70-676: The Barossa Trail is a 40 kilometres (25 mi) cycling and walking path through the Barossa Valley in South Australia , opened in May 2014. Much of the Barossa Trail follows the Barossa Valley railway line , but is not a rail trail as part of the railway was still operating at the time it was built. As it is not on the railway formation, it has more undulations than a true rail trail would have. The part near Rowland Flat
140-482: A Peramangk boy was introduced to the intermediate stage of life. At about the age of 11-13 he would undergo his first initiation ceremony, the Wilya Kudnarti. Surrounded by elder men and women of his family the boy was gently beaten with new growth branches of eucalyptus leaves. Then, grabbed by his elders, the boy was placed on a bed of gum leaves and one of the senior men would make cuts on his own arm allowing
210-636: A Peramangk genealogy. Norman Tindale in his various interviews with Peramangk descendants recorded the names of at least eight family groups: the Poonawatta to the west of Mount Crawford, the Yira-Ruka (Wiljani) to the east down as far as Mount Torrens and Mannum and the Tarrawatta whose lands extended to the North as far as Angaston . The Karrawatta (west) and Mutingengal (east), occupied lands to
280-524: A change, e.g. the death of the promised man. With the onset of puberty, the young girls underwent their first stage of initiation. Gathered together in a group away from the main camp, the young girls were first held down by senior male members of their family, one at the head, and one each holding down the arms and legs, they were then covered with a skin rug, whilst the Elder women of the family proceeded to pluck out all of their hair, except for their head. All
350-659: A major role in the Barossa, being the main source of employment for many residents. The many hectares of vineyards are the most distinctive feature of the area, especially when viewed from the Mengler Hill lookout, positioned on the Barossa Range which forms much of the eastern side of the valley. The success of the wine industry has historically been celebrated every two years with a week-long Barossa Valley Vintage Festival. The festival draws visitors from all over
420-406: A much broader area, often outside of her birth country. Monarta of Echunga married John Mason Snr, whose country extended from Mount Barker, to Nairne, to Wall and Mypolonga. Tukkuangki: If a mother of two or more children, a woman was introduced to the full knowledge of women's business. Her views of the landscape and responsibilities were shaped by her experiences and she could now participate in
490-497: A portion of the covering and commenced plucking the hair. At intervals, the operators were relieved by others of both sexes, and of various ages; little children under ten, were sometimes but not frequently officiating. When all the hair had been pulled out, that belonging to each native was carefully rolled up in green boughs, the three lots being put together, and given to one of the wise or inspired men to be put properly away; bunches of green boughs were now placed under each arm of
560-424: A sacred place far from the main camps of his family group and would be tattooed (Mangka Bakkendi - to make incisions in the body) across his shoulders and chest with a sharpened, sacred piece of rock crystal (Kauwemuka: large rock crystal which Aboriginal men conceal from women and young men until the latter are tattooed the last time, which ceremony is performed with small splinters of the rock crystal). Eyre described
630-415: Is Australia's oldest and longest-running wine festival. The Barossa Gourmet Weekend is a three-day food, wine and art celebration held in the third weekend of August every year. Local wineries and venues host individual events throughout the Barossa, offering food, wine, music, arts and hospitality. Peramangk The Peramangk are an Aboriginal Australian people whose lands traditionally comprise
700-579: Is away from both the railway and main road. It has much sharper corners than would be expected on a rail trail. Until 2019 the 27km between Gawler and Tanunda was named the Jack Bobridge Track , after a cyclist who grew up in the area. Following Bobridge's imprisonment that year for dealing recreational drugs , the Barossa Council extended the name of the rest of the route to that section. The Barossa Trail begins adjacent to
770-484: Is formed by the North Para River . It is notable as a major wine-producing region and tourist destination. The Barossa Valley Way is the main road through the valley, connecting the main towns on the valley floor of Nuriootpa , Tanunda , Rowland Flat and Lyndoch . The Barossa Trail walking and cycling path is 40 kilometres (25 mi) long, and passes the main towns, starting from near Gawler on
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#1732787621173840-596: Is generally recognised as the most German of the three, with traditions dating back to the 1840s when the first German settlers arrived in the area . Since many of the German settlers came from Prussian Silesia , they called the Barossa Neu-Schlesien , or " New Silesia ". The German influence survives to this day ( see Barossa German ). Angaston , in contrast, is considered the English town as it
910-463: Is overshadowed by the wine industry, significant food production occurs in the Barossa Valley, including: The Barossa Valley holds a weekly Farmers' Market , supplying local produce which is sold directly by the producer. The week-long Barossa Vintage Festival is held biennially, in odd-numbered years. The festival runs for around a week in autumn , and traditionally marks and celebrates
980-434: Is soon captured and thrown down; he is then raised up and surrounded by several natives, who hold him and smear him from head to foot, with red ochre and grease; during this part of the ceremony, a band of elderly women, generally the mother and other near relatives, surround the group, crying or lamenting, and lacerating their thighs and backs with shells or flints, until the blood streams down. When well ochred (milte) all over
1050-793: The Adelaide Hills , as well as lands to the west of the Murray River in mid Murraylands and through to the northern part of the Fleurieu Peninsula in the Australian state of South Australia . A particular group of Peramangk were sometimes referred to by settlers as the Mount Barker tribe, as their numbers were noted to be great around the Mount Barker summit, meanwhile Peramangk country also extends from
1120-536: The Adelaide Plains , to Angaston to the east of the valley. The traditional owners of the land including the Barossa Valley are the Peramangk people, who comprise a number of family groups. Evidence of their thousands of years of occupation can be seen all around the area, in the form of artefacts, scar trees and shelter paintings. The Barossa Valley derives its name from the Barossa Range , which
1190-807: The Angaston district and the Barossa Range in the north, south to Myponga , east to Mannum and west to the Mount Lofty Ranges . Colonial reports of the mid 1800s, as well as modern research, describe varying degrees of respect, intermarriage, trade and competition between the tribes of the Adelaide region, being the Kaurna , Ngarrindjeri , Ngadjuri , Peramangk and others. While each tribe had differing cultural practices, they often met on Peramangk land or through Peramangk facilitation. Conflicts between indigenous tribes may have been exacerbated by
1260-496: The Barossa Trail prior to the decision to change the rest of the trail's name to match in 2019. The section between Nuriootpa and Angaston is on the former railway alignment, so has railway grades. The section from Tanunda to Nuriootpa is mostly flat. From Nuriootpa, The Barossa Trail follows the former railway alignment through vineyards and past the Adelaide Brighton Cement factory. It provides views across
1330-660: The Barossa Valley and of McLaren Vale . He said: "Barossa and McLaren Vale food and wine are key icons of South Australia. We must never allow the Barossa or McLaren Vale to become suburbs of Adelaide." The Character Preservation (Barossa Valley) Act 2012 was subsequently passed by the South Australian Parliament. In 2021, 25,066 people lived in the Barossa Valley. Most inhabitants live in Tanunda, Nuriootpa, Angaston, Williamstown and Lyndoch , each having over 1,000 people. The remaining population lives in
1400-587: The Lutheran primary school at Lyndoch, hosts the Barossa Airshow annually as its fundraiser. Major Town Populations: As a rural region, there is also significant population outside of the town centres (not shown here). The Barossa Valley railway line runs through several townships in the valley. The line opened in 1911 and was last used in June 2014. It has since been closed. The wine industry plays
1470-636: The Peramangk shifted, as numbers dwindled, to include land from Clarendon west to Tungkillo and down along Salt Creek to Mypolonga, back in a narrow strip to Strathalbyn then south to Currency Creek , Bull Creek to Clarendon. The territory of the Peramangk people prior to European arrival followed clearly defined geographical boundaries and is confirmed by both art site locations, the Tjilbruke Songline (full version), and interviews with survivors, recorded by Tindale in various journals. Like
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#17327876211731540-515: The area has seen opposition from the local communities. The region has a strong German Lutheran history, and many residents identify themselves as Lutherans. Some towns have more than one Lutheran church. Tanunda, for example, has Langmeil, St. Paul's, Tabor and St. Johns. Nuriootpa has St. Petri and Holy Trinity. Angaston has Zion and Salem (Penrice). Each major town has a Lutheran primary school. Tanunda has Tanunda Lutheran School, Nuriootpa has Redeemer, and Angaston has Good Shepherd. St. Jakobi,
1610-448: The blood to cover his whole body. Once that stage was completed, the boy was allowed to carry a wirri for killing birds, and a small wooden spade (karko) for digging grubs out of the ground. Once the boys had reached that stage, preparations would be made for their full initiation into the world of adults, but that would not be done by their immediate family elders or in their own country. The next stage of their lives would be undertaken at
1680-560: The boys as also in their hands, after which several natives took hold of them, and raised them suddenly and simultaneously to their feet, whilst a loud guttural, ‘Whaugh’, was uttered by the other natives around. They were then disenchanted and the ceremony was over, but for some time afterwards, the initiated are obliged to sleep away from the camp, and are not allowed to see the women; their heads and bodies are kept smeared with red ochre and grease (marnitti), and tufts of feathers (Karaki-woppa), and kangaroo teeth (teryarkoo), are worn tied to
1750-435: The care needed to raise a family (Ngadla : Step-father). A man who could not properly provide for his new family had little chance of gaining further, younger wives in the future. Burka: The fifth and final stage of a man's life progress came with greater maturity, long after he had attained his Wilyaru status. By then he was an older man, usually with two or more wives and several children (Yerlitta/Father). A Burka man
1820-403: The ceremony ... Three men then got up and seated themselves at the foot of the three spears, with their legs crossed ... Two other natives then went over ... to where the three novices stood shaking and trembling ... seizing them by the legs and shoulders, and carefully lifting them from the ground, they carried each in turn, and laid them on their backs at full length upon green boughs, spread upon
1890-499: The completion of the year's vintage season , at the end of March and beginning of April. A variety of wine-themed events are held during the festival, including wine tastings and competitions, musical events, food events with local produce, balls and parades. The Barossa Vintage Festival was first held in 1947, to celebrate the end of the grape harvest, and the end of hostilities in World War II , and has run continually since. It
1960-587: The countryside, or a few smaller towns such as Moculta and Springton . All of these towns are part of the Barossa local government . The townships of Greenock , population 1087, Seppeltsfield , population 138, and Maranaga, population 104, are located on the western ridge of the valley in Light Regional Council . Many facilities not available in these towns are usually supplemented in nearby Gawler . In recent years, increased development in
2030-417: The creation of a "Mindaba" (Yammaaimma/Nurrullurrulla) man and the powers and responsibilities that he wielded: Traditionally, several years after a young man's wilyaru, and if he had shown considerable interest in magical matters, a Mindaba with some of his colleagues would take him out into the bush ... Here the postulant was red-ochred and smeared all over with fat ... The Mindaba taught him how to bring on
2100-399: The falls at the head of Salt Creek and at Waterfall Gully . The scars received by the Peramangk men were three "chevron" tattoos across the shoulder blades, chest and upper arm (Mangka: elevated scars on the chest or back produced by incisions or tattooing; raised scars on chest and back from initiation). Those scars signified to all observers that the person was a fully initiated man with all
2170-495: The fear that was engendered in neighbouring groups by the powers of Peramangk "Sorcerers" (sic). It was a rare and puissant individual who became a Yammaiamma or Nurrullurrulla (Sorcerer). The Peramangk shared much magical lore with their northern cousins the Ngadjuri, even if they did not see eye to eye on other religious matters. Barney Waria, a senior Ngadjuri Elder, speaking to Ronald Berndt in 1944, talked at great length about
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2240-428: The ground in front of the three men sitting by the spears, so that the head of each rested on the lap of one of the three. From the moment of their being seized, they resolutely closed their eyes, and pretended to be in a deep trance until the whole was over. When all three novices had been laid in their proper position, cloaks were thrown over them ... [members of the family] coming to the side of each, carefully lifted up
2310-467: The guidance of the Elder women of her new family. They were then taught the more localized Dreaming, and Laws of their new family, as well as the skills and duties they would need to fit in with their new roles. Women rarely became mothers before the age of 16, but before then they would have to undergo their second initiation rite, that of the Mangkarra, or scarring of their shoulders. From that time on,
2380-512: The guidance of the Ngamma Ngamaitya. The weddings of young women would usually take place in the late spring or early summer, at points distant from their home lands, because the various family groups gathered together in various places. Those gatherings of many different language and culture groups would comprise hundreds of people meeting in one place. The purposes of the gatherings were many: trade, settling of disputes, marriages, and
2450-422: The hair in front . It was after that ceremony that the young man began to live as an adult, and was taught what he needed to know to become a full member of adult society. He lived apart from the rest of the family with the older men and was taken on many trips around the country, learning about its resources, its stories and other knowledge important to daily physical and spiritual life. At that stage in his life he
2520-401: The initiation of other younger women. She became known as Tukkupartapartanna – a woman of knowledge. It was at that time that the woman would gain more scars upon her arms and chest. After giving birth to several children, the older women would often be married off to much younger men of about 25 years of age. Eventually, they were often replaced by much younger women who they had to initiate into
2590-406: The lands of her new husband. The totemic affiliations of the family also passed down the female line, so that any children she bore were also of the same totem group as their mother. The young women generally left to live with their husbands at about the age of 12. Relatives nearer than cousins were not allowed to marry and the young women were generally married to much older men. They would often be
2660-491: The language of the Peramangk was related to the groups as far north as Lake Victoria . That put them in close contact with the Nganguruku , Ngaiawang , Ngadjuri , Ngarkat and Maraura peoples, as well as their clear relationship with the Kaurna people and language. The territory of the various family groups identified as Peramangk extended in a crescent shape from Myponga across to Currency Creek, swinging north along
2730-576: The meeting groups. The Elder men (usually the mother's male relatives) of the visiting family or culture group, undertook the Marnitti ceremony early in the morning. Edward John Eyre recorded the holding of a Marnitti Initiation ceremony and his thoughtful observations are worth quoting at length: Early in the morning some of the male friends of the boy about to be operated upon, go behind him to seize him, upon which he sets off running as hard as he can, as if to escape; but being followed by his pursuers
2800-483: The men, Peramangk (Kartameru) women passed through various stages of life as they aged and became involved in the life of the clan. At large gatherings of several different family groups in the late spring and early summer, at about the time of the appearance of the Pleiades star group, the young women of the family began preparations for their coming initiation and travel to their new husbands lands. Takanna: Prior to
2870-468: The next Rainbow Ceremony where the boys, along with their umbilical cord trade partners, would be initiated into the mysteries of early adulthood. Marnitti (Becoming a Milta: After the settling of disputes, and before the performing of various dances of the Kombokuri, the Elder men and women met to discuss who would be initiated into adulthood, with both young girls and boys selected for initiation from
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2940-525: The north of Mount Barker, but somewhat south of the River Torrens . The Rungang, Pongarang, and the Merelda, occupied the lands to the south of Mount Barker, in preceding order down as far as Myponga in the south. The Peramangk language belongs to the greater Pama-Nyungan group of languages. Bowern (2011) classifies it as Lower Murray . When interviewing Robert 'Tarby' Mason, Tindale learned that
3010-430: The novice is led away by another native, apart from the rest of the tribe, or if there are more than one, they stand together linked hand in hand, and when tired sit down upon bunches of green boughs brought for that purpose, for they are neither allowed to sit on the ground, nor to have any clothing on; and when they move about they always carry a bunch of green boughs in each hand. (Wilyakundarti) They are now ready for
3080-412: The onset of puberty, the young girls lived with their family and were raised by their uncles' wives and the Elder women of the family group into which they were born. During that time, they accompanied the women on their daily routines and were subject to few restrictions. In early infancy they were betrothed to much older men. Those arrangements were generally adhered to, unless circumstances necessitated
3150-439: The performance and exchanging of ceremonies, stories and law. The location of those "Rainbow Ceremonies" would rotate according to the time of the year, the location to be travelled to, the groups arriving, and a broader cycle that determined who would host the gathering, where and when. Like the women, Peramangk men passed through five different stages of life as they aged. From birth to death, each major milestone of their lives
3220-641: The railway line at Ann Milroy Lane in Kalbeeba on the eastern outskirts of Gawler . It follows the railway line through Sandy Creek , then crosses the railway using a short section of Cockatoo Lane. The track resumes adjacent to the Barossa Valley Way through gum trees, then over a hill and descends into Lyndoch . From Lyndoch, the track follows the Barossa Valley Way, then next to the railway line to Rowland Flat . From Rowland Flat,
3290-737: The region as well. Marananga is home to the only sub-regional wine competition in Australia, hosted by the Gnadenfrei Lutheran church community since 2004 and focussed solely on benchmarking wines produced on the Western Ridge of the valley. The Barossa Valley is a rich source of some of the oldest Shiraz vines in the world. Shiraz vines planted as early as 1847 by Johann Frederick August Fiedler on Lot 1, Hundred of Moorooroo (the township of Tanunda) are still in commercial production today by Turkey Flat Vineyards. Although it
3360-487: The rights and responsibilities that went with it. Between the end of this ceremony and usually before the age of 25, the Wilyaru man would take a wife. Often she was a much older woman who would either be a widow, or the divorced wife of another man. She would often have children that the new husband (Yerlinna ), would have to care for and help raise. He did not do that alone, but having such responsibilities taught him about
3430-532: The secrets of their totemic affiliations were passed down the female line, guaranteeing their spread far beyond the birth country of the women. The Elder women would often begin their preparations in the spring with the appearance of the Seven Sisters constellation – Mangkamankarranna, seven young women gathering food on the Womma (sky plain). Those seven young girls were promised wives but lived separately under
3500-559: The sores are just healed; mangkauitya, at the time the cuts begin to rise; and bartamu, when the scars are at their highest elevation. Each tribe has a distinctive mode of making their incisions . One place we know that Peramangk men underwent their Wilyaru ceremony was at Woodchester Falls. That location was sacred not only to the Peramangk, but to the Ngarrindjeri and the Kaurna as well. Other sacred places for Wilyaru ceremonies were at
3570-496: The time reciting the ritual words that announced their passing into womanhood. Similar in form to the boy's first initiation ceremonies, the young women were then covered in red ochre mixed with animal fat, and led away to live with Elder women in an unmarried women's camp, apart from the main camp, and out of sight of the young, unmarried men. There they learnt the secrets of their family. The Dreaming and Law that they needed to know were passed on to them, and they were then taken into
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#17327876211733640-465: The track is away from the road and railway, through vineyards and bushland near the North Para River and the Jacob's Creek visitor centre. This section has short steep sections and sharper corners, but rewarding scenery. From St Hallett Road to Tanunda, the track is again adjacent to the Barossa Valley Way. The track continues from Tanunda to Nuriootpa then Angaston . This section was already known as
3710-580: The upheaval of European arrival. After the European settlement of the Adelaide Hills, it is often stated that Aboriginal South Australians including people of Peramangk heritage were forced into missions set up by church and government organisations, as were many of the Kaurna and other neighbouring tribes. Many Peramangk may have integrated with the Kaurna, Ngarrindjeri, Nganguruku or other tribes, although relocation from traditional lands
3780-405: The valley from the eastern side, then passes through a cutting for the final descent to Angaston . This trail or long-distance path-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Barossa Valley The Barossa Valley ( Barossa German : Barossa Tal ) is a valley in South Australia located 60 kilometres (37 mi) northeast of Adelaide city centre . The valley
3850-429: The various stages of that long and painful process, during which time the young man would live apart from his family and travel o all the different places sacred to his people. The fourth stage (Wilyaru) is entered about the age of twenty, when the back, shoulders, arms and chest, are tattooed. He is called ngulte at the time of the operation; yellambambettu, when the incisions have begun to discharge pus; tarkange, when
3920-517: The ways of the family group, as well as teaching the young men their responsibilities of being husbands and fathers. Ngamma Ngamaitya: Stout, older woman with large breasts, these older women would have shoulders, arms, stomachs and chests covered with mangkamangkarrana scars, and would have full knowledge of the Dreaming and Laws they needed to pass onto the next generation of young women. They were often mothers and grandmothers to many children, and
3990-654: The western ridge line of the Mount Lofty Ranges to Sandy Creek . The eastern boundary followed the eastern escarpment north to Mount Karinya, with the northern boundary following the south bank of the Gawler River. Access points to the River Murray could be found along Salt Creek to Mypolonga and Wall and in the North down the Marne River at Wongulla . Post European arrival, the territory of
4060-534: The world, and has entertainment for all tastes including a huge street parade, concerts and gourmet dining. The Barossa Valley is primarily known for its red wine, in particular Shiraz . Normally, large proportions of Barossa Shiraz are used in Penfolds Grange , Australia's most famous wine. Other main grape varieties grown in the region include: Riesling ; Semillon ; Grenache and Cabernet Sauvignon . Fortified wines have been traditionally produced in
4130-405: The young woman was allowed to partake in all the activities of the family group as her education continued. Tukkuparka: Once the young woman had undergone the Mangkarra ceremony she was known as a Tukkuparka. She held that title whilst she was still learning to be a wife and once she had given birth to her first child. Now that she was married, she was welcomed into the world of adult women. It
4200-410: The youngest of two or more wives, with some men having up to four. Once the marriage had been decided, the young woman would pick up her net bag containing the tools and objects she would need to start her new life, and head off to her husband's camp and thence to his family's lands. Mangkarra(Chevron Scars): Upon reaching their husband's family group, the young women's education would continue under
4270-465: Was able to provide for his family, and that was reflected in the number of wives and children he was able to support. Often a Burka's wives would be much younger than himself, their marriages to him having been arranged at a Rainbow ceremony not long after their birth. Peramangk Burka men like Parruwonggaburka ("King John"), had responsibility and traditional ownership over at tract of land (pangkara). John's country extended from Mypolonga to Echunga, and he
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#17327876211734340-480: Was after the birth of her first child that she had her belly scarred and again after each subsequent birth. Tukkupurlaitya: As a general rule, a woman who had only given birth to two children was only allowed limited access to secret knowledge. She did gain stories and ceremonies but learned only their general meaning and nature. Some of that lore was hers to own; others she shared just a part of. As she moved from one group into another, her Dreaming knowledge covered
4410-464: Was known as a "Ngarilda", a young unmarried man. After a time he might once again mix in the company of the women of the group and could have girlfriends, (indeed he was encouraged to). His future wife was chosen from amongst the older women but he was not allowed to marry her until after his final initiation stage. Wilyaru: At about the age of twenty, a Peramangk man was ready to undergo his final initiation into full adulthood. He would be taken off to
4480-418: Was marked with a ceremony that brought them into the next stage of their lives. Kurkurra: In the earliest stage of a boy's life, he was known as a Kurkurra, an uninitiated boy. From birth until the age of about 10-12, he was relatively free of restrictions, living with his mother or his mother's sisters, and was raised amongst the women of the family, accompanying them on their daily tasks. That carefree life
4550-588: Was named by Colonel William Light in 1837. Light chose the name in memory of the British victory over the French in the Battle of Barrosa , in which he fought in 1811. The name "Barossa" was registered in error, due to a clerical error in transcribing the name "Barrosa". The area is approximately 13 by 14 kilometres (8.1 by 8.7 mi). The three major towns of the Barossa have distinctive characteristics. Tanunda
4620-592: Was not universal. In recent decades, there have been moves to identify Peramangk descendants through genealogy and through outreach to those who identify as Peramangk. Adelaide Hills schools, churches and local councils hold frequent welcome to country ceremonies hosted by Peramangk elders and artists. Peramangk family group names include Poonawatta, Tarrawatta, Karrawatta, Yira-Ruka, Wiljani, Mutingengal, Runganng, Jolori, Pongarang, Paldarinalwar, Merelda. While some major aspects of Peramangk culture became unpractised during European settlement, many families survive with
4690-484: Was often seen as the head of his family and an elder of great knowledge, who could be called upon to mediate in disputes between individuals and different family and culture groups. He would arrange marriages, set and conduct initiation ceremonies of the group's younger members, lead songs and dances at the Kombo-Kuris, and negotiate travels through another group's country. It was a sign of a Burka man's power that he
4760-431: Was perhaps the only time where he was allows to do as he pleased. He would watch the older boys and men, and imitate their activities with games designed to hone many of the skills he would need in later life. Those included using the kutpe (a toy spear), hunting, tracking, food gathering and imitating the dancers in the ceremonies that were performed by the older men. Wilya Kundarti: At the age of puberty, or just before,
4830-418: Was settled predominantly by Cornish miners and others from Britain . The third, and largest town, Nuriootpa , was influenced by both German and British settlers, and today is the commercial hub of the Barossa and it is where most of the larger stores are located. In February 2011, South Australian Premier , Mike Rann , announced that special legislation would be introduced to protect the unique heritage of
4900-571: Was the traditional custodian of the Dreaming Lore for that pangkara. Parruwonggaburka was the father of Monarta who married John Mason. With his death, the ownership of the land passed to a responsible male relative. Yammaiamma or Nurrullurrulla: There was another, much rarer stage for some Peramangk men. At the time of European invasion, some Peramangk people had reputations as powerful workers of magic. The early record of European settlers such as Cawthorne, Bull and Schurmann, make note of
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