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49-467: The Bromsgrove Guild of Applied Arts (1898–1966) was a company of modern artists and designers associated with the Arts and Crafts Movement , but which also embraced other major design motifs. Founded by Walter Gilbert , the guild worked in metal, wood, plaster, bronze, tapestry, glass and other mediums. The Guild received a Royal Warrant in 1908. The Guild's most famous works on public display are

98-587: A female ancestor who died young, venerated in rites such as circumcision rites and ceremonies associated to the renewal of life. As veneration of the dead is most often associated with fertility and reproduction, many dead-ancestor masks also have sexual symbols; the ndeemba mask of the Yaka people (Angola and DR Congo ), for example, is shaped after a skull complemented with a phallic-shaped nose. A special class of ancestor masks are those related to notable, historical or legendary people. The mwaash ambooy mask of

147-476: A general rectangular shape and many horns (a representation of abundant harvest. Bambara antelope masks (called chiwara ) have long horns representing the thriving growth of millet , legs (representing roots), long ears (representing the songs sung by the working women at harvest time), and a saw-shaped line that represents the path followed by the Sun between solstices . A 12th/13th century mural from Old Dongola ,

196-639: A key point in his career and the development of modern painting. It reflected Matisse's incipient fascination with primitive art : the intense warm color of the figures against the cool blue-green background and the rhythmical succession of the dancing nudes convey the feelings of emotional liberation and hedonism . At the start of 20th-century Western painting , and initially influenced by Toulouse-Lautrec , Gauguin and other late-19th-century innovators, Pablo Picasso made his first Cubist paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube , sphere and cone . With

245-563: A mask's looks are codified by the tradition and may either identify a specific community or convey specific meanings. For example, both the Bwa and the Buna people of Burkina Faso have hawk masks, with the shape of the beak identifying a mask as either Bwa or Buna. In both cases, the hawk's wings are decorated with geometric patterns that have moral meanings; saw-shaped lines represent the hard path followed by ancestors, while chequered patterns represent

294-512: A member of the jury at the Salon d'Automne where he exhibited three of his dreamlike works: Enigma of the Oracle , Enigma of an Afternoon and Self-Portrait . In 1913 he exhibited his work at the Salon des Indépendants and Salon d'Automne, and his work was noticed by Pablo Picasso , Guillaume Apollinaire , and several others. His compelling and mysterious paintings are considered instrumental to

343-421: A privileged, status-related practice, and mass production of masks has become widespread. While, in most cases, commercial masks are (more or less faithful) reproductions of traditional masks, this connection is weakening over time, as the logics of mass-production make it harder to identify the actual geographical and cultural origins of the masks found in such venues as curio shops and tourist markets. For example,

392-596: A search for more realism in the depiction of common life, as found in the work of painters such as Jean-François Millet . The advocates of realism stood against the idealism of the tradition-bound academic art that enjoyed public and official favor. The most successful painters of the day worked either through commissions or through large public exhibitions of their work. There were official, government-sponsored painters' unions, while governments regularly held public exhibitions of new fine and decorative arts. The Impressionists argued that people do not see objects but only

441-568: Is also (sometimes mainly) a symbol of specific virtues. Common animal subjects include the buffalo (usually representing strength, as in the Baoulé culture), crocodile , hawk, hyena , warthog and antelope . Antelopes have a fundamental role in many cultures of the Mali area (for example in Dogon and Bambara culture) as representatives of agriculture . Dogon antelope masks are highly abstract, with

490-536: Is closely related to Modernism . Although modern sculpture and architecture are reckoned to have emerged at the end of the 19th century, the beginnings of modern painting can be located earlier. Francisco Goya is considered by many as the Father of Modern Painting without being a Modernist himself, a fact of art history that later painters associated with Modernism as a style, acknowledge him as an influence. The date perhaps most commonly identified as marking

539-554: Is often reflected by the masks's complexity and artistic quality. The kple kple mask from the Baoule people of Ivory Coast is considered the "least prestigious" of Goli masks, hence its minimal and unadorned features. African masks usually emulate a human or animal face in an abstract way. The inherent lack of realism in African masks (and African art in general) is justified by the fact that most African cultures clearly distinguish

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588-519: The Baga people have ornamental scars and breasts. In many cases, wearing masks that represent feminine beauty is strictly reserved for men. One of the well-known representations of female beauty is the Idia mask of Benin . It is believed to have been commissioned by King Esigie of Benin in memory of his mother. To honor his dead mother, the king wore the mask on his hip during special ceremonies. As

637-512: The Dogon people of Mali possess several masks, each with its own unique function. The Dogon are governed by three main religious orders: the Awa (cult of the dead), Bini (cult of the ancestors), and Lebe (cult of nature). The anthropologist Marcel Griaule documented at least 78 varieties of masks corresponding with spirits and deities in the Dogon pantheon. The importance of the spirit portrayed

686-538: The Kuba people (DR Congo), for example, represents the legendary founder of the Kuba Kingdom , Woot, while the mgady amwaash mask represents his wife Mweel. In parts of West Africa miniature versions of masks have traditionally been used as personal items of belief, acting as spiritual guides and protectors during travels, keeping a spiritual connection to the original full-scale mask. Due to commodification in

735-742: The Sande society in Sierra Leone don the Sowei mask during rites of passage, specifically initiation ceremonies for young girls. The Plank Mask (Nwantantay) among the Bobo , Bwa , and Mossi people of Burkina Faso makes an appearance during public events such as funerals and agricultural festivals. Masks are a prominent feature of African cultural heritage. The history, use, and symbolism of masks vary across national, ethnic, and cultural identities. In West Africa, masking traditions are closely linked with

784-594: The veneration of defunct ancestors is a fundamental element of most African traditional cultures, it is not surprising that the dead is also a common subject for masks. Masks referring to dead ancestors are most often shaped after a human skull . A well-known example is the mwana pwo (literally, "young woman") of the Chokwe people ( Angola ), that mixes elements referring to feminine beauty (well-proportioned oval face, small nose and chin) and other referring to death (sunken eye sockets, cracked skin, and tears); it represents

833-656: The 1980s and 1990s, as evidenced by the rise of neo-expressionism and the revival of figurative painting . Towards the end of the 20th century, many artists and architects started questioning the idea of "the modern" and created typically Postmodern works . (Roughly chronological with representative artists listed.) African tribal masks For example, members of the masquerade cult and Uma-Ada fraternity facilitate social justice and reconciliation processes among Igbo communities in Eastern Nigeria through masquerade performances. Mende and Vai women of

882-501: The Americas Art of Oceania Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the styles and philosophies of the art produced during that era. The term is usually associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with fresh ideas about

931-472: The Ivory Coast carve masks with round eyes to represent alertness and anger, with the straight nose representing an unwillingness to retreat. Animals are common subjects in African masks. Animal masks typically embody the spirit of animals, so that the mask-wearer becomes a medium to speak to animals themselves (e.g. to ask wild beasts to stay away from the village); in many cases, nevertheless, an animal

980-557: The Poro secret societies of the Senufo people of the Ivory Coast have masks that celebrate the exceptional power of the society by merging three different "danger" symbols: antelope horns, crocodile teeth, and warthog fangs. Another well-known example is that of kifwebe masks of the Songye people ( Congo Basin ), that mix the stripes of a zebra (or okapi ), the teeth of a crocodile ,

1029-484: The attention of curators and critics, at the expense of more traditional media. Larger installations and performances became widespread. By the end of the 1970s, when cultural critics began speaking of "the end of painting" (the title of a provocative essay written in 1981 by Douglas Crimp ), new media art had become a category in itself, with a growing number of artists experimenting with technological means such as video art . Painting assumed renewed importance in

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1078-576: The birth of modern art as a movement is 1863, the year that Édouard Manet showed his painting Le déjeuner sur l'herbe in the Salon des Refusés in Paris. Earlier dates have also been proposed, among them 1855 (the year Gustave Courbet exhibited The Artist's Studio ) and 1784 (the year Jacques-Louis David completed his painting The Oath of the Horatii ). In the words of art historian H. Harvard Arnason : "Each of these dates has significance for

1127-491: The capital of the Nubian kingdom of Makuria , depicts dancing masks decorated with cowrie shells imitating some animal with long snouts and big ears. A common variation on the animal-mask theme is the composition of several distinct animal traits in a single mask, sometimes along with human traits. Merging distinct animal traits together is sometimes a means to represent unusual, exceptional virtue or high status. For example,

1176-573: The chest rather than the head of face; this includes those used by the Makonde people of East Africa in ndimu ceremonies. As African masks are largely appropriated by Europeans, they are widely commercialized and sold in most tourist-oriented markets and shops in Africa (as well as "ethnic" shops in the Western world ). As a consequence, the traditional art of mask-making has gradually ceased to be

1225-501: The development of modern art, but none categorically marks a completely new beginning .... A gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years." The strands of thought that eventually led to modern art can be traced back to the Enlightenment . The modern art critic Clement Greenberg , for instance, called Immanuel Kant "the first real Modernist" but also drew a distinction: "The Enlightenment criticized from

1274-425: The development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubists Georges Braque , André Derain , Raoul Dufy , Jean Metzinger and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild," multi-colored, expressive landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism . Matisse's two versions of The Dance signified

1323-527: The early beginnings of Surrealism . Song of Love (1914) is one of the most famous works by de Chirico and is an early example of the surrealist style, though it was painted ten years before the movement was "founded" by André Breton in 1924. The School of Paris , centered in Montparnasse flourished between the two world wars. World War I brought an end to this phase but indicated the beginning of many anti-art movements, such as Dada , including

1372-460: The essence of a subject from its looks, the former, rather than the latter, being the actual subject of artistic representation. An extreme example is given by nwantantay masks of the Bwa people ( Burkina Faso ) that represent the flying spirits of the forest; since these spirits are deemed to be invisible, the corresponding masks are shaped after abstract, purely geometrical forms. Stylish elements in

1421-416: The exception of the Sande society , women in most African societies are not allowed to actively participate in masquerade activities. The masks themselves are usually carved by men and the knowledge and secrets of the craft are transmitted through the male line. Masks may symbolize spirits of the dead, totem animals, and other supernatural forces. During a performance, the masked masquerader transforms into

1470-518: The eyes of a chameleon , the mouth of an aardvark , the crest of a rooster, the feathers of an owl and more. Another common subject of African masks is a woman's face, usually based on a specific culture's ideal of feminine beauty . Female masks of the Punu people of Gabon, for example, have long curved eyelashes, almond-shaped eyes, thin chin, and traditional ornaments on their cheeks, as all these are considered good-looking traits. Feminine masks of

1519-412: The first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by Synthetic cubism , practiced by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger , Juan Gris , Albert Gleizes , Marcel Duchamp and several other artists into the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter. The notion of modern art

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1568-500: The first decade of the 20th century were Fauvism , Cubism , Expressionism , and Futurism . Futurism took off in Italy a couple years before World War I with the publication of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti 's Futurist Manifesto . Benedetta Cappa Marinetti , wife of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, created the second wave of the artistic movement started by her husband. "Largely thanks to Benedetta, her husband F.T. Marinetti re orchestrated

1617-473: The focal point of new artistic movements. The 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of Abstract Expressionism , Color field painting , Conceptual artists of Art & Language , Pop art , Op art , Hard-edge painting , Minimal art , Lyrical Abstraction , Fluxus , Happening , video art , Postminimalism , Photorealism and various other movements. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, Land art , performance art , conceptual art, and other new art forms attracted

1666-595: The history of masquerades. Though the precise origins of masking traditions in precolonial Africa remain unknown, Raphael Chijioke Njoku theorized that masquerades developed among the Bantu people sometime before 3000-2500 BCE. Njoku states, "migrants could not have been able to propagate the idea outside their original homeland if they were not already well acquainted with the diverse ramifications of its practice." Other theories are drawn from folklore and legends. Based on an Igbo legend, masquerades were first introduced to

1715-490: The interaction of opposites (male-female, night-day, and so on) Traits representing moral values are found in many cultures. Masks from the Senufo people of Ivory Coast , for example, have their eyes half closed, symbolizing a peaceful attitude, self-control, and patience. In Sierra Leone and elsewhere, small eyes and mouth represent humility , and a wide, protruding forehead represents wisdom. In Gabon, large chins and mouths represent authority and strength. The Grebo of

1764-433: The light that they reflect, and therefore painters should paint in natural light ( en plein air ) rather than in studios and should capture the effects of light in their work. Impressionist artists formed a group, Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs ("Association of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers") which, despite internal tensions, mounted a series of independent exhibitions. The style

1813-613: The main gates of Buckingham Palace and the Canada Gate both part of Sir Aston Webb 's memorial scheme to Queen Victoria . Unlike many other Arts & Crafts companies that faded away after a few decades, for instance Morris & Co , the Bromsgrove Guild survived until after World War II . Modern art Art of Central Asia Art of East Asia Art of South Asia Art of Southeast Asia Art of Europe Art of Africa Art of

1862-407: The mask surface; examples include animal hair , horns, or teeth, sea shells , seeds , straw, egg shell, and feathers. Animal hair or straw are often used for a mask's hair or beard. The general structure of a mask varies depending on the way it is intended to be worn. The most common type applies to the wearer's face, like most Western (e.g., carnival) masks. Others are worn like hats on the top of

1911-467: The nature of materials and functions of art. A tendency away from the narrative , which was characteristic of the traditional arts, toward abstraction is characteristic of much modern art. More recent artistic production is often called contemporary art or Postmodern art . Modern art begins with the heritage of painters like Vincent van Gogh , Paul Cézanne , Paul Gauguin , Georges Seurat and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec all of whom were essential for

1960-402: The outside ... . Modernism criticizes from the inside." The French Revolution of 1789 uprooted assumptions and institutions that had for centuries been accepted with little question and accustomed the public to vigorous political and social debate. This gave rise to what art historian Ernst Gombrich called a "self-consciousness that made people select the style of their building as one selects

2009-434: The painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), Picasso dramatically created a new and radical picture depicting a raw and primitive brothel scene with five prostitutes, violently painted women, reminiscent of African tribal masks and his new Cubist inventions. Analytic cubism was jointly developed by Picasso and Georges Braque , exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism,

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2058-448: The pattern of a wallpaper." The pioneers of modern art were Romantics , Realists and Impressionists . By the late 19th century, additional movements which were to be influential in modern art had begun to emerge: Post-Impressionism and Symbolism . Influences upon these movements were varied: from exposure to Eastern decorative arts, particularly Japanese printmaking , to the coloristic innovations of Turner and Delacroix , to

2107-728: The shifting ideologies of Futurism to embrace feminine elements of intuition, spirituality, and the mystical forces of the earth." She painted up until his death and spent the rest of her days tending to the spread and growth of this period in Italian art, which celebrated technology, speed and all things new. During the years between 1910 and the end of World War I and after the heyday of cubism , several movements emerged in Paris. Giorgio de Chirico moved to Paris in July 1911, where he joined his brother Andrea (the poet and painter known as Alberto Savinio ). Through his brother, he met Pierre Laprade,

2156-423: The spirit or entity represented by the mask. The transformation of the mask wearer’s identity is reinforced through song and dance. Nwantantay or plank masks, for example, represent spirits of the natural word associated with water ranging from insects to waterfowl. In accompaniment with singers and drummers, a masquerader donning the mask "moves rapidly, imitating the behavior of a flying spirit." Some groups like

2205-587: The town of Arondizuogu by Okoye Nwaobi or Okoye Mmonwu ("Okoye the Masquerade"), a villager who employed masked figures to scare away his opponent during a land dispute. Alex Asigbo argued that masquerade cults were developed by male elders as a form of social control. Through the age-old practices of witchcraft and sorcery, women were thought to possess immense power over their male counterparts. "Masquerades therefore perform certain social control functions by enforcing discipline and upholding natural law." With

2254-487: The wake of colonization , the passport masks have been represented as symbols of free passage similar to passports . The most commonly used material for masks is wood, although a wide variety of other elements can be used, including light stone such as steatite , metals such as copper or bronze , different types of fabric , pottery , and more. Some masks are painted (for example using ochre or other natural colorants). A wide array of ornamental items can be applied to

2303-588: The wearer's head; examples include those of the Ekhoi people of Nigeria and Bwa people of Burkina Faso, as well as the famous chiwara masks of the Bambara people. Some masks (for example those of the Sande society of Liberia and the Mende people of Sierra Leone, that are made from hollow tree stumps) are worn like helmets covering both the head and face. Some African cultures have mask-like ornaments that are worn on

2352-531: The work of Marcel Duchamp , and of Surrealism . Artist groups like de Stijl and Bauhaus developed new ideas about the interrelation of the arts, architecture, design, and art education. Modern art was introduced to the United States with the Armory Show in 1913 and through European artists who moved to the U.S. during World War I. It was only after World War II , however, that the U.S. became

2401-467: Was adopted by artists in different nations, in preference to a "national" style. These factors established the view that it was a "movement." These traits—establishment of a working method integral to the art, the establishment of a movement or visible active core of support, and international adoption—would be repeated by artistic movements in the Modern period in art. Among the movements that flowered in

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