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67-669: Aaron T. Beck et al. (1988) combined three separate anxiety questionnaires, with 86 original items, to derive the BAI : the Anxiety Checklist , the Physician's Desk Reference Checklist , and the Situational Anxiety Checklist . The BAI is used for measuring the severity of anxiety in adolescents and adults ages 17 and older. The questions used in this measure ask about common symptoms of anxiety that

134-485: A fellow in psychiatry at the Austen Riggs Center , a private mental hospital in the mountains of Stockbridge, Massachusetts , until 1952. At that time, it was a center of ego psychology with an unusual degree of collaboration between psychiatrists and psychologists, including David Rapaport . Beck then completed military service as assistant chief of neuropsychiatry at Valley Forge Army Hospital in

201-450: A different response compared to administration via a postal survey. In participants with concomitant physical illness the BDI's reliance on physical symptoms such as fatigue may artificially inflate scores due to symptoms of the illness, rather than of depression. In an effort to deal with this concern Beck and his colleagues developed the "Beck Depression Inventory for Primary Care" (BDI-PC),

268-421: A high one-week test–retest reliability (Pearson's r = 0.93), suggesting that it was not overly sensitive to day-to-day variations in mood. The test also has high internal consistency ( α = .91). The development of the BDI was an important event in psychiatry and psychology ; it represented a shift in health care professionals' view of depression from a Freudian , psychodynamic perspective, to one guided by

335-785: A high somatic component, such as panic disorder . On the other hand, the BAI won't function as adequately for disorders such as social phobia or obsessive-compulsive disorder , which have a stronger cognitive or behavioral component. The final subsample (n = 160), on which extensive validation of the final BAI was carried out, was made up of groups with primary diagnoses of major depressive disorder (n = 40); dysthymic disorder and atypical depression (n = 11); panic disorder (n = 45); generalized anxiety disorder (n = 18); agoraphobia with panic attacks (n = 18); social and simple phobia (n = 12); and miscellaneous nonanxiety, nondepression disorders such as academic problems and adjustment disorders (n = 16). The BAI

402-518: A negative effect on a person's behavior no matter what type of disorder they had, he found. Beck explained that successful interventions will educate a person to understand and become aware of their distorted thinking, and how to challenge its effects. He discovered that frequent negative automatic thoughts reveal a person's core beliefs. He explained that core beliefs are formed over lifelong experiences; we "feel" these beliefs to be true. Since that time, Beck and his colleagues worldwide have researched

469-516: A panic response). As such, it is often paired with the Penn State Worry Questionnaire, which provides a more accurate assessment of the cognitive components of anxiety (i.e., worry, catastrophizing, etc.) commonly seen in generalized anxiety disorder. Though anxiety can be thought of as having several components, including cognitive, somatic, affective, and behavioral components, Beck et al. included only two components in

536-509: A patient he had been listening to for a year at the Penn clinic. When he suggested she was anxious due to her ego being confronted by her sexual impulses, and asked her whether she believed this when she did not seem convinced, she said she was actually worried that she was being boring, and that she thought this often and with everyone. In 1962, Beck requested a sabbatical and would go into private practice for five years. In that same year, he

603-600: A relatively "neutral" space and a bridge to psychology. With a monograph on depression that Beck published in 1967, according to historian Rachael Rosner: "Cognitive Therapy entered the marketplace as a corrective experimentalist psychological framework both for himself and his patients and for his fellow psychiatrists." Working with depressed patients, Beck found that they experienced streams of negative thoughts that seemed to arise spontaneously. He termed these cognitions "automatic thoughts", and discovered that their content fell into three categories: negative ideas about oneself,

670-527: A short screening scale consisting of seven items from the BDI-II considered to be independent of physical function. Unlike the standard BDI, the BDI-PC produces only a binary outcome of "not depressed" or "depressed" for patients above a cutoff score of 4. Although designed as a screening device rather than a diagnostic tool, the BDI is sometimes used by health care providers to reach a quick diagnosis. The BDI

737-634: A six-month junior residency in pathology at Rhode Island Hospital and a three-year residency in neurology at Cushing Veterans Administration Hospital in Framingham, Massachusetts . During this time, Beck began to specialize in neurology, reportedly liking the precision of its procedures. However, due to a shortage of psychiatry residents , he was instructed to do a six-month rotation in that field, and he became absorbed in psychoanalysis , despite initial wariness. After completing his medical internships and residencies from 1946 to 1950, Beck became

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804-428: A three factor structure including subjective, somatic, and panic subscale scores to differentiate among a sample of clinically anxious outpatients Because the somatic subscale is emphasized on the BAI, with 15 out of 21 items measuring physiological symptoms, perhaps the cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of anxiety are being deemphasized. Therefore, the BAI functions more adequately in anxiety disorders with

871-439: Is a 21-question multiple-choice self-report inventory , one of the most widely used psychometric tests for measuring the severity of depression . Its development marked a shift among mental health professionals, who had until then, viewed depression from a psychodynamic perspective, instead of it being rooted in the patient's own thoughts. In its current version, the BDI-II is designed for individuals aged 13 and over, and

938-993: Is a co-founder of the non-profit Beck Institute . He turned 100 on July 18, 2021, and died later in the year on November 1 in his sleep at his home in Philadelphia. Along with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Beck developed the Beck Hopelessness Scale , Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation (BSS), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Beck Youth Inventories, Clark-Beck Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (CBOCI), Personality Belief Questionnaire (PBQ), Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS), Suicide Intent Scale (SIS), Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale (SAS), Cognitive Therapy Rating Scale (CTRS), Beck Cognitive Insight Scale (BCIS), Satisfaction with Therapy Questionnaire (STQ) and BDI–Fast Screen for Medical Patients. Beck collaborated with psychologist Maria Kovacs in

1005-508: Is composed of items relating to symptoms of depression such as hopelessness and irritability, cognitions such as guilt or feelings of being punished, as well as physical symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss , and lack of interest in sex. There are three versions of the BDI—the original BDI, first published in 1961 and later revised in 1978 as the BDI-1A, and the BDI-II, published in 1996. The BDI

1072-446: Is designed to reflect the depth of depression, it can monitor changes over time and provide an objective measure for judging improvement and the effectiveness or otherwise of treatment methods. The instrument remains widely used in research; in 1998, it had been used in over 2000 empirical studies . It has been translated into multiple European languages as well as Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Persian , and Xhosa . The BDI has

1139-574: Is regarded as the father of cognitive therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). His pioneering methods are widely used in the treatment of clinical depression and various anxiety disorders . Beck also developed self-report measures for depression and anxiety , notably the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), which became one of the most widely used instruments for measuring the severity of depression. In 1994 he and his daughter, psychologist Judith S. Beck , founded

1206-462: Is widely used as an assessment tool by health care professionals and researchers in a variety of settings. The BDI was used as a model for the development of the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI), first published in 1979 by clinical psychologist Maria Kovacs . According to Beck's publisher, 'When Beck began studying depression in the 1950s, the prevailing psychoanalytic theory attributed

1273-577: The Beck Depression Inventory , which he published in 1961 and soon started to market, unsupported by Appel. In another experiment, he found that depressed patients sought encouragement or improvement following disapproval, rather than seeking out suffering and failure as predicted by the Freudian anger-turned-inwards theory. Through the 1950s, Beck adhered to the department's psychoanalytic theories while pursuing experimentation and harboring private doubts. In 1961, however, controversy over whom to appoint

1340-702: The United States Military . Beck then joined the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania in 1954. The department chair was Kenneth Ellmaker Appel, a psychoanalyst who was president of the American Psychiatric Association , whose efforts to expand the presence and relatedness of psychiatry had a big influence on Beck's career. At the same time, Beck began formal training in psychoanalysis at

1407-543: The manifest content of dreams (that which can be directly reported by the dreamer). Beck and a graduate student developed a new inventory they used to assess "masochistic" hostility in manifest dreams, published in 1959. This study found themes of loss and rejection related to depression, rather than inverted hostility as predicted by psychoanalysis. Developing the work with funding from the National Institute of Mental Health , Beck came up with what he would call

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1474-482: The " a and b statements" described above were removed, and respondents were instructed to endorse how they had been feeling during the preceding two weeks. The internal consistency for the BDI-IA was good, with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of around 0.85, meaning that the items on the inventory are highly correlated with each other. However, this version retained some flaws; the BDI-IA only addressed six out of

1541-486: The 1950s. He had begun presenting his "rational therapy" by the mid-1950s. Beck recalled that Ellis contacted him in the mid-1960s after his two articles in the Archives of General Psychiatry , and therefore he discovered Ellis had developed a rich theory and pragmatic therapy that he was able to use to some extent as a framework blended with his own, though he disliked Ellis's technique of telling patients what he thought

1608-401: The BAI and BDI-II was seen among psychiatric outpatients, suggesting that the BAI and the BDI-II equally discriminate between anxiety and depression. Another study indicates that, in primary care patients with different anxiety disorders including social phobia, panic disorder, panic disorder with or without agoraphobia , agoraphobia, or generalized anxiety disorder , the BAI seemed to measure

1675-496: The BAI was moderately correlated with the revised Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale [...] and was only mildly correlated with the revised Hamilton Depression Rating Scale The BAI contains 21 questions, each answer being scored on a scale value of 0 ("Not at all") to 3 ("Severely--I could barely stand it"). Higher total scores indicate more severe anxiety symptoms. The standardized cutoffs are: The BAI has been criticized for its predominant focus on physical symptoms of anxiety (most akin to

1742-409: The BAI with high-school students and psychiatric inpatient samples of ages 14 to 18 years, the recently developed diagnostic tool, Beck Youth Inventories, Second Edition, contains an anxiety inventory of 20 questions specifically designed for children and adolescents ages 7 to 18 years old. Three samples of [1,086] psychiatric outpatients [456 men, mean age 36.35; and 630 women, mean age 35.69] [...] at

1809-529: The BAI's original proposal: cognitive and somatic . The cognitive subscale provides a measure of fearful thoughts and impaired cognitive functioning, and the somatic subscale measures the symptoms of physiological arousal. Since the introduction of the BAI, other factor structures have been implemented, including a four factor structure used by Beck and Steer with anxious outpatients that included neurophysiological, autonomic symptoms, subjective, and panic components of anxiety. In 1993, Beck, Steer, and Beck used

1876-627: The BAIT was developed to minimize the overlap between anxiety and depression. A 1999 review found that the BAI was the third most used research measure of anxiety, behind the STAI and the Fear Survey Schedule, which provides quantitative information about how clients react to possible sources of maladaptive emotional reactions. The BAI has been used in a variety of different patient groups, including adolescents. Though support exists for using

1943-478: The Center for Cognitive Therapy in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from [1980 to 1986.] [...] The resulting Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) is a 21-item scale that showed high internal consistency (a = .92) and test-retest reliability over 1 week, r(81) = .75 Though the BAI was developed to minimize its overlap with the depression scale as measured by the Beck Depression Inventory , a correlation of r=.66 (p<.01) between

2010-666: The Philadelphia Institute of the American Psychoanalytic Association . Beck's closest colleague was Marvin Stein, a friend since their army hospital days to whom Beck looked up to for his scientific rigor in psychoneuroimmunology . Beck's first research was with Leon J. Saul, a psychoanalyst known for unusual methods such as therapy by telephone or setting homework, who had developed inventory questionnaires to quantify ego processes in

2077-443: The ancient philosophical system of Stoicism as a forerunner of their ideas. Beck cited Epictetus as an influence from Stoicism. In 1967, becoming active again at University of Pennsylvania , Beck still described himself and his new therapy (as he always would quietly) as neo-Freudian in the ego psychology school, albeit focused on interactions with the environment rather than internal drives. He offered cognitive therapy work as

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2144-495: The development of the Children's Depression Inventory , which used the BDI as a template. Beck received honorary degrees from Yale University , University of Pennsylvania, Brown University, Assumption College , and Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine . In 2017, Medscape named Beck the fourth most influential physician in the past century. Beck Depression Inventory The Beck Depression Inventory ( BDI , BDI-1A , BDI-II ), created by Aaron T. Beck ,

2211-710: The effectiveness of CBT—relatively easy because of the narrow, time-limited and manual-based nature of the treatment—there has been much less focus on experimentally proving the supposedly active mechanisms; in some cases the predicted causal relationships have not been found, such as between dysfunctional attitudes and outcomes. Beck was involved in research studies at the University of Pennsylvania, and conducted biweekly Case Conferences at Beck Institute for area psychiatric residents, graduate students, and mental health professionals. He met every two weeks with conference participants and generally did two to three role plays. He

2278-539: The efficacy of this form of psychotherapy in treating a wide variety of disorders including depression, bipolar disorder , eating disorders , drug abuse , anxiety disorders , personality disorders , and many other medical conditions with psychological components. Cognitive therapy has also been applied with success to individuals with schizophrenia . He also focused on cognitive therapy for schizophrenia, borderline personality disorder , and for patients who have had recurrent suicide attempts. Beck's recent research on

2345-666: The importance of a warm and encouraging therapeutic relationship and tailoring treatment to the specific challenges of each individual. Beck's work was presented as a far more scientific and experimentally-based development than psychoanalysis (while being less reductive than behaviorism), Beck's key principles were not necessarily based on the general findings and models of cognitive psychology or neuroscience developing at that time but were derived from personal clinical observations and interpretations in his therapy office. And although there have been many cognitive models developed for different mental disorders and hundreds of outcome studies on

2412-505: The items were reworded; only the items dealing with feelings of being punished, thoughts about suicide, and interest in sex remained the same. Finally, participants were asked to rate how they have been feeling for the past two weeks, as opposed to the past week as in the original BDI. Like the BDI, the BDI-II also contains about 21 questions, each answer being scored on a scale value of 0 to 3. Higher total scores indicate more severe depressive symptoms. The standardized cutoffs used differ from

2479-487: The last week, it is not a measure of trait anxiety or state anxiety. The BAI can be described as a measure of "prolonged state anxiety ", which, in a clinical setting, is an important assessment. A version of the BAI, the Beck Anxiety Inventory-Trait (BAIT), was developed in 2008 to assess trait anxiety rather than immediate or prolonged state anxiety, much like the STAI. However, unlike the STAI,

2546-458: The mean and median reliability estimates of the BAI tend to be lower when given to a nonpsychiatric population, such as college students, than when given to a psychiatric population. Aaron T. Beck Aaron Temkin Beck (July 18, 1921 – November 1, 2021) was an American psychiatrist who was a professor in the department of psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania . He

2613-407: The more advanced or termination phases of a case, and again in 1961 when he had not done so but outlined his clinical and research work. Such deferments were a tactic used by the institute to maintain the orthodoxy in teaching, but Beck did not know this at the time and has described the decision as stupid and dumb. Beck usually explained his increasing belief in his cognitive model by reference to

2680-439: The new chair of psychiatry—specifically, fierce psychoanalytic opposition to the favored choice of biomedical researcher Eli Robins —brought matters to a head, an early skirmish in a power shift away from psychoanalysis nationally. Beck tried to remain neutral and, with Albert J. Stunkard , opposed a petition to block Robins. Stunkard, a behaviorist who specialized in obesity and who had dropped out of psychoanalytic training,

2747-675: The nine DSM-III criteria for depression. This and other criticisms were addressed in the BDI-II. The BDI-II was a 1996 revision of the BDI, developed in response to the American Psychiatric Association's publication of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , Fourth Edition, which changed many of the diagnostic criteria for Major Depressive Disorder. Items involving changes in body image , hypochondriasis , and difficulty working were replaced. Also, sleep loss and appetite loss items were revised to assess both increases and decreases in sleep and appetite. All but three of

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2814-407: The nonprofit Beck Institute for Cognitive Behavior Therapy , which provides CBT treatment and training, as well as research. Beck served as President Emeritus of the organization up until his death. Beck was noted for his writings on psychotherapy , psychopathology , suicide , and psychometrics . He published more than 600 professional journal articles, and authored or co-authored 25 books. He

2881-466: The original BDI had more than one statement marked with the same score. For instance, there are two responses under the Mood heading that score a 2: (2a) "I am blue or sad all the time and I can't snap out of it" and (2b) "I am so sad or unhappy that it is very painful". The BDI-IA was a revision of the original instrument developed by Beck during the 1970s, and copyrighted in 1978. To improve ease of use ,

2948-496: The original: One measure of an instrument's usefulness is to see how closely it agrees with another similar instrument that has been validated against information from a clinical interview by a trained clinician. In this respect, the BDI-II is positively correlated with the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale with a Pearson r of 0.71, showing good convergent validity . The test was also shown to have

3015-407: The patient's own thoughts or "cognitions". It also established the principle that instead of attempting to develop a psychometric tool based on a possibly invalid theory, self-report questionnaires when analysed using techniques such as factor analysis can suggest theoretical constructs. The BDI was originally developed to provide a quantitative assessment of the intensity of depression. Because it

3082-506: The process of putting down roots on Providence's East Side . In 1923, when Aaron was two years old, the family purchased a house at 43/41 Sessions Street in the city's Blackstone neighborhood. Beck attended John Howland Grammar School, Nathan Bishop Junior High, and Hope Street High School , where he graduated as valedictorian in 1938. As an adolescent, Beck dreamed of becoming a journalist. Beck matriculated at Brown University , where he graduated magna cum laude in 1942. At Brown, he

3149-399: The same limitations as other self-report inventories , in that scores can be easily exaggerated or minimized by the person completing them. Like all questionnaires, the way the instrument is administered can have an effect on the final score. If a patient is asked to fill out the form in front of other people in a clinical environment, for instance, social expectations have been shown to elicit

3216-509: The self. In his view, it was the case that these cognitions caused depression, rather than being generated by depression. Beck developed a triad of negative cognitions about the world, the future, and the self, which play a major role in depression. An example of the triad in action taken from Brown (1995) is the case of a student obtaining poor exam results: The development of the BDI reflects that in its structure, with items such as "I have lost all of my interest in other people" to reflect

3283-471: The severity of depression. This suggests that perhaps the BAI cannot adequately differentiate between depression and anxiety in a primary care population. In a study examining the BAI's use on older adults with generalized anxiety disorder, no discriminant validity was seen between the BAI and measures of depression. This could perhaps be due to the increased difficulty in discriminating between anxiety and depression in older adults due to "de-differentiation" of

3350-428: The subject has been feeling in the last week. Each question had a set of at least four possible responses, ranging in intensity. For example: When the test is scored, a value of 0 to 3 is assigned for each answer and then the total score is compared to a key to determine the depression's severity. The standard cut-off scores were as follows: Higher total scores indicate more severe depressive symptoms. Some items on

3417-484: The subject has had during the past week (including the day you take it) (such as numbness and tingling, sweating not due to heat, and fear of the worst happening). It is designed for individuals who are of 17 years of age or older and takes 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Several studies have found the Beck Anxiety Inventory to be an accurate measure of anxiety symptoms in children and adults. In addition,

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3484-505: The symptoms of anxiety with the aging process, as hypothesized by Krasucki et al. Many questions of the Beck Anxiety Inventory include physiological symptoms, such as palpitations , indigestion , and trouble breathing. Because of this, it has been shown to elevate anxiety measures in those with physical illnesses like postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome , when the Anxiety Sensitivity Index did not. Finally,

3551-435: The syndrome to inverted hostility against the self.' By contrast, the BDI was developed in a novel way for its time; by collating patients' verbatim descriptions of their symptoms and then using these to structure a scale which could reflect the intensity or severity of a given symptom. Beck drew attention to the importance of "negative cognitions" described as sustained, inaccurate, and often intrusive negative thoughts about

3618-445: The terms of the new cognitive psychology, extended to become a therapeutic need. Beck's notebooks were also filled with self-analysis, where at least twice a day for several years he wrote out his own "negative" (later "automatic") thoughts, rated with a percentile belief score, classified and restructured. The psychologist who would become most important for Beck was Albert Ellis , whose own faith in psychoanalysis had crumbled by

3685-502: The treatment of schizophrenia has suggested that patients once believed to be non-responsive to treatment are amenable to positive change. Even the most severe presentations of the illness, such as those involving long periods of hospitalization, bizarre behavior, poor personal hygiene, self-injury, and aggressiveness, can respond positively to a modified version of cognitive behavioral treatment. Although Beck's approach has sometimes been criticized as too mechanistic, modern CBT stresses

3752-474: The world, "I feel discouraged about the future" to reflect the future, and "I blame myself for everything bad that happens" to reflect the self. The view of depression as sustained by intrusive negative cognitions has had particular application in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which aims to challenge and neutralize them through techniques such as cognitive restructuring . The original BDI, first published in 1961, consisted of twenty-one questions about how

3819-617: The world, and the future. He stated that such cognitions were interrelated as the cognitive triad . Limited time spent reflecting on automatic thoughts would lead patients to treat them as valid. Beck began helping patients identify and evaluate these thoughts and found that by doing so, patients were able to think more realistically, which led them to feel better emotionally and behave more functionally. He developed key ideas in CBT, explaining that different disorders were associated with different types of distorted thinking. Distorted thinking has

3886-403: Was a visiting scientist at Oxford University . He was a professor emeritus at Penn since 1992, and an adjunct professor at both Temple University and University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey . During his time at Penn, he pioneered the development of Recovery-Oriented Cognitive Therapy. While the Center for CT-R was created at Penn, it was later absorbed by Beck Institute. Beck

3953-488: Was already making notes about patterns of thoughts in depression, emphasizing what can be observed and tested by anyone and treated in the present. He was engaged by George Kelly 's personal construct theory and Jean Piaget 's schemas . Beck's first articles on the cognitive theory of depression, in 1963 and 1964 in the Archives of General Psychiatry , maintained the psychiatric context of ego psychology but then turned to concepts of realistic and scientific thinking in

4020-730: Was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2007. Beck was the founder and President Emeritus of the non-profit Beck Institute for Cognitive Behavior Therapy , and the director of the Aaron T. Beck Psychopathology Research Center, which was the parent organization of the Center for the Treatment and Prevention of Suicide, which is now known as the Penn Center for the Prevention of Suicide. In 1986, he

4087-730: Was elected a member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society , was an associate editor of The Brown Daily Herald , and received the Francis Wayland Scholarship, William Gaston Prize for Excellence in Oratory, and Philo Sherman Bennett Essay Award. Beck attended Yale Medical School , planning to become an internist and work in private practice in Providence. He graduated from Yale with a Doctor of Medicine in 1946. After receiving his M.D., Beck completed

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4154-534: Was eventually appointed department head in the face of sustained opposition which again Beck would not engage in, putting him at bitter odds with his friend Stein. On top of this, despite having graduated from his Philadelphia training, the American Psychoanalytic Institute rejected Beck's membership application in 1960, skeptical of his claims of success from relatively brief therapy and advising he conduct further supervised therapy on

4221-492: Was going on rather than helping the client to learn for themselves empirically . Psychoanalyst Gerald E. Kochansky remarked in 1975 in a review of one of Beck's books that he could no longer tell if Beck was a psychoanalyst or a devotee of Ellis. Beck highlighted the classical philosophical Socratic method as an inspiration, while Ellis highlighted disputation which he stated was not anti-empirical and taught people how to dispute internally. Both Beck and Ellis cited aspects of

4288-470: Was married in 1950 to Honorable Phyllis W. Beck (ret.), and they had four children together: Roy, Judy, Dan, and Alice. Phyllis was the first woman judge on the appellate court of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania . Her youngest daughter, Alice Beck Dubow, is a judge on the same court, while the older daughter Judith is a prominent CBT educator and clinician, who wrote the basic text in the field and

4355-603: Was named one of the "Americans in history who shaped the face of American psychiatry", and one of the "five most influential psychotherapists of all time" by The American Psychologist in July 1989. His work at the University of Pennsylvania inspired Martin Seligman to refine his own cognitive techniques and later work on learned helplessness . Aaron Temkin Beck was born in Providence , Rhode Island , on July 18, 1921. He

4422-523: Was specifically designed as "an inventory for measuring clinical anxiety" that minimizes the overlap between depression and anxiety scales. While several studies have shown that anxiety measures, including the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), are either highly correlated or indistinguishable from depression , the BAI is shown to be less contaminated by depressive content. Since the BAI only questions symptoms occurring over

4489-494: Was the youngest of four children born to Elizabeth Temkin and Harry Beck, Jewish immigrants from Ukraine . Harry worked as a printer and Elizabeth's family found financial success in tobacco wholesaling; the family belonged to the upwardly-mobile vanguard of Providence's Eastern European-Jewish immigrant community. At the time of Aaron's birth, the Temkin-Becks lived a "comfortable, lower-middle class lifestyle" and were in

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