132-788: Bharat stage emission standards (BSES) are emission standards instituted by the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from compression ignition engines and Spark-ignition engines equipment, including motor vehicles . The standards and the timeline for implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change . The standards, based on European regulations were first introduced in 2000. Progressively stringent norms have been rolled out since then. All new vehicles manufactured after
264-461: A writ petition at the filing counter of the court or by addressing a letter to the Chief Justice of India , highlighting the question of public importance for redress. These are known as public interest litigations . India has a quasi-federal form of government, called "union" or "central" government, with elected officials at the union, state and local levels. At the national level,
396-585: A computerized closed-loop feedback fuel injection system using one or more oxygen sensors (also known as Lambda Sonds or sensors). Other variants combined three-way converters with carburetors equipped with feedback mixture control were used. An unregulated three-way converter features the same chemical processes but without the oxygen sensor, which meant higher NO x emissions, particularly under partial loads. These were low-cost solutions, typically used for retrofitting to older cars or for smaller, cheaper cars. Three-way converters are effective when
528-515: A reagent such as ammonia to reduce the NO x into nitrogen and water. Ammonia is supplied to the catalyst system by the injection of urea into the exhaust, which then undergoes thermal decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia. The urea solution is also referred to as diesel exhaust fluid (DEF). Diesel exhaust contains relatively high levels of particulate matter. Catalytic converters remove only 20–40% of PM so particulates are cleaned up by
660-519: A redox reaction . Catalytic converters are usually used with internal combustion engines fueled by gasoline or diesel , including lean-burn engines, and sometimes on kerosene heaters and stoves. The first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the United States automobile market. To comply with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 's stricter regulation of exhaust emissions, most gasoline-powered vehicles starting with
792-671: A republic with a president as head of state, replacing the monarch and his viceregal representative, the Governor-General . It was based in large part on the Government of India Act 1935 , which was itself based on the uncodified constitution of the United Kingdom . It also drew notable inspirations from the constitutions of several other Commonwealth dominions and the French , Soviet , Japanese , German and American constitutions. India today prides itself in being
924-420: A catalytic combustor for gas turbines in the early 1970s, allowing combustion without significant formation of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. Four-way catalytic converters have also been developed which also remove particulates from engine exhaust; since most of these particulates are unburned hydrocarbons, they can be burned to convert them into carbon dioxide. The catalytic converter's construction
1056-454: A catalytic converter for any reason other than its direct and immediate replacement. Nevertheless, some vehicle owners remove or "gut" the catalytic converter on their vehicle. In such cases, the converter may be replaced by a welded-in section of ordinary pipe or a flanged "test pipe", ostensibly meant to check if the converter is clogged by comparing how the engine runs with and without the converter. This facilitates temporary reinstallation of
1188-593: A catalytic converter was patented by Eugene Houdry , a French mechanical engineer. Houdry was an expert in catalytic oil refining, having invented the catalytic cracking process that all modern refining is based on today. Houdry moved to the United States in 1930 to live near the refineries in the Philadelphia area and develop his catalytic refining process. When the results of early studies of smog in Los Angeles were published, Houdry became concerned about
1320-408: A common housing; however, in some instances, they may be housed separately. A three-way catalytic converter does three simultaneous tasks: Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen (N 2 ) Oxidation of carbon, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above
1452-564: A constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the Council of Ministers cannot be dismissed as long as it holds the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha . The President is responsible for appointing many high officials in India. These high officials include the governors of the 28 states ; the chief justice ; other judges of the supreme court and high courts on the advice of other judges;
SECTION 10
#17327918545601584-562: A diesel engines are to be reduced by 70% and particulates by 80%. To achieve this, the engines need to be equipped with Euro-6 compliant technologies. The major technical changes to associated with this are: There is also no provision to make the CO 2 emissions labelling mandatory on cars in the country. A system exists in the EU to ensure that information relating to the fuel economy and CO 2 emissions of new passenger cars offered for sale or lease in
1716-475: A head gasket leak, can also cause high unburned hydrocarbons. Emissions regulations vary considerably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Most automobile spark-ignition engines in North America have been fitted with catalytic converters since 1975, and the technology used in non-automotive applications is generally based on automotive technology. In many jurisdictions, it is illegal to remove or disable
1848-496: A limit of phosphorus concentration in engine oils was adopted in the API SM and ILSAC GF-4 specifications. Depending on the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can sometimes be reversed by running the engine under a very heavy load for an extended period of time. The increased exhaust temperature can sometimes vaporize or sublimate the contaminant, removing it from the catalytic surface. However, removal of lead deposits in this manner
1980-490: A member of one of the houses of the parliament. The cabinet is headed by the prime minister , and is advised by the cabinet secretary , who also acts as the head of the Indian Administrative Service and other civil services. Other members of the council are either union cabinet ministers, who are heads of various ministries; or ministers of state, who are junior members who report directly to one of
2112-710: A pre-cat, a small catalytic converter upstream of the main catalytic converter which heats up faster on vehicle start up, reducing the emissions associated with cold starts. A pre-cat is most commonly used by an auto manufacturer when trying to attain the Ultra Low Emissions Vehicle (ULEV) rating, such as on the Toyota MR2 Roadster. Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing noxious tailpipe emissions. However, they also have some shortcomings in use, and also adverse environmental effects in production: Because of
2244-405: A precisely controlled air-fuel mixture that quickly and continually cycles between lean and rich combustion. Oxygen sensors monitor the exhaust oxygen content before and after the catalytic converter, and the engine control unit uses this information to adjust the fuel injection so as to prevent the first ( NO x reduction) catalyst from becoming oxygen-loaded, while simultaneously ensuring
2376-481: A quarter of the 543 elected members of parliament had been charged with crimes, including murder. Many of the biggest scandals since 2010 have involved high-level government officials, including cabinet ministers and chief ministers, such as the 2010 Commonwealth Games scam ( ₹ 700 billion (equivalent to ₹ 1.6 trillion or US$ 19 billion in 2023)), the Adarsh Housing Society scam ,
2508-657: A soot trap or diesel particulate filter (DPF). In the U.S., all on-road light, medium, and heavy-duty diesel-powered vehicles built after 1 January 2007, are subject to diesel particulate emission limits, and so are equipped with a 2-way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter. As long as the engine was manufactured before 1 January 2007, the vehicle is not required to have the DPF system. This led to an inventory runup by engine manufacturers in late 2006 so they could continue selling pre-DPF vehicles well into 2007. For lean-burn spark-ignition engines, an oxidation catalyst
2640-513: A vote in the house where he is not a member. A secretary to the Government of India , a civil servant , generally an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer, is the administrative head of the ministry or department, and is the principal adviser to the minister on all matters of policy and administration within the ministry/department. Secretaries to the Government of India rank 23rd on Indian order of precedence . Secretaries at
2772-541: A whole is responsible to the Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha is a temporary house and can be dissolved only when the party in power loses the support of the majority of the house. The Rajya Sabha is a permanent house and can never be dissolved. The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected for a six-year term. The executive of government is the one that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of
SECTION 20
#17327918545602904-413: Is 'BS' suffixed with the iteration of the stage of emission norms, similar to how European emissions standards are named. The initial BSI (BS1) standard was first introduced in mid 1999, with the second and third iteration first introduced in mid 2000 and 2005 named BSII (BS2) and BSIII (BS3), respectively . The fourth iteration BSIV or BS4 was introduced in 2017, and therefore the delay between
3036-439: Is as follows: Upon failure, a catalytic converter can be recycled into scrap . The precious metals inside the converter, including platinum, palladium, and rhodium, are extracted. Catalytic converters require a temperature of 400 °C (750 °F) to operate effectively. Therefore, they are placed as close to the engine as possible, or one or more smaller catalytic converters (known as "pre-cats") are placed immediately after
3168-557: Is called polluted area and maximum emission from a project should not exceed 100 t/day; and if SO x is less than 50 μg/m, it is called unpolluted area, but the SO x emission from a project should not exceed 500 t/day. The stipulation for NO x emission is that its emission should not exceed 260 g of NO x /GJ of heat input. In view of the above, it may be seen that improved environment norms are linked to financing and are being enforced by international financial institutions and not by
3300-527: Is considered the lower house . The parliament does not have complete control and sovereignty , as its laws are subject to judicial review by the Supreme Court . However, it does exercise some control over the executive . The members of the Council of Ministers , including the prime minister , are either chosen from parliament or elected there within six months of assuming office. The council as
3432-467: Is given in Tables 15 and 16. The norm for 500 MW and above coal-based power plant being practised is 40 to 50 mg/N⋅m and space is provided in the plant layout for super thermal power stations for installation of flue gas desulfurisation (FGD) system. But FGD is not installed, as it is not required for low sulphur Indian coals while considering SO x emission from individual chimney. In addition to
3564-513: Is led by the prime minister (currently Narendra Modi since 26 May 2014) who exercises the most executive power and selects all the other ministers . The country has been governed by a NDA -led government (a coalition of the BJP and its allies) since 2014. The prime minister and their senior ministers belong to the Union Council of Ministers —its executive decision-making committee being
3696-479: Is mainly composed of the executive , the legislature , and the judiciary , and powers are vested by the constitution in the prime minister , parliament , and the supreme court , respectively. The president of India is the head of state and the commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces , while the elected prime minister acts as the head of the executive and is responsible for running
3828-462: Is permitted and a rich mixture is commanded to increase power and prevent exhaust gas temperature from exceeding design limits. This presents a challenge for control system and catalyst design. During such operations, large amounts of unburnt HC are produced by the engine, well beyond the capacity of the catalyst to release oxygen. The surface of the catalyst quickly becomes saturated with HC. When returning to lower power output and leaner air–fuel ratios,
3960-597: Is the ex-officio head of the Civil Services Board, the Cabinet Secretariat , the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and the head of all civil services under the rules of business of the government. The cabinet secretary is generally the senior-most officer of the Indian Administrative Service . The cabinet secretary ranks 11th on the Indian order of precedence . The cabinet secretary
4092-403: Is the chief executive of the government and the leader of the majority party that holds a majority in the Lok Sabha. The prime minister leads the executive of the Government of India. The prime minister is the senior member of the cabinet in the executive government in a parliamentary system. The prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet; allocates posts to members within
Bharat stage emission standards - Misplaced Pages Continue
4224-602: Is to act following aid and advice tendered by the Prime Minister, who leads the Council of Ministers as described in Article 74 of the Constitution . The council of ministers remains in power during the 'pleasure' of the president. However, in practice, the council of ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha. If a president were to dismiss the council of ministers on his or her initiative, it might trigger
4356-522: Is under the direct charge of the prime minister . Presently, the Cabinet Secretary of India is Rajiv Gauba , IAS . India's independent union judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries . The Supreme Court of India consists of the chief justice and 33 associate justices, all appointed by the president on the advice of
4488-407: Is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from lean burn spark ignition engines are very similar to emissions from a diesel compression ignition engine. Many vehicles have a close-coupled catalytic converter located near the engine's exhaust manifold . The converter heats up quickly, due to its exposure to the very hot exhaust gases, allowing it to reduce undesirable emissions during
4620-499: Is usually in response to government regulation, either through environmental regulation or through health and safety regulations. Catalytic converter prototypes were first designed in France at the end of the 19th century, when only a few thousand "oil cars" were on the roads; these prototypes had inert clay-based materials coated with platinum , rhodium , and palladium and sealed into a double metallic cylinder. A few decades later,
4752-404: Is usually not possible because of lead's high boiling point. Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of unburned hydrocarbons (raw or partially burnt fuel or oils) to reach the converter will tend to significantly elevate its temperature bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic deactivation and severe exhaust restriction. These conditions include failure of
4884-403: Is usually the directly elected Lok Sabha rather than the (mostly) indirectly elected Rajya Sabha . As is the case in most parliamentary systems, the government is dependent on Parliament to legislate, and general elections are held every five years to elect a new Lok Sabha . The most recent election was in 2024 . After an election, the president selects as prime minister the leader of
5016-485: The Chief Justice of India and 33 sanctioned other judges, it has extensive powers in the form of original , appellate and advisory jurisdictions . As the final court of appeal of the country, it takes up appeals primarily against verdicts of the high courts of various states of the Union and other courts and tribunals. It safeguards fundamental rights of citizens and settles disputes between various governments in
5148-504: The Chief Justice of India . The jury trials were abolished in India in the early 1960s, after the famous case KM Nanavati v. the State of Maharashtra , for reasons of being vulnerable to media and public pressure, as well as to being misled. Unlike its United States counterpart, the Indian justice system consists of a unitary system at both state and union levels. The judiciary consists of
5280-544: The Coal Mining Scam ( ₹ 1.86 trillion (equivalent to ₹ 4.2 trillion or US$ 50 billion in 2023)), the mining scandal in Karnataka and the cash-for-votes scandal . Catalytic converter A catalytic converter is an exhaust emission control device which converts toxic gases and pollutants in exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine into less-toxic pollutants by catalyzing
5412-617: The European Union and the United Kingdom since January 1, 1993 in order to comply with the Euro 1 emission standards . Faulty catalytic converters as well as undamaged early types of converters can restrict the flow of exhaust, which negatively affects vehicle performance and fuel economy. Modern catalytic converters do not significantly restrict exhaust flow. A 2006 test on a 1999 Honda Civic, for example, showed that removing
Bharat stage emission standards - Misplaced Pages Continue
5544-627: The Government of India Act 1935 (the longest Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom until surpassed by the Greater London Authority Act 1999 ) was aimed at devolution of powers by establishing provincial governments and the creation of civil service institutions . However, it was unpopular amongst Indians and is considered a failure as it did not give Indians self-rule and permanent dominion status (the form of government followed in Canada , Australia and New Zealand ) as
5676-604: The ISO 8178 C1 (8-mode) and D2 (5-mode) test cycles. The Bharat Stage III standards must be met over the useful life periods shown in Table 11. Alternatively, manufacturers may use fixed emission deterioration factors of 1.1 for CO, 1.05 for HC, 1.05 for NO x , and 1.1 for PM. Emission standards for diesel agricultural tractors are summarised in Table 12. Emissions are tested over the ISO 8178 C1 (8-mode) cycle. For Bharat (Trem) Stage III A,
5808-417: The Indian Armed Forces . The President of India can grant a pardon to or reduce the sentence of a convicted person once, particularly in cases involving the punishment of death. The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the prime minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most other cases, however, the president exercises his or her executive powers on
5940-538: The Montagu - Chelmsford reforms, which introduced a greatly expanded Imperial Legislative Council . It comprised a lower house, the Central Legislative Assembly of 145 members (of which 104 were elected and 41 nominated) and an upper house, the Council of State of 60 members (of which 34 were elected and 26 nominated). The next structural modification to the governance of British India ,
6072-572: The Morley - Minto reforms. The Act introduced elections to the Imperial Legislative Council (then the unicameral Legislature for British India). Before that, governance was carried by an all-European Legislative Council and Viceroy's Executive Council . As such, no Indians were represented in government before 1909. India's current bicameral Parliament has its roots in the Government of India Act 1919 , commonly known as
6204-581: The Supreme Court has banned the sale and registration of motor vehicles conforming to the emission standard Bharat Stage IV in the entire country from 1 April 2020. On 15 November 2017, the Petroleum Ministry of India, in consultation with public oil marketing companies, decided to bring forward the date of BS VI grade auto fuels in NCT of Delhi with effect from 1 April 2018 instead of 1 April 2020. In fact, Petroleum Ministry OMCs were asked to examine
6336-540: The Supreme Court of India , high courts at the state level, and district courts and Sessions Courts at the district level. The Supreme Court of India is situated in New Delhi , the capital region of India . The Supreme Court is the highest judicial forum and final court of appeal under the Constitution of India , the highest constitutional court, with the power of constitutional review . Consisting of
6468-484: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 's new exhaust emissions regulations, most gasoline-powered vehicles manufactured from 1975 onwards are equipped with catalytic converters. Early catalytic converters were "two-way", combining oxygen with carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC, chemical compounds in fuel of the form C m H n ) to produce carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water (H 2 O). These stringent emission control regulations also resulted in
6600-404: The alternator , wiring or fuel lines, with potentially dangerous consequences. In 2023, bipartisan legislation to combat catalytic converter theft was introduced in the U.S. Senate . The Preventing Auto Recycling Thefts Act (PART Act) would mandate catalytic converters in new vehicles to come with traceable identification numbers. Additionally, the legislation would make catalytic converter theft
6732-571: The attorney general ; the comptroller and auditor general ; the chief election commissioner and other election commissioners ; the chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission ; the officers of the All India Services ( IAS , IFoS and IPS ) and Central Civil Services in group 'A'; officers of the Indian Armed Forces ; and the ambassadors and high commissioners to other countries on
SECTION 50
#17327918545606864-542: The cabinet . The government, seated in New Delhi , has three primary branches: the legislative, the executive and the judiciary, whose powers are vested in a bicameral Parliament , a prime minister , and the Supreme Court respectively, with a president as head of state. The Council of Ministers are responsible to the House in which they sit, they make statements in that House and take questions from fellow members of that House. For most senior ministers this
6996-560: The civil procedure code , the penal code , and the criminal procedure code . Similar to the Union government, individual state governments each consist of executive, legislative and judiciary branches. The legal system as applicable to the Union and individual state governments is based on the English common and Statutory Law . The full name of the country is the Republic of India . India and Bharat are equally official short names for
7128-473: The constitution empowers the union government to levy income tax , tax on capital transactions ( wealth tax , inheritance tax ), sales tax , service tax, customs and excise duties and the state governments to levy sales tax on intrastate sale of goods, taxon entertainment and professions , excise duties on manufacture of alcohol , stamp duties on transfer of property and collect land revenue (levy on land owned). The local governments are empowered by
7260-575: The head of government , the prime minister , is appointed by the president of India from the party or coalition that has the majority of seats in the Lok Sabha . The members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected for a term of five years by universal adult suffrage through a first-past-the-post voting system. Members of the Rajya Sabha , which represents the states , are elected by the members of State legislative assemblies by proportional representation , except for 12 members who are nominated by
7392-510: The stoichiometric point. For gasoline combustion, this ratio is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to one part fuel, by weight. The ratio for autogas (or liquefied petroleum gas LPG), natural gas , and ethanol fuels can vary significantly for each, notably so with oxygenated or alcohol based fuels, with E85 requiring approximately 34% more fuel, requiring modified fuel system tuning and components when using those fuels. Engines fitted with regulated 3-way catalytic converters are equipped with
7524-967: The 1975 model year are equipped with catalytic converters. These "two-way" converters combine oxygen with carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) to produce carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water (H 2 O). Although two-way converters on gasoline engines were rendered obsolete in 1981 by "three-way" converters that also reduce oxides of nitrogen ( NO x ), they are still used on lean-burn engines to oxidize particulate matter and hydrocarbon emissions (including diesel engines, which typically use lean combustion), as three-way-converters require fuel-rich or stoichiometric combustion to successfully reduce NO x . Although catalytic converters are most commonly applied to exhaust systems in automobiles, they are also used on electrical generators , forklifts , mining equipment, trucks , buses , locomotives , motorcycles , and on ships. They are even used on some wood stoves to control emissions. This
7656-749: The Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) and the Vehicle Research and Development Establishment (VRDE). The emission standards are listed below. Engines are tested over the 5-mode ISO 8178 D2 test cycle. Smoke opacity is measured at full load. Concentrations are corrected to dry exhaust conditions with 15% residual O 2 . The emission standards for thermal power plants in India are being enforced based on Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 of Government of India and its amendments from time to time. A summary of emission norms for coal- and gas-based thermal power plants
7788-488: The Community is made available to consumers to enable consumers to make an informed choice. Emission standards for diesel construction machinery were adopted on 21 September 2006. The standards are structured into two tiers: The standards are summarised in the following table: The limit values apply for both type approval (TA) and conformity of production (COP) testing. Testing is performed on an engine dynamo-meter over
7920-1002: The ECE + EUDC for low power vehicles (with maximum speed limited to 90 km/h). Before 2000, emissions were measured over an Indian test cycle. Engines for use in light-duty vehicles can be also emission tested using an engine dynamo-meter. The respective emission standards are listed in Table 5. † Earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1. Emissions standards for petrol vehicles (GVW ≤ 3,500 kg) are summarised in Table 6. Ranges of emission limits refer to different classes of light commercial vehicles (comparable to EU light-duty vehicle emission standards ). The lowest limit in each range applies to passenger cars (GVW ≤ 2,500 kg; up to 6 seats). † Earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1. ‡ only in selected regions, see Table 1. Petrol vehicles must also meet an evaporative (SHED) limit of 2 g/test (effective 2000). Emission standards for 2- and 3-wheeled petrol vehicles are listed in
8052-462: The Government; is the presiding member and chairman of the cabinet and is responsible for bringing a proposal of legislation. The resignation or death of the prime minister dissolves the cabinet. The prime minister is appointed by the president to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive. The Union Council of Ministers includes the prime minister, Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). Each minister must be
SECTION 60
#17327918545608184-517: The Maruti 800 , and the introduction of electronic controls have been due to the regulations related to vehicular emissions. While the norms help in bringing down pollution levels, it invariably results in increased vehicle cost due to the improved technology and higher fuel prices. However, this increase in private cost is offset by savings in health costs for the public, as there is a lesser amount of disease-causing particulate matter and pollution in
8316-484: The Republic of India in the Constitution, and both names appears on legal banknotes, in treaties and in legal cases. The terms "Union government", "central government" and " bhārat sarkār " are often used officially and unofficially to refer to the government of India. The term New Delhi is commonly used as a metonym for the Union government, as the seat of the central government is in New Delhi . The powers of
8448-451: The U.S. added catalytic systems to their vehicles to meet federal emissions requirements. Two techniques have been developed for the catalytic reduction of NO x emissions under lean exhaust conditions, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and the NO x adsorber . Instead of precious metal-containing NO x absorbers, most manufacturers selected base-metal SCR systems that use
8580-428: The Union government. Parliament is bicameral in nature, with the Lok Sabha being the lower house , and the Rajya Sabha the upper house . The judiciary systematically contains an apex supreme court , 25 high courts , and hundreds of district courts , all subordinate to the supreme court. The basic civil and criminal laws governing the citizens of India are set down in major parliamentary legislation, such as
8712-409: The above emission standards, the selection of a site for a new power plant has to maintain the local ambient air quality as given in Table 17. However the norms for SO x are even stricter for selection of sites for World Bank funded projects (refer Table 18). For example, if SO x level is higher than 100 μg/m, no project with further SO x emission can be set up; if SO x level is 100 μg/m, it
8844-493: The advice of the prime minister. Presently, the President of India is Droupadi Murmu . The vice president is the second-highest constitutional position in India after the president. The vice president represents the nation in the absence of the president and takes charge as acting president in the incident of resignation impeachment or removal of the president. The vice president also has the legislative function of acting as
8976-649: The air . Exposure to air pollution can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, which is estimated to be the cause for 6,20,000 early deaths in 2010, and the health cost of air pollution in India has been assessed at 3% of its GDP . To regulate the pollution emitted by cars and two-wheelers, the Government of India has placed forth regulations known as Bharat Stage Emission Standards (BSES). The Central Government has mandated that every vehicle manufacturer, both two-wheels and four-wheels, ought to manufacture, sell and register solely BS6 (BSVI) vehicles from 1 April 2020. Both BSIV and BSVI area unit emission norms that set
9108-459: The air pump, which led to the development of the three-way catalytic converter. The two-way catalytic converter also continued to be used on certain, lower-cost cars in some markets such as Europe, where NO x emissions were not universally regulated until the introduction of the Euro 3 emissions standard in 2000. The three-way catalytic converters have the additional advantage of controlling
9240-399: The air–fuel mixture is brought back to slightly rich, at a small penalty in CO and HC oxidation efficiency, and the cycle repeats. Efficiency is improved when this oscillation around the stoichiometric point is small and carefully controlled. Closed-loop control under light to moderate load is accomplished by using one or more oxygen sensors in the exhaust system. When oxygen is detected by
9372-863: The amount of fuel that is evaporated when the motorcycle is parked. Emission standards for new heavy-duty diesel engines—applicable to vehicles of GVW > 3,500 kg—are listed in Table 3. † Earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1. ‡ Only in selected regions, see Table 1. More details on Euro I–III regulations can be found in the EU heavy-duty engine standards . Emission standards for light-duty diesel vehicles (GVW ≤ 3,500 kg) are summarised in Table 4. Ranges of emission limits refer to different classes (by reference mass) of light commercial vehicles; comparable to EU light-duty vehicle emission standards . The lowest limit in each range applies to passenger cars (GVW ≤ 2,500 kg; up to 6 seats). ‡ Only in selected regions, see Table 1. The test cycle has been
9504-526: The budget will be presented on the 1st day of February. The budget has to be passed by the Lok Sabha before it can come into effect on 1 April, the start of India's fiscal year . The Union budget is preceded by an economic survey which outlines the broad direction of the budget and the economic performance of the country for the outgoing financial year India's non-development revenue expenditure had increased nearly five-fold in 2003–04 since 1990–91 and more than tenfold from 1985 to 1986. Interest payments are
9636-431: The cabinet ministers, often overseeing a specific aspect of government; or ministers of state (independent charges), who do not report to a cabinet minister. As per article 88 of the constitution, every minister shall have the right to speak in, and to take part in the proceedings of, either house, any joint sitting of the houses, and any committee of parliament of which he may be named a member, but shall not be entitled to
9768-468: The car. Vehicles fitted with catalytic converters emit most of their total pollution during the first five minutes of engine operation; for example, before the catalytic converter has warmed up sufficiently to be fully effective. In the early 2000s it became common to place the catalyst converter right next to the exhaust manifold, close to the engine, for much quicker warm-up. In 1995, Alpina introduced an electrically heated catalyst. Called "E-KAT", it
9900-479: The catalyst at reducing NO x is good, and the production of NO x by the engine decreases. To maintain catalyst efficiency, the air–fuel ratio must stay close to stoichiometric and not remain rich or lean for too long. Closed-loop engine control systems are used for effective operation of three-way catalytic converters because of this continuous rich-lean balance required for effective NO x reduction and HC+CO oxidation. The control system allows
10032-412: The catalyst to release oxygen during slightly rich operating conditions, which oxidizes CO and HC under conditions that also favor the reduction of NOx. Before the stored oxygen is depleted, the control system shifts the air–fuel ratio to become slightly lean, improving HC and CO oxidation while storing additional oxygen in the catalyst material, at a small penalty in NO x reduction efficiency. Then
10164-422: The chairman of the Rajya Sabha . The vice president is elected indirectly by members of an electoral college consisting of the members of both the houses of the parliament following the system of proportional representation employing the single transferable vote and the voting is by secret ballot conducted by the election commission . The Prime Minister of India , as addressed in the Constitution of India ,
10296-523: The control system must prevent excessive oxygen from reaching the catalyst too quickly, as this will rapidly burn the HC in the already hot catalyst, potentially exceeding the design temperature limit of the catalyst. Excessive catalyst temperature can prematurely age the catalyst, reducing its efficiency before reaching its design lifetime. Excessive catalyst temperature can also be caused by cylinder misfire, which continuously flows unburnt HC combined with oxygen to
10428-409: The conversion of HC and CO is very efficient due to the available oxygen, oxidizing to H 2 O and CO 2 . Slightly rich of stoichiometric, the production of CO and unburnt HC by the engine starts to increase dramatically, available oxygen decreases, and the efficiency of the catalyst for oxidizing CO and HC decreases significantly, especially as stored oxygen becomes depleted. However, the efficiency of
10560-850: The converter in order to pass an emission test. In the United States, it is a violation of Section 203(a)(3)(A) of the 1990 amended Clean Air Act for a vehicle repair shop to remove a converter from a vehicle, or cause a converter to be removed from a vehicle, except in order to replace it with another converter, and Section 203(a)(3)(B) makes it illegal for any person to sell or to install any part that would bypass, defeat, or render inoperative any emission control system, device, or design element. Vehicles without functioning catalytic converters generally fail emission inspections. The automotive aftermarket supplies high-flow converters for vehicles with upgraded engines, or whose owners prefer an exhaust system with larger-than-stock capacity. xxx Catalytic converters have been mandatory on all new gasoline cars sold in
10692-400: The country. As an advisory court, it hears matters which may specifically be referred to it under the constitution by the president. It also may take cognisance of matters on its own (or 'suo moto'), without anyone drawing its attention to them. The law declared by the supreme court becomes binding on all courts within India and also by the union and state governments. Per Article 142 , it is
10824-471: The duty of the president to enforce the decrees of the supreme court. In addition, Article 32 of the constitution gives an extensive original jurisdiction to the supreme court concerning enforcing fundamental rights. It is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus , mandamus , prohibition , quo warranto and certiorari to enforce them. The supreme court has been conferred with power to direct
10956-605: The emission of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) (both together abbreviated with NO x and not to be confused with nitrous oxide (N 2 O) ). NO x are precursors to acid rain and smog . Since 1981, the three-way (oxidation-reduction) catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada; many other countries have also adopted stringent vehicle emission regulations that in effect require three-way converters on gasoline-powered vehicles. The reduction and oxidation catalysts are typically contained in
11088-465: The emission requirements of Bharat Stage-6, the carburetors in petrol engines need to be replaced by the programmed fuel injectors. To further reduce tail pipe emissions, the exhaust system would be fitted with three way catalytic converters. The norms also mandates On-Board Diagnostic System (OBD) for all BS-6 compliant vehicles. As per the Bharat Stage-6 norms, the NO x emissions from
11220-427: The engine is operated within a narrow band of air–fuel ratios near the stoichiometric point. Total conversion efficiency falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of this band. Slightly lean of stoichiometric, the exhaust gases from the engine contain excess oxygen, the production of NO x by the engine increases, and the efficiency of the catalyst at reducing NO x falls off rapidly. However,
11352-432: The engine warm-up period. This is achieved by burning off the excess hydrocarbons which result from the extra-rich mixture required for a cold start. When catalytic converters were first introduced, most vehicles used carburetors that provided a relatively rich air-fuel ratio . Oxygen (O 2 ) levels in the exhaust stream were therefore generally insufficient for the catalytic reaction to occur efficiently. Most designs of
11484-583: The exhaust manifold. A 2-way (or "oxidation", sometimes called an "oxi-cat") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks: The two-way catalytic converter is widely used on diesel engines to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in American and Canadian automobile markets until 1981. Because of their inability to control oxides of nitrogen , manufacturers briefly installed twin catalyst systems, with an NO x reducing, rhodium/platinum catalyst ahead of
11616-533: The external location and the use of valuable precious metals including platinum , palladium and rhodium , catalytic converters are a target for thieves. The problem is especially common among late-model pickup trucks and truck-based SUVs , because of their high ground clearance and easily removed bolt-on catalytic converters. Welded-on converters are also at risk of theft, as they can be easily cut off. The Toyota Prius catalytic converters are also targets for thieves. The catalytic converters of hybrids need more of
11748-536: The following tables. India's auto sector accounts for about 18% of the total CO 2 emissions in the country. Relative CO 2 emissions from transport have risen rapidly in recent years, but like the EU, currently there are no standards for CO 2 emission limits for pollution from vehicles. As per Bharat Stage-6 norms, the emission of carbon monoxide is to be reduced by 30% and NO x by 80%. The BS-6 norms also sets limits for Hydrocarbon and particulate emissions, which were not specified in earlier norms. To meet
11880-417: The gasoline additive MMT ), and silicon , which can enter the exhaust stream if the engine has a leak that allows coolant into the combustion chamber. Phosphorus is another catalyst contaminant. Although phosphorus is no longer used in gasoline, it (and zinc , another low-level catalyst contaminant) was widely used in engine oil antiwear additives such as zinc dithiophosphate (ZDDP). Beginning in 2004,
12012-416: The higher level are assisted by one or many additional secretaries , who are further assisted by joint secretaries . At the middle they are assisted by directors/deputy secretaries and under secretaries. At the lower level, there are section officers, assistant section officers, upper division clerks, lower division clerks and other secretarial staff. The Civil Services of India are the civil services and
12144-416: The hot catalyst, burning in the catalyst and increasing its temperature. Unwanted reactions result in the formation of hydrogen sulfide and ammonia , which poison catalysts. Nickel or manganese is sometimes added to the washcoat to limit hydrogen-sulfide emissions. Sulfur-free or low-sulfur fuels eliminate or minimize problems with hydrogen sulfide. For compression-ignition (i.e., diesel ) engines,
12276-508: The implementation of the norms have to be compliant with the regulations. Since October 2010, Bharat Stage (BS) III norms have been enforced across the country. In 13 major cities, Bharat Stage IV emission norms have been in place since April 2010 and it has been enforced for entire country since April 2017. In 2016, the Indian government announced that the country would skip the BS V norms altogether and adopt BS VI norms by 2020. In its recent judgment,
12408-573: The introduction of BS3 and BS4 resulted in the fast-tracking of the BSVI or BS6 standards by skipping the BSV (BS5) norms. Each of the regulations have stricter emission standards compared to its predecessors. The first emission norms were introduced in India in 1991 for petroleum distillate, and 1992 for diesel vehicles. These were followed by making the Catalytic converter mandatory for petrol vehicles and
12540-539: The introduction of unleaded petrol in the market. On 29 April 1999, the Supreme Court of India ruled that all vehicles in India have to meet Euro I or India 2000 norms by 1 June 1999 and Euro II will be imperative in the NCR by 1 April 2000. Car makers were not prepared for this transition and in a subsequent judgement the implementation date for Euro II was not enforced. In 2002, the Indian Government accepted
12672-519: The legislature in India are exercised by the Parliament , a bicameral legislature consisting of the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha . Of the two houses of parliament, the Rajya Sabha (or the 'Council of States') is considered to be the upper house and consists of members appointed by the president and elected by the state and territorial legislatures . The Lok Sabha (or the 'House of the People')
12804-501: The modification within the permissible emission levels of BS6 vehicles compared to BS4 vehicles: These area unit emission standards set by Bharat Safety Emission commonplace (BSEB) to manage the output of pollutants from vehicles plying on the road. The Central Pollution Control Board , under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (Mo.E.F.C.C.), sets the permissible pollution levels and timeline to implement an equivalent by vehicle makers. The abbreviation of Bharat Stage
12936-596: The most commonly used catalytic converter is the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC). DOCs contain palladium or platinum supported on alumina . This catalyst converts particulate matter (PM), hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and water. These converters often operate at 90 percent efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping reduce visible particulates. These catalysts are ineffective for NO x , so NO x emissions from diesel engines are controlled by exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). In 2010, most light-duty diesel manufacturers in
13068-524: The most permissible levels for pollutants emitting from an automotive or a two-wheeler exhaust. Compared to the BS4, BS6 emission standards area unit stricter, whereas makers use this variation to update their vehicles with new options and safety standards, the largest or the numerous modification comes within the type of stricter permissible emission norms. The below table offers Associate in Nursing insight into
13200-582: The oxidation reactions. An upstream air injection point, ahead of the catalytic converter, is also sometimes present to provide additional oxygen only during the engine warm up period. This causes unburned fuel to ignite in the exhaust tract, thereby preventing it reaching the catalytic converter at all. This technique reduces the engine runtime needed for the catalytic converter to reach its "light-off" or operating temperature . Most newer vehicles have electronic fuel injection systems, and do not require air injection systems in their exhausts. Instead, they provide
13332-477: The party or alliance most likely to command the confidence of the majority of the Lok Sabha . In the event that the prime minister is not a member of either House upon appointment, he/she is given six months to be elected to either House of Parliament . The first seeds of responsible government during British colonial rule in India were sown by the Indian Councils Act 1909 , commonly known as
13464-402: The people themselves. But the handful of ministers is not expected to deal personally with the various problems of modern administration. Thus the ministers lay down the policy and it is for the civil servants to enforce it. The cabinet secretary ( IAST : Maṃtrimaṇḍala Saciva ) is the top-most executive official and senior-most civil servant of the Government of India. The cabinet secretary
13596-461: The permanent bureaucracy of India. The executive decisions are implemented by the Indian civil servants. In the parliamentary democracy of India, the ultimate responsibility for running the administration rests with the elected representatives of the people which are the ministers. These ministers are accountable to the legislatures which are also elected by the people based on universal adult suffrage . The ministers are indirectly responsible to
13728-632: The policies/laws of land. Fuel quality plays a very important role in meeting the stringent emission regulation. Government of India The Government of India ( ISO : Bhārata Sarakāra, legally the Union Government or Union of India and colloquially known as the Central Government ) is the government of the Republic of India , located in South Asia , consisting of 36 states and union territories . The government
13860-426: The possibility of introduction of BS VI auto fuels in the whole of NCR area from 1 April 2019. This huge step was taken due to the heavy problem of air pollution faced by Delhi which became worse around 2019. The decision was met with disarray by the automobile companies as they had planned the development according to roadmap for 2020. The phasing out of 2-stroke engine for two wheelers, the cessation of production of
13992-404: The precious metals to work properly compared to conventional internal combustion vehicles because they do not get as hot as those installed on conventional vehicles, since the combustion engines of hybrids only run part of the time. Pipecutters are often used to quietly remove the converter but other tools such as a portable reciprocating saw can damage other components of the car, such as
14124-419: The president. India is currently the largest democracy in the world, with around 900 million eligible voters, as of 2019. In India, power is divided between the governments of the union and the states of India , the latter being ruled by the chiefs ministers . The state legislature is bicameral in five states and unicameral in the rest. The lower house is elected with a five-year term, while in
14256-469: The recommendations of the Council of Ministers, among others. The President, as the head of state , also receives the credentials of ambassadors from other countries, while the prime minister , as head of government , receives credentials of high commissioners from other members of the Commonwealth , in line with historical tradition. The President is the de jure commander-in-chief of
14388-414: The removal of the antiknock agent tetraethyl lead from automotive gasoline, to reduce lead in the air. Lead and its compounds are catalyst poisons and foul catalytic converters by coating the catalyst's surface. Requiring the removal of lead allowed the use of catalytic converters to meet the other emission standards in the regulations. To lower harmful NO x emissions, a twin-catalyst system
14520-527: The report submitted by the Mashelkar committee. The committee proposed a road map for the roll-out of Euro based emission norms for India. It also recommended a phased implementation of future norms with the regulations being implemented in major cities first and extended to the rest of the country after a few years. Based on the recommendations of the committee, the National Auto Fuel policy
14652-592: The respective regions. In addition, the National Auto Fuel Policy introduces certain emission requirements for interstate buses with routes originating or terminating in Delhi or the other 10 cities. Progress of emission standards for 2-and 3-wheeled vehicles: In order to comply with the BSIV norms, 2- and 3-wheeler manufacturers will have to fit an evaporative emission control unit, which should lower
14784-417: The role of smokestack exhaust and automobile exhaust in air pollution and founded a company called Oxy-Catalyst. Houdry first developed catalytic converters for smokestacks , called "cats" for short, and later developed catalytic converters for warehouse forklifts that used low grade, unleaded gasoline. In the mid-1950s, he began research to develop catalytic converters for gasoline engines used on cars and
14916-474: The second (HC and CO oxidation) catalyst is sufficiently oxygen-saturated. Catalyst poisoning occurs when the catalytic converter is exposed to exhaust containing substances that coat the working surfaces, so that they cannot contact and react with the exhaust. The most notable contaminant is lead , so vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can run only on unleaded fuel. Other common catalyst poisons include sulfur , manganese (originating primarily from
15048-468: The sensing of the changed air–fuel ratio by the sensor, as well as the sigmoidal response of the oxygen sensors. Typical control systems are designed to rapidly sweep the air–fuel ratio such that it oscillates slightly around the stoichiometric point, staying near the optimal efficiency point while managing the levels of stored oxygen and unburnt HC. Closed loop control is often not used during high load/maximum power operation, when an increase in emissions
15180-418: The sensor, the air–fuel ratio is lean of stoichiometric, and when oxygen is not detected, it is rich. The control system adjusts the rate of fuel being injected into the engine based on this signal to keep the air–fuel ratio near the stoichiometric point in order to maximize the catalyst conversion efficiency. The control algorithm is also affected by the time delay between the adjustment of the fuel flow rate and
15312-494: The single largest item of expenditure and accounted for more than 40% of the total non-development expenditure in the 2003–04 budget. Defence expenditure increased fourfold during the same period and has been increasing to defend from a difficult neighbourhood and external terror threats. In 2020–21, India's defence budget stood at ₹ 4.71 trillion (equivalent to ₹ 5.5 trillion or US$ 66 billion in 2023). In 2009, several ministers are accused of corruption and nearly
15444-469: The state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the republican idea of the separation of powers . The executive power is vested mainly in the President of India , as per Article 53(1) of the constitution. The president has all constitutional powers and exercises them directly or through subordinate officers as per the aforesaid Article 53(1). The president
15576-405: The state government to levy property tax and charge users for public utilities like water supply , sewage etc. More than half of the revenues of the union and state governments come from taxes, of which 3/4 come from direct taxes . More than a quarter of the union government's tax revenues are shared with the state governments. The tax reforms, initiated in 1991, have sought to rationalise
15708-400: The stock catalytic converter netted only a 3% increase in maximum horsepower; a new metallic core converter only cost the car 1% horsepower, compared to no converter. Carburetors on pre-1981 vehicles without feedback fuel-air mixture control could easily provide too much fuel to the engine, which could cause the catalytic converter to overheat and potentially ignite flammable materials under
15840-456: The tax structure and increase compliance by taking steps in the following directions: The non-tax revenues of the central government come from fiscal services, interest receipts, public sector dividends, etc., while the non-tax revenues of the States are grants from the central government, interest receipts, dividends and income from general, economic and social services. Inter-state share in
15972-442: The time therefore included secondary air injection , which injected air into the exhaust stream. This increased the available oxygen, allowing the catalyst to function as intended. Some three-way catalytic converter systems have air injection systems with the air injected between the first ( NO x reduction) and second (HC and CO oxidation) stages of the converter. As in two-way converters, this injected air provides oxygen for
16104-480: The transfer of any civil or criminal case from one state high court to another state high court, or from a Court subordinate to another state high court and the supreme court. Although the proceedings in the supreme court arise out of the judgment or orders made by the subordinate courts, of late the supreme court has started entertaining matters in which the interest of the public at large is involved. This may be done by any individual or group of persons either by filing
16236-554: The union tax pool is decided by the recommendations of the Finance Commission to the president. Total tax receipts of Centre and State amount to approximately 18% of national GDP. This compares to a figure of 37–45% in the OECD. The Finance minister of India usually presents the annual union budget in the parliament on the last working day of February. However, for the F.Y. 2017–18, this tradition had been changed. Now
16368-411: The upper house one-third of the members in the house gets elected every two years with six-year terms. Local governments function at the basic level. It is the third level of government apart from union and state governments. It consists of panchayats in rural areas and municipalities in urban areas. They are elected directly or indirectly by the people. India has a three-tier tax structure, wherein
16500-476: The upstream components of the exhaust system (manifold or header assembly and associated clamps susceptible to rust, corrosion or fatigue such as the exhaust manifold splintering after repeated heat cycling), ignition system (e.g., coil packs, primary ignition components, distributor cap, wires, ignition coil and spark plugs) or damaged fuel system components (e.g., fuel injectors, fuel pressure regulator, and associated sensors). Oil and coolant leaks, perhaps caused by
16632-471: The useful life periods and deterioration factors are the same as for Bharat (CEV) Stage III, Table 11. Emissions from new diesel engines used in generator sets have been regulated by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India [GSR 371 (E), 17 May 2002]. The regulations impose type approval certification, production conformity testing and labelling requirements. Certification agencies include
16764-484: The world's largest democracy , and the 4th largest economy in the world. Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India's achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world's new nations. The Government of India is modelled after the Westminster system . The Union government
16896-558: Was announced officially in 2003. The roadmap for implementation of the Bharat stage norms were laid out until 2010. The policy also created guidelines for auto fuels, reduction of pollution from older vehicles and R&D for air quality data creation and health administration. † Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai , Bengaluru , Hyderabad , Ahmedabad , Pune , Surat , Kanpur , Lucknow , Jamshedpur , Agra and Guwahati The above standards apply to all new 4-wheeled vehicles sold and registered in
17028-422: Was awarded United States Patent 2,742,437 for his work. Catalytic converters were further developed by a series of engineers including Carl D. Keith , John J. Mooney , Antonio Eleazar, and Phillip Messina at Engelhard Corporation, creating the first production catalytic converter in 1973. The first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the United States automobile market. To comply with
17160-521: Was developed in the 1970s – this added a separate (rhodium/platinum) catalyst which reduced NO x ahead of the air pump, after which a two-way catalytic converter (palladium/platinum) removed HC and CO. This cumbersome and expensive system was soon made redundant, after it was noted that under some conditions the initial catalyst also removed HC and CO. This led to the development of the three-way catalyst, made possible by electronics and engine management developments. William C. Pfefferle developed
17292-640: Was previously promised. Between midnight on 15 August 1947 and 26 January 1950 , India was an independent, self-governing dominion of the Commonwealth of Nations , a constitutional monarchy with a Prime Minister and a Governor-General as the viceregal representative of the head of state, George VI . Its unicameral legislature, the Constituent Assembly , was tasked with drafting the country's constitution. The Constitution of India came into effect on 26 January 1950 , making India
17424-543: Was used in Alpina's B12 5,7 E-KAT based on the BMW 750i . Heating coils inside the catalytic converter assemblies are electrified just after the engine is started, bringing the catalyst up to operating temperature very quickly to qualify the vehicle for low emission vehicle (LEV) designation. BMW later introduced the same heated catalyst, developed jointly by Emitec, Alpina, and BMW, in its 750i in 1999. Some vehicles contain
#559440