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36-590: The Avar Khanate , the Avar Nutsaldom ( Avar : Avar Nutsallhi ; Russian : Аварское ханство ), also known as Khundzia or Avaria , was a long-lived Avar state, which controlled mountainous parts of Dagestan (in the North Caucasus ) from the early 13th century to the 19th century. Between the 5th and 12th centuries, Georgian Orthodox Christianity was introduced to the Avar valleys. The fall of

72-489: A Cyrillic-based alphabet, published in 1889, that also used some Georgian-based letters. Many of its letters have not been encoded in Unicode. The alphabet takes the following form: а б в г ӷ д е ж һ [REDACTED] [REDACTED] і ј к қ [REDACTED] л м н о п ԛ [REDACTED] р с ҫ т ҭ у х х̓ хّ ц [REDACTED] ц̓ ꚑ ч ч̍ чّ [REDACTED] /ч̓ ш ƞ ƞ̓ ɳّ ດ As part of Soviet language re-education policies in 1928

108-611: A Russian column in Untsukul , killing 486 men. In the next four weeks, Shamil captured every Russian outpost in Avaria except one, exacting over 2,000 casualties on the Russian defenders. He feigned an invasion north to capture a key chokepoint at the convergence of the Avar and Kazi-Kumukh rivers. In 1845, Shamil's forces achieved their most dramatic success when they withstood a major Russian offensive led by Prince Vorontsov . During

144-733: A considerable degree of autonomy from the khan. In the 16th century, the region was the center of a fierce struggle for control by the Ottomans and the Safavids . Under Turkish influence, in the 17th century the majority of the Avar tribes adopted Islam . The consolidation of Islam in Avaristan in the 18th century resulted in a series of religious wars against the Georgian states, these sporadic forays are also known as Lekianoba in Georgian historiography. The references to these raids appear in

180-489: Is Rasul Gamzatov (died November 3, 2003), the People's Poet of Dagestan. Translations of his works into Russian have gained him a wide audience all over the former Soviet Union . Caucasian War [REDACTED] Russia [REDACTED] Principality of Abkhazia [REDACTED] Caucasian Imamate The Caucasian War ( Russian : Кавказская война , romanized :  Kavkazskaya voyna ) or

216-485: Is based on the болмацӏ ( bolmacʼ ) — bo = "army" or "country", and macʼ = "language"—the common language used between speakers of different dialects and languages. The bolmacʼ in turn was mainly derived from the dialect of Khunzakh , the capital and cultural centre of the Avar region, with some influence from the southern dialects. Nowadays the literary language is influencing the dialects, levelling out their differences. The most famous figure of modern Avar literature

252-401: Is no longer an "impure abjad " unlike its parent systems ( Arabic , Persian , and Ottoman ), it now resembles a proper " alphabet ". While this was not the case for most of the several centuries during which Arabic alphabet has been used for Avar, this has become the case in the latest and most common conventions. This was indeed not the case at the time of writing of a linguistic article for

288-695: Is now assumed that Christianity, penetrating from Georgia, survived among the Avars down to the 14th to 15th centuries. After ravaging Georgia, the Mongols cut across the Caucasus Mountains during the winter to get around the Derbent Pass. Although the Avars had pledged their support to Muhammad II of Khwarezm (reigned 1200-1220) in his struggle against the Mongols, there is no documentation for

324-620: Is used. Second diacritic in use in Avar Arabic script is ḍammah (ـُـ). In Arabic, Persian, and historically in Ottoman Turkish, this diacritic is used to represent [o] or [u]. But in Avar, this diacritic is used for labialization [◌ʷ] and not for any sort of vowel. So, it is the case that this diacritic is used in conjunction with a follow-up vowel. For example, the sound "зва" [zʷa] is written as "زُا". This diacritic can optionally be used in conjunction with shadda. For example,

360-605: Is usually written in the Cyrillic script . The letters of the alphabet are (with their pronunciation given below in IPA transcription): Compiled according to: One feature of Avar Arabic script is that similar to alphabets such as Uyghur and Kurdish , the script does not omit vowels and does not rely on diacritics to represent vowels when need be. Instead, modified letters with dot placement and accents have been standardized to represent vowels. Thus, Avar Arabic script

396-523: The Caucasus . The Russian invasion encountered fierce resistance. The first period of the invasion ended coincidentally with the death of Alexander I and the Decembrist Revolt in 1825. It achieved surprisingly little success, especially compared with the then recent Russian victory over the "Grande Armée" of Napoleon in 1812. Between 1825 and 1833, little military activity took place in

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432-846: The Caucasus War was a 19th-century military conflict between the Russian Empire and various peoples of the North Caucasus who resisted subjugation during the Russian conquest of the Caucasus . It consisted of a series of military actions waged by the Russian Imperial Army and Cossack settlers against the native inhabitants such as the Adyghe , Abaza - Abkhazians , Ubykhs , Chechens , and Dagestanis as

468-511: The Circassian nation. Russian units again met resistance, notably led by Ghazi Mollah , Hamzat Bek , and Hadji Murad . Imam Shamil followed them. He led the mountaineers from 1834 until his capture by Dmitry Milyutin in 1859. In 1843, Shamil launched a sweeping offensive aimed at the Russian outposts in Avaria . On 28 August 1843, 10,000 men converged, from three different directions, on

504-574: The Crimean War of 1853–1856, the Russians brokered a truce with Shamil, but hostilities resumed in 1855. Warfare in the Caucasus finally ended between 1856 and 1859, when a 250,000 strong army under General Baryatinsky broke the mountaineers' resistance. The war in the Eastern part of the North Caucasus ended in 1859; the Russians captured Shamil, forced him to surrender, to swear allegiance to

540-650: The Imamat Avar language It is spoken mainly in the western and southern parts of the Russian Caucasus republic of Dagestan , and the Balaken , Zaqatala regions of north-western Azerbaijan . Some Avars live in other regions of Russia. There are also small communities of speakers living in the Russian republics of Chechnya and Kalmykia ; in Georgia , Kazakhstan , Ukraine , Jordan , and

576-711: The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1881. As an example, in Avar Arabic Script, four varieties of the letter yāʼ ("ی") have been developed, each with a distinct function. Nevertheless, Avar Arabic script does retain two diacritics. First is " shadda " (ـّـ), used for gemination . While in Cyrillic, two back to back letters, including digraphs are written, in Arabic script, shadda

612-463: The Marmara Sea region of Turkey . It is spoken by about 1,200,000 people worldwide. UNESCO classifies Avar as vulnerable to extinction. It is one of six literary languages of Dagestan, where it is spoken not only by the Avar, but also serves as the language of communication between different ethnic and linguistic groups. Glottolog lists 14 dialects of Avar, some of which correspond to

648-731: The Tsars sought to expand. Russian control of the Georgian Military Road in the center divided the Caucasian War into the Russo-Circassian War in the west and the conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan in the east. Other territories of the Caucasus (comprising contemporary eastern Georgia , southern Dagestan, Armenia and Azerbaijan ) were incorporated into the Russian Empire at various times in

684-697: The 19th century as a result of Russian wars with Persia . The remaining part, western Georgia, was taken by the Russians from the Ottomans during the same period. The war took place during the administrations of three successive Russian Tsars : Alexander I (reigned 1801–1825), Nicholas I (1825–1855), and Alexander II (1855–1881). The leading Russian commanders included Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov in 1816–1827, Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov in 1844–1853, and Aleksandr Baryatinskiy in 1853–1856. The famous Russian writer Leo Tolstoy , who gained much of his knowledge and experience of war for his book War and Peace from these encounters, took part in

720-468: The Ajam was replaced by a Latin alphabet, which in 1938 was in turn replaced by the current Cyrillic script . Essentially, it is the Russian alphabet plus one additional letter called palochka ( stick , Ӏ). As that letter cannot be typed with common keyboard layouts , it is often replaced with a capital Latin letter i ( I ), small Latin letter L ( l ), or the numerical digit 1 . The Avar language

756-461: The Caucasus against the native North Caucasians as wars with Turkey (1828/1829) and with Persia (1826–1828) occupied the Russians. After considerable successes in both wars, Russia resumed fighting in the Caucasus against the various rebelling native ethnic groups in the North Caucasus, and that was the start of the Caucasian genocide committed by Russians, most of the terminated people were from

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792-529: The Christian Kingdom of Sarir in the early 12th century and later weakening of neighbouring Georgians by the Mongol invasions , who made their first appearance in the Caucasus with approximately 20,000 warriors led by Subutai and Jebe , terminated further Christian Georgian presence in this area. In fact, numerous traces of Christianity (crosses, chapels) are found within the Avar territory and it

828-639: The Epic poetry of Avars ; the names of rulers who led the most devastating attacks, Umma-Khan, Nursal-Bek, and Mallachi, are mentioned in Georgian sources. In the 18th century, the steady weakening of the Shamkhals fostered the ambitions of the Avar khans, whose greatest coup was the defeat of the 100,000-strong army of Nader Shah in September 1741 during his conquest of Dagestan . In the wake of this success, Avar sovereigns managed to expand their territory at

864-510: The Mongol invasion of the Avar lands. As historical clues are so scarce, it is probably fruitless to speculate whether the Avars were the agents of the Mongol influence in the Caucasus and whether they were entrusted with the task of levying tribute for the khan, as modern historian Murad Magomedov suggests. The Golden Horde overran the region in 1241, but by the 14th century, the newly established Avar Khanate managed to maintain independence from

900-633: The Mongols. The rise of the Shamkhalate of Kazi-Kumukh following the disintegration of the Golden Horde in the 15th century was at once a symptom and a cause of the Khans' diminished influence during the 15th and 16th centuries. The khanate was a loosely structured state, sometimes forced to seek the Tsar 's protection against its powerful enemies, while many mountainous communities ( djamaats ) obtained

936-647: The North Caucasus (especially the Circassians), was Muhajirism , or population transfer of the Muslim population to the Ottoman Empire . Many Circassians were forced to emigrate and leave their home to the Ottoman Empire , and to a lesser degree Persia. The genocide of Terek Cossacks during the Civil war was a continuation of the genocide of Circassians, former allies of the Russian Empire who supported

972-582: The Russian armies that served in the Caucasian wars were very eclectic; as well as ethnic Russians from various parts of the Russian empire they included Cossacks , Armenians , Georgians , Caucasus Greeks , Ossetians , and even soldiers of Muslim background like Tatars , Bashkirs , Kazakhs , Uyghurs , Turkmen and even some Caucasian Muslim tribes who sided with the Russians against fellow Muslims of Caucasus. Muslim soldiers of Imperial Russian Army had played some parts on religious discussion and wooing allies for Russia against their fellow Muslim brethren in

1008-578: The Tsar, and then exiled him to Central Russia. However, the war in the Western part of the North Caucasus resumed with the Circassians (i.e. Adyghe, but the term is often used to include their Abaza kin as well) resuming the fight. A manifesto of Tsar Alexander II declared hostilities at an end on June 2 (May 21 OS ), 1864. Among post-war events, a tragic page in the history of the indigenous peoples of

1044-422: The contour, e.g. [ tsː ] (tss), not in the stop part as in geminate affricates in languages such as Japanese and Italian [ tːs ] (tts). Laver (1994) analyzes e.g. [ t͡ɬː ] as a two-segment affricate–fricative sequence [ t͡ɬɬ ] ( /t𐞛ɬ/ = /t ɬ/ ). Avar has five phonemic vowels: /a e i o u/. In Avar, accent is contrastive, free and mobile, independent of the number of syllables in

1080-547: The expense of free communities in Dagestan and Chechnya . The reign of Umma-Khan (from 1775 to 1801) marked the zenith of the Avar ascendancy in the Caucasus. Potentates who paid tribute to Umma-Khan included the rulers of Shaki , Quba , and Shirvan . Within two years after Umma-Khan's death, the khanate voluntarily submitted to Russian authority. Yet the Russian administration disappointed and embittered freedom-loving highlanders. The institution of heavy taxation, coupled with

1116-635: The expropriation of estates and the construction of fortresses, electrified the Avar population into rising under the aegis of the Muslim Imamate , led by Ghazi Mohammed (1828–32), Hamzat Bek (1832–34) and Imam Shamil (1834–59). This Caucasian War raged until 1864, when the Avar Khanate was abolished and the Avar District was instituted instead. Since 1864, the Avar Khanate has been annexed to Russia . In 1837—1859 - as part of

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1152-421: The hostilities. The Russian poet Alexander Pushkin referred to the war in his Byronic poem The Prisoner of the Caucasus ( Кавказский пленник , Kavkazskiy plennik ), written in 1821. Mikhail Lermontov , often referred to as "the poet of the Caucasus", participated in the battle near the river Valerik which inspired him to write the poem of the same name of the river dedicated to this event. In general,

1188-472: The inside", and /ʒani-sa/ "from the inside". /-go/ is an emphatic suffix taken by underived adjectives. There were some attempts to write the Avar language in the Georgian alphabet as early as the 14th century. The use of Arabic script for representing Avar in marginal glosses began in the 15th century. The use of Arabic, which is known as ajam , is still known today. Peter von Uslar developed

1224-1260: The sound "ссвa" [sːʷa] is written as "سُّا". If a word starts with a vowel, if it's an [a] sound, it is written with alif "ا". Otherwise, the vowel needs to be preceded by a "vowel carrier", which is hamza-ya' (ئـ). No need for such a carrier in the middle of words. Below table demonstrates vowels in Avar Arabic Script. نۈڸ ماڨێڸ وێڮانا، ڨالدا ڸۇق - ڸۇقۇن، ڨۇردا كُېر ڃُان ئۇنېو، بێدا وېضّۇن دۇن؛ ڨۇرۇڬێ باطاڸۇن صېوې ئۇناڬۈ، صۈ ڸارال راعالدا عۈدۈو كّۈلېو دۇن. ڸار چُاخّۇلېب بۇڬۈ چابخێل گّالاڅان، ڸێن گانضۇلېب بۇڬۈ ڬانڃازدا طاسان؛ طاراماغادێسېب قُال بالېب بۇڬۈ، قۈ ڸێگێلان دێصا سۈعاب راڨالدا ‎ Нолъ макьилъ вихьана, кьалда лъукъ-лъукъун, Кьурда квер чIван унев, бида вецIцIун дун; Кьуруги батIалъун цеве унаго, Цо лъарал рагIалда гIодов кколев дун. Лъар чваххулеб буго чабхил кIкIалахъан, Лъин кIанцIулеб буго ганчIазда тIасан; ТIарамагъадисеб къвал балеб буго, Къо лъикIилан дица согIаб ракьалда. Noļ maꝗiļ viҳana, ꝗalda ļuq-ļuqun, Ꝗurda кvеr çvan unеv, bida vеⱬⱬun dun; Ꝗuruⱨ baţaļun s̶еvе unago, Co ļaral raⱨalda ⱨodov ккolеv dun. Łar cvaxxulеb bugo cabxil ⱪⱪalax̶an, Łin ⱪanⱬulеb bugo gançazda ţaсan; Ţaramaƣadiсеb qval balеb bugo, Qo ļiⱪilan dis̶a сoⱨab raꝗalda. The literary language

1260-474: The villages where they are spoken. The dialects are listed in alphabetical order based on their name in Glottolog: There are competing analyses of the distinction transcribed in the table with the length sign ⟨ ː ⟩. Length is part of the distinction, but so is articulatory strength, so they have been analyzed as fortis and lenis . The fortis affricates are long in the fricative part of

1296-470: The word. Changes in lexical accent placement indicate different semantic meaning and grammatical meanings of a word: Avar is an agglutinative language, of SOV order. Adverbs do not inflect, outside of inflection for noun class in some adverbs of place: e.g. the /b/ in /ʒani-b/ "inside" and /t͡se-b-e/ "in front". Adverbs of place also distinguish locative , allative , and ablative forms suffixally, such as /ʒani-b/ "inside", /ʒani-b-e/ "to

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