gabinius' prosecution (for the bribes received to induce his invasion of Egypt), but seeing Pompey's support for one Marcus Aemilius Scaurus rather than his brother for
12390-579: Was a Bourbon-Parma duchy . The only reigning dukes of Lucca were Maria Luisa of Spain , who was succeeded by her son Charles II, Duke of Parma in 1824. Meanwhile, the Duchy of Parma had been assigned for life to Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma , the second wife of Napoleon . In accordance with the Treaty of Vienna (1815) , upon the death of Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma in 1847, Parma reverted to Charles II, Duke of Parma , while Lucca lost independence and
12508-464: Was also able to secure election of two allies – one was Caesar's soon-to-be father-in-law ( Lucius Calpurnius Piso ) and the other was Pompey's supporter Aulus Gabinius – to the consulship. Also passed during Caesar's consulship was the lex Julia de repetundis , which was a wide-ranging reform on corruption in the provinces and before the republic's permanent courts. During the Caesar's consulship,
12626-465: Was also further reinvigorated. Cato had returned from a provincial assignment in Cyprus in late 56 and supported Domitius' campaign for the consulship. After 55 BC, when Pompey and Crassus assumed a joint consulship by violence, the political fortunates of the triple alliance quickly soured. The development of the specific terms of their renewed agreement may have taken some time. Caesar responded to
12744-602: Was annexed to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany . As part of Tuscany, it became part of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1860 and finally part of the Italian State in 1861. In 1942, during World War II , a prisoner-of-war camp was established at the village of Colle di Compito , in the municipality of Capannori , about 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) from Lucca. Its official number was P.G. ( prigionieri di guerra ) 60, and it
12862-585: Was dealing with a military crisis as the Gauls rose up. From the perspective at Rome, news of ambushes against in Gaul arrived first: Caesar abandoned his civil functions in Cisalpine Gaul to rescue his legions wintering in the Eburones ' territory (near modern Belgium). A few months later, news of the disaster at the Battle of Carrhae arrived, reporting that Crassus and much of his army had been killed by
12980-443: Was evidently unsuccessful. Passing renegotiation of these tax contracts was vital for Crassus: "his reputation and influence depended on his ability to act as a champion for the powerful equestrian order". Caesar in 60 BC was the recently returning governor of Hispania Ulterior . At this point, he was the least powerful of the three, although he had, in an upset, won election as pontifex maximus in 63 BC. Energetic and
13098-671: Was fighting in the Gallic Wars . By early 56 BC, he had won enormous popularity both with the senate and the people: in 57, Caesar requested thanksgivings for his victory over the Belgae and, at a motion of Cicero, received fifteen days of supplicationes , a new record. In his narrative of his campaign, Commentarii de Bello Gallico , by 57, Caesar reported pacification of the whole region. These military achievements had undercut any political will to undermine Caesar's acta from his first consulship, and during 56 itself, Caesar received
13216-471: Was filmed in Lucca. Sergio Martino 's 1993 miniseries Private Crimes , starring Edwige Fenech , is set and was filmed in Lucca. Top Gear filmed the third episode of the 17th season here. Lucca is also known for its marble deposits. After a fire in the early 1900s, the West Wing of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario was rebuilt with marble sourced in Lucca. The floor mosaic in
13334-762: Was his nephew Anselm II , a prominent figure in the Investiture Controversy. During the High Middle Ages, one of the most illustrious dynasties of Lucca was the noble Allucingoli family, who managed to forge strong ties with the Church. Among the family members were Ubaldo Allucingoli, who was elected to the Papacy as Pope Lucius III in 1181, and the Cardinals Gerardo Allucingoli and Uberto Allucingoli . After
13452-502: Was not in the city; his return in the summer and his declining of a dictatorship, however, may have stabilised the city sufficiently – both by his presence and by his starting a rapprochement with Cato's conservative faction – to allow for elections. By July, the alliance's support for Scaurus, along with Gaius Memmius , had gone nowhere. The comitia instead returned candidates supported by a coalition of triumviral enemies: Marcus Valerius Messalla Rufus and Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus . As
13570-458: Was somewhat successful in checking Clodius' influence when he formed a coalition to overturn Cicero's banishment, but Clodius' attacks continued, tacitly supported by Crassus and one Gaius Porcius Cato (a relative of Cato the Younger). Pompey also responded by supporting Titus Annius Milo and Publius Sestius , who raised their own urban mobs to contest the streets from Clodius' mobs, and, with
13688-460: Was that intermediary. Crassus' motives are less clear. He must have wanted more than simply renegotiation of tax contracts. Crassus' additionally would be one of the administrators for the Pompeian land grants and, in doing so, "the preeminence which Crassus could not quite attain on his own [came] within his grasp". Caesar needed the alliance as well: he would fully become his own man, "escap[ing]
13806-483: Was usually referred to as PG 60 Lucca. Although it never had permanent structures and accommodation consisted of tents in an area prone to flooding, it housed more than 3,000 British and Commonwealth prisoners of war during the period of its existence. It was handed over to the Germans on 10 September 1943, not long after the signing of the Italian armistice . During the Italian Social Republic , as
13924-444: Was vetoed, as he Caesar was legitimately on government business, – while Domitius only "declared his intention to terminate Caesar's command as soon as possible". Furthermore, Caesar's land bills were under attack by a tribune – perhaps under Pompey's influence – who wanted to deny Caesar's veterans from receiving land under his lex Julia agraria upon their retirement. And in the summer, fighting started back up, with campaigns against
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