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84-597: Buddhist-Christian Studies is an academic journal covering the historical and contemporary interrelationships between Buddhism and Christianity . It includes articles, conference reports, book reviews, and sections on comparative methodology and historical comparisons, as well as ongoing discussions from two dialogue conferences: the Theological Encounter with Buddhism, and the Japan Society for Buddhist–Christian Studies. Since 1987 it has served as

168-829: A royal privilege from King Louis XIV on 8 August 1664 to establish the Journal des sçavans . The journal's first issue was published on 5 January 1665. It was aimed at people of letters , and had four main objectives: Soon after, the Royal Society established Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in March 1665, and the Académie des Sciences established the Mémoires de l'Académie des Sciences in 1666, which focused on scientific communications. By

252-457: A collection of spaces and resources focused around the court as a center of power and distribution of favors. Lilti paints a picture of a reciprocal relationship between men of letters and salonnières. Salonnières attracted the finest men of letters through gift-giving or regular allowance in order to boost the reputation of the salons. For salon hosts and hostesses, they were not merely sources of information, but also important points of relay in

336-593: A common ground: the Republic of Letters and the Enlightenment were distinct. The mid-17th century had seen the community of the curious take its first tentative steps towards institutionalization with the establishment of permanent literary and scientific academies in Paris and London under royal patronage. The foundation of the Royal Society in 1662, with its open door, was particularly important in legitimizing

420-459: A community. The philosophes , by contrast, represented a new generation of men of letters who were consciously controversial and politically subversive. Moreover, they were urbane popularizers, whose style and lifestyle was much more in tune with the sensibilities of the aristocratic elite who set the tone for the reading public. Goodman's approach has found favor with the medical historian Thomas Broman . Building on Habermas, Broman argues that

504-413: A fiction of equality that never dissolved differences in status but nonetheless made them bearable. The "grands" (high-ranking nobles) only played the game of mutual esteem as long as they kept the upper hand. Men of letters were well aware of this rule, never confusing the politeness of the salons with equality in conversation. As well, the advantages that writers gained from visiting salons extended to

588-505: A free copy of the book from the journal in exchange for a timely review. Publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal, as does the extent of textbook and trade book review. An academic journal's prestige is established over time, and can reflect many factors, some but not all of which are expressible quantitatively. In each academic discipline , some journals receive

672-475: A gradual movement towards an international Respublica with set channels of communication and particular points of focus (e.g. university towns and publishing houses), or simply the home of a respected figure. Many learned periodicals began as imitations or rivals of publications originating after the mid-17th century. It is generally acknowledged that the Journal des Sçavans , a French journal started in 1665,

756-412: A high number of submissions and opt to restrict how many they publish, keeping the acceptance rate low. Size or prestige are not a guarantee of reliability. In the natural sciences and in the social sciences , the impact factor is an established proxy, measuring the number of later articles citing articles already published in the journal. There are other quantitative measures of prestige, such as

840-428: A journal article will be available for download in two formats: PDF and HTML, although other electronic file types are often supported for supplementary material. Articles are indexed in bibliographic databases as well as by search engines. E-journals allow new types of content to be included in journals, for example, video material, or the data sets on which research has been based. With the growth and development of

924-440: A number of the journals on this list, threatened to sue Beall in 2013 and Beall stopped publishing in 2017, citing pressure from his university. A US judge fined OMICS $ 50 million in 2019 stemming from an FTC lawsuit. Some academic journals use the registered report format, which aims to counteract issues such as data dredging and hypothesizing after the results are known. For example, Nature Human Behaviour has adopted

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1008-453: A print journal in structure: there is a table of contents which lists the articles, and many electronic journals still use a volume/issue model, although some titles now publish on a continuous basis. Online journal articles are a specialized form of electronic document : they have the purpose of providing material for academic research and study, and they are formatted approximately like journal articles in traditional printed journals. Often,

1092-468: A profit. They often accept advertising, page and image charges from authors to pay for production costs. On the other hand, some journals are produced by commercial publishers who do make a profit by charging subscriptions to individuals and libraries. They may also sell all of their journals in discipline-specific collections or a variety of other packages. Journal editors tend to have other professional responsibilities, most often as teaching professors. In

1176-528: A rhetoric. For her, it was essentially an open-minded discourse of discovery where like-minded intellectuals adopted a traditionally feminine mode of discussion to explore the great problems of life. Enlightenment discourse was purposeful gossip and indissolubly connected with the Parisian salons. In 2003, Susan Dalton published Engendering the Republic of Letters: Reconnecting Public and Private Spheres . Dalton supports Dena Goodman's view that women played

1260-537: A role in the Enlightenment. In 1995, Anne Goldgar published Impolite Learning: Conduct and Community in the Republic of Letters, 1680–1750 . Goldgar sees the Republic as a cluster of learned scholars and scientists, whose correspondence and published works (usually in Latin) reveal a community of conservative scholars with preference for substance over style. Lacking any common institutional attachments and finding it difficult to attract aristocratic and courtly patrons,

1344-539: A role in the collapse of the Ancien Régime . This attention to the mechanisms of dissemination and promotion has led historians to debate the importance of the Republic of Letters during the Enlightenment. In 1994, Dena Goodman published The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment . In this feminist work, she described the Enlightenment not as a set of ideas but as

1428-480: A strong influence on colonial American letters. During this period, the variety of institutions used for transmitting ideas did not exist in America. Aside from the largely arbitrarily assembled booksellers' stocks, an occasional overseas correspondence, and the publisher's or printer's advertisements to be found in the back of the books, the only way colonial intellectuals could keep alive their philosophical interests

1512-437: A study in a given field, or for current awareness of those already in the field. Reviews of scholarly books are checks upon the research books published by scholars; unlike articles, book reviews tend to be solicited. Journals typically have a separate book review editor determining which new books to review and by whom. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editor's request for a book review, he or she generally receives

1596-457: A true periodical press was slow, but once this principle was established it was only a matter of time before printers would perceive that the public was also interested in the world of scholarship. Formerly the domain of "les savants " and " érudits ," the Republic of Letters now became the province of "les curieux ." Historians have long understood that the English and French periodicals had

1680-493: A well-governed Republic of Letters. From 1765 until 1776, men of letters and those who wanted to be counted among the citizens of their Republic could meet in Parisian salons any day of the week. The salons were literary institutions that relied on a new ethic of polite sociability based on hospitality, distinction, and the entertainment of the elite. The salons were open to intellectuals, who used them to find protectors and sponsors and to fashion themselves as 'hommes du monde.' In

1764-530: Is abstracted and indexed in the ATLA Religion Database , Asian Religious Studies Information , Religion Indexes , Religious and Theological Abstracts , SCImago Journal Rank , and Scopus . Academic journal Content usually takes the form of articles presenting original research , review articles , or book reviews . The purpose of an academic journal, according to Henry Oldenburg (the first editor of Philosophical Transactions of

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1848-515: Is that Pierre Bayle first translated the term in his journal Nouvelles de la République des Lettres in 1684. But there are some historians who disagree and some have gone so far as to say that its origin dates back to Plato's Republic . Historians are presently debating the importance of the Republic of Letters in influencing the Enlightenment . Today, most British or American historians, whatever their point of entry to debate, occupy

1932-670: Is the father of all journals. The first of the Dutch-based ones, and also the first of the genuinely "critical" journals, the Nouvelles de la République des Lettres , edited by Pierre Bayle , appeared in March 1684, followed in 1686 by the Bibliothèque Universelle of Jean Le Clerc . While French and Latin predominated, there was also soon a demand for book news and reviews in German and Dutch. The evolution of

2016-655: The Reader , and more. At Harvard College in 1721 a weekly periodical entitled the Telltale was inaugurated by a group of students, including Ebenezer Pemberton , Charles Chauncy , and Isaac Greenwood . As the Telltale's subtitle – "Criticisms on the Conversation and Behaviours of Scholars to promote right reasoning and good manners" – made explicit, it was a direct imitation of the English genteel periodical. One of

2100-648: The SCImago Journal Rank , CiteScore , Eigenfactor , and Altmetrics . In the Anglo-American humanities , there is no tradition (as there is in the sciences) of giving impact-factors that could be used in establishing a journal's prestige. Recent moves have been made by the European Science Foundation (ESF) to change the situation, resulting in the publication of preliminary lists for the ranking of academic journals in

2184-436: The quantitative social sciences vary in form and function from journals of the humanities and qualitative social sciences; their specific aspects are separately discussed. The first academic journal was Journal des sçavans (January 1665), followed soon after by Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (March 1665), and Mémoires de l'Académie des Sciences (1666). The first fully peer-reviewed journal

2268-402: The Enlightenment was a movement of intellectual transparency and laicization. While members of the Republic of Letters lived hermetically sealed from the outside world, talking only to one another, their enlightened successors deliberately placed their ideas before the bar of a nascent public opinion. Broman essentially sees The Republic of Letters as located in the cabinet and the Enlightenment in

2352-871: The Internet, there has been a growth in the number of new digital-only journals. A subset of these journals exist as Open Access titles, meaning that they are free to access for all, and have Creative Commons licences which permit the reproduction of content in different ways. High quality open access journals are listed in Directory of Open Access Journals . Most, however, continue to exist as subscription journals, for which libraries, organisations and individuals purchase access. Republic of Letters The purported copyright violation copies text from Brockliss, Dalton, Fiering, Goldgar, Goodman, Israel, Kale, Konig, Lambe, Lilti, Ostrander works cited in bibliography ( Copyvios report ) ; as such, this page has been listed on

2436-511: The Literary Republic, literary women shared such sociability as society at large afforded. This varied widely in America from one locality to one another. Very soon after the introduction of printing with moveable type, the Republic of Letters became closely identified with the press. The printing press also played a prominent role in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through

2520-638: The Present Time . The Young Students Library , like the Universal Historical Bibliothèque of 1687, was made up almost entirely of translated pieces, in this case mostly from the Journal des Sçavans , Bayle's Nouvelles de la République des Lettres, and Le Clerc's and La Crose's Bibliothèque Universelle et Historique . The Young Students Library of 1692 was exemplary of the kind of material to be found in later forms of

2604-577: The Republic of Letters and thus become cosmopolitans. In Paris specialization was taken to new heights where, in addition to existing Académie Française and the Académie des Sciences founded in 1635 and 1666, there were three further royal foundations in the 18th century: the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1701), the Académie de Chirurgie (1730), and the Société de Médecine (1776). By

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2688-534: The Republic of Letters in England and providing a European center of gravity for the movement. The Royal Society primarily promoted science, which was undertaken by gentlemen of means acting independently. The Royal Society created its charters and established a system of governance. Its most famous leader was Isaac Newton , president from 1703 until his death in 1727. Other notable members include diarist John Evelyn , writer Thomas Sprat , and scientist Robert Hooke ,

2772-457: The Republic of Letters; the other, the trivial Enlightenment of the Parisian philosophes . The first is a product of a peculiarly English/British and Protestant liberal political and theological tradition and points to the future; the second lacks the anchor of socio-historical analysis and leads unintentionally to Revolutionary mayhem. In the 1930s, the French historian Paul Hazard homed in on

2856-474: The Royal Society ), is to give researchers a venue to "impart their knowledge to one another, and contribute what they can to the Grand design of improving natural knowledge, and perfecting all Philosophical Arts, and Sciences." The term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields; this article discusses the aspects common to all academic field journals. Scientific journals and journals of

2940-519: The Society's first curator of experiments. It played an international role to adjudicate scientific findings, and published the journal "Philosophical Transactions" edited by Henry Oldenburg . The seventeenth century saw new academies open in France, Germany, and elsewhere. By 1700 they were found in most major cultural centers. They helped local members contact like-minded intellectuals elsewhere in

3024-403: The academies they supported. Mixed intellectual company was also found in 18th-century Philadelphia for those who sought it, sometimes in social gatherings modeled upon the salons of London and Paris. Where mixed social intercourse of a literary nature was concerned, Americans were virtuously and patriotically inclined to be wary of European examples. Conscious of the relative purity as well as

3108-455: The age of Pierre Bayle and argued that the cumulative effect of the many different and mordant strands of intellectual curiosity in the last quarter of the 17th century created a European cultural crisis, whose negative harvest the philosophes were to reap. The Republic of Letters and the Enlightenment were insolubly interconnected. Both were movements of criticism. According to Peter Gay , building on Ernst Cassirer 's much earlier study of

3192-636: The article produce reports upon the content, style, and other factors, which inform the editors' publication decisions. Though these reports are generally confidential, some journals and publishers also practice public peer review . The editors either choose to reject the article, ask for a revision and resubmission, or accept the article for publication. Even accepted articles are often subjected to further (sometimes considerable) editing by journal editorial staff before they appear in print. The peer review can take from several weeks to several months. Review articles, also called "reviews of progress", are checks on

3276-821: The author deposits a paper in a disciplinary or institutional repository where it can be searched for and read, or via publishing it in a free open access journal , which does not charge for subscriptions , being either subsidized or financed by a publication fee . Given the goal of sharing scientific research to speed advances, open access has affected science journals more than humanities journals. Commercial publishers are experimenting with open access models, but are trying to protect their subscription revenues. The much lower entry cost of on-line publishing has also raised concerns of an increase in publication of "junk" journals with lower publishing standards. These journals, often with names chosen as similar to well-established publications, solicit articles via e-mail and then charge

3360-474: The author to publish an article, often with no sign of actual review . Jeffrey Beall , a research librarian at the University of Colorado , has compiled a list of what he considers to be "potential, possible, or probable predatory scholarly open-access publishers"; the list numbered over 300 journals as of April 2013, but he estimates that there may be thousands. The OMICS Publishing Group , which publishes

3444-405: The basis of a metaphysical Republic. Because of societal constraints on women, the Republic of Letters consisted mostly of men. The Republic of Letters relied heavily on handwritten letters for correspondence. The first known occurrence of the term in its Latin form ( Respublica literaria ) is in a letter by Francesco Barbaro to Poggio Bracciolini dated July 6, 1417. Currently, the consensus

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3528-523: The best examples of a transatlantic Republic of Letters began about 1690, when John Dunton launched a series of journalistic ventures, nearly all of them under the aegis of a forward-looking "club" called the Athenian Society , an English predecessor of Harvard's Telltale Club, Franklin's Junto , and other such associations dedicated to mental and moral improvement. The Athenian society took it as one of their particular goals to spread learning in

3612-399: The capital, they began to meet together and make their collaboration on the project of Enlightenment direct, and thus suffered the consequences of giving up the mediation that the written word provided. Without this traditional kind of formal mediation, the philosophes needed a new kind of governance. The Parisian salon gave the Republic of Letters source of political order in the person of

3696-410: The case of the largest journals, there are paid staff assisting in the editing. The production of the journals is almost always done by publisher-paid staff. Humanities and social science academic journals are usually subsidized by universities or professional organization. The cost and value proposition of subscription to academic journals is being continuously re-assessed by institutions worldwide. In

3780-489: The circulation of praise. From one salon to the next, in conversation as in correspondence, men of letters gladly praised the social groups who welcomed them. In turn, the salon hostess had to be able to prove their capacity to mobilize as many high society contacts as possible in favor of their protégés. Consequently, correspondences openly display network of influence, and the woman of high society employed all their know-how to help benefit those men of letters whose elections to

3864-483: The community created the Republic of Letters to boost morale as much as for any intellectual reason. Goldgar argues that, in the transitional period between the 17th century and the Enlightenment, the most important common concern by members of the Republic was their own conduct. In the conception of its own members, ideology, religion, political philosophy, scientific strategy, or any other intellectual or philosophical framework were not as important as their own identity as

3948-612: The context of the big deal cancellations by several library systems in the world, data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals are used by libraries to estimate the specific cost and value of the various options: libraries can avoid subscriptions for materials already served by instant open access via open archives like PubMed Central. The Internet has revolutionized the production of, and access to, academic journals, with their contents available online via services subscribed to by academic libraries . Individual articles are subject-indexed in databases such as Google Scholar . Some of

4032-573: The copyright issue is resolved. The Republic of Letters ( Res Publica Litterarum or Res Publica Literaria ) was the long-distance intellectual community in the late 17th and 18th centuries in Europe and the Americas. It fostered communication among the intellectuals of the Age of Enlightenment , or philosophes as they were called in France. These communities that transcended national boundaries formed

4116-404: The copyright problems page . Unless the copyright status of the text of this page or section is clarified and determined to be compatible with Misplaced Pages's content license , the problematic text and revisions or the entire page may be deleted one week after the time of its listing (i.e. after 23:42, 17 October 2024 (UTC)). Until then, this page will be hidden from search engine results until

4200-795: The current volume are available in the JSTOR electronic archive. The current editors are Thomas Cattoi and Kristin Johnston Largen. The journal was first published in 1981 by the East-West Religions Project at the University of Hawaii after it hosted a conference in Honolulu in June 1980. David W. Chappell (University of Hawaii) served as founding editor-in-chief , working with Roger Corless and other founding contributors. The University of Hawaii Press began distributing

4284-417: The end of the 18th century, nearly 500 such periodicals had been published, the vast majority coming from Germany (304 periodicals), France (53), and England (34). Several of those publications, in particular the German journals, tended to be short-lived (under five years). A.J. Meadows has estimated the proliferation of journals to reach 10,000 journals in 1950, and 71,000 in 1987. Michael Mabe wrote that

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4368-429: The establishment of widely disseminated journals. Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. The main reason was that it provided correspondence between the author and the person who owned the printing presses – the publisher. This correspondence allowed the author to have a greater control of its production and distribution. The channels opened up by the great publishing houses provided

4452-491: The estimates will vary depending on the definition of what exactly counts as a scholarly publication, but that the growth rate has been "remarkably consistent over time", with an average rate of 3.46% per year from 1800 to 2003. In 1733, Medical Essays and Observations was established by the Medical Society of Edinburgh as the first fully peer-reviewed journal. Peer review was introduced as an attempt to increase

4536-447: The ever fashionable French model of mistress of the salon, drawing upon feminine social adroitness in arranging meetings of minds, chiefly male, and the ever unfashionable English bluestocking model of no-nonsense, cultivated discourse, chiefly among women. Outside literary salons and clubs, society at large was mixed by nature, as were the families that constituted it. And whether or not men of letters chose to include femme savants in

4620-434: The first megajournal . There are two kinds of article or paper submissions in academia : solicited, where an individual has been invited to submit work either through direct contact or through a general submissions call, and unsolicited, where an individual submits a work for potential publication without directly being asked to do so. Upon receipt of a submitted article, editors at the journal determine whether to reject

4704-424: The humanities. These rankings have been severely criticized, notably by history and sociology of science British journals that have published a common editorial entitled "Journals under Threat". Though it did not prevent ESF and some national organizations from proposing journal rankings , it largely prevented their use as evaluation tools. In some disciplines such as knowledge management / intellectual capital ,

4788-440: The intellectual progenitors of Kant , the Enlightenment was the creation of a small group of thinkers, his family of philosophes or ‘party of humanity’, whose coherent anti-Christian, ameliorist, and individualistic programme of reform developed from very specific cultural roots. The Enlightenment was not the offspring of the Republic of Letters, let alone the culmination of three centuries of anti- Augustinian critique, but rather

4872-500: The journal in 1984 and became the publisher in 1988. In 1996, the editorship passed to Terry C. Muck and Rita M. Gross . In 2006, the editorship passed to Francis Tiso of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops . In 2009, Mahinda Deegalle ( Bath Spa University ) became editor. In 2012, Wakoh Shannon Hickey began editing the journal. In 2013, she was joined by co-editor C. Denise Yarbrough. The journal

4956-705: The lack of a well-established journal ranking system is perceived by academics as "a major obstacle on the way to tenure, promotion and achievement recognition". Conversely, a significant number of scientists and organizations consider the pursuit of impact factor calculations as inimical to the goals of science, and have signed the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment to limit its use. Three categories of techniques have developed to assess journal quality and create journal rankings: Many academic journals are subsidized by universities or professional organizations, and do not exist to make

5040-538: The learned periodical in England. Expressly lamenting the absence in England of periodicals, the Young Students Library was designed to fill the need in America for periodical literature. For Americans it served, according to David D Hall, as: An expansive vision of learnedness, articulated especially during the Revolutionary period, as a means of advancing 'liberty' and thereby fulfilling

5124-590: The market-place. For most Anglo-American historians, the classic Enlightenment is a forward-looking movement. To these historians, the Republic of Letters are an outdated construction of the 17th century. But in John Pocock 's eyes there are two Enlightenments: one, associated with Edward Gibbon , the author of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , which is erudite, serious, and scholarly grounded in

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5208-501: The most fundamental level. The salonnière played a prominent role in establishing order within the Republic of Letters during the Enlightenment period. Beginning in the 17th century, salons served to bring together nobles and intellectuals in an atmosphere of civility and fair play in order to educate one, refine the other, and create a common medium of cultural exchange based on the shared notion of honnêteté that combined learning, good manners, and conversational skill. But government

5292-714: The official journal of the Society for Buddhist-Christian Studies , a member of the Council of Societies for the Study of Religion . Buddhist-Christian Studies appears annually before the November meeting of the American Academy of Religion . From 1987 through 1998 the cover listed contents in both Japanese and English. The first electronic edition appeared in 2000 on Project MUSE . Back volumes up to three years behind

5376-636: The overall number of citations, how quickly articles are cited, and the average " half-life " of articles. Clarivate Analytics ' Journal Citation Reports , which among other features, computes an impact factor for academic journals, draws data for computation from the Science Citation Index Expanded (for natural science journals), and from the Social Sciences Citation Index (for social science journals). Several other metrics are also used, including

5460-456: The paper resulting from this peer-reviewed procedure will be published, regardless of the study outcomes." Some journals are born digital in that they are solely published on the web and in a digital format. Though most electronic journals originated as print journals, which subsequently evolved to have an electronic version, while still maintaining a print component, others eventually became electronic-only. An e-journal closely resembles

5544-530: The promise of a republican America. It drew together political radicals and religious dissenters on both sides of the Atlantic, who drew from their shared struggles against a corrupted Parliament and the Church of England a common agenda of constitutional reform. Anglo-American historians have turned their attention to the Enlightenment's dissemination and promotion, inquiring into the mechanisms by which it played

5628-415: The protection by their hosts. The salons provided crucial support in the career of an author, not because they were literary institutions, but, on the contrary, because they allowed men of letters to emerge from the circles of the Republic of Letters and access the resources of aristocratic and royal patronage. As a result, instead of an opposition between the court and the Republic of Letters they are instead

5712-499: The provinciality of their society, Americans did not seek to replicate what they perceived as the decadent societies of London and Paris. Nevertheless, to facilitate social intercourse of a literary nature where women were involved, Americans, led by certain strong-minded women, did draw upon and domesticate two models of such mixed intellectual company, one French and the other English. In America intellectually motivated women consciously emulated these two European models of sociability:

5796-432: The quality and pertinence of submissions. Other important events in the history of academic journals include the establishment of Nature (1869) and Science (1880), the establishment of Postmodern Culture in 1990 as the first online-only journal , the foundation of arXiv in 1991 for the dissemination of preprints to be discussed prior to publication in a journal, and the establishment of PLOS One in 2006 as

5880-495: The registered report format, as it "shift[s] the emphasis from the results of research to the questions that guide the research and the methods used to answer them". The European Journal of Personality defines this format: "In a registered report, authors create a study proposal that includes theoretical and empirical background, research questions/hypotheses, and pilot data (if available). Upon submission, this proposal will then be reviewed prior to data collection, and if accepted,

5964-511: The research published in journals. Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles, some contain a few in each issue, and others do not publish review articles. Such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms; some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys. Some reviews are enumerative , listing all significant articles in a given subject; others are selective, including only what they think worthwhile. Yet others are evaluative, judging

6048-415: The result of the singular marriage of Lucretius and Newton . When a handful of French freethinkers in the second quarter of the 18th century encountered the methodology and achievements of Newtonian science, experimental philosophy and unbelief were mixed together in an explosive cocktail, which gave its imbibers the means to develop a new science of man. Since Gay's work was published, his interpretation of

6132-416: The roles, duties, and activities of scholarship. Communication, for example, did not have to be from individual to individual; it could take place between academies, and pass thence to scholars, or be encapsulated in literary journals, to be diffused among the whole scholarly community. Literary agents, working for libraries but sharing the values of the learned community, demonstrate this professionalization on

6216-504: The salonnière, for she gave order both to social relations among salon guests and to the discourse in which they engaged. When Marie-Thérèse Geoffrin launched her weekly dinners in 1749, the Enlightenment Republic of Letters found its ‘center of unity’. As a regular and regulated formal gathering hosted by a woman in her own home, the Parisian salon could serve as an independent forum and locus of intellectual activity for

6300-440: The salons after 1770 there emerged a radical critique of worldliness, inspired by Rousseau. These radicals denounced the mechanisms of polite sociability and called for a new model of the independent writer, who would address the public and the nation. Antoine Lilti argues that the salon never provided an egalitarian space. Rather, salons only provided a form of sociability where politeness and congeniality of aristocrats maintained

6384-559: The second half of the 18th century universities abandoned Aristotelian natural philosophy and Galenist medicine in favor of the mechanist and vitalist ideas of the moderns, so they placed a greater emphasis on learning by seeing. Everywhere in teaching science and medicine the monotonous diet of dictated lectures was supplemented and sometimes totally replaced by practical courses in experimental physics, astronomy, chemistry, anatomy, botany, materia medica , even geology and natural history . The new emphasis on practical learning meant that

6468-429: The smallest, most specialized journals are prepared in-house, by an academic department, and published only online – this has sometimes been in the blog format, though some, like the open access journal Internet Archaeology , use the medium to embed searchable datasets, 3D models, and interactive mapping. Currently, there is a movement in higher education encouraging open access, either via self archiving , whereby

6552-440: The state of progress in the subject field. Some journals are published in series, each covering a complete subject field year, or covering specific fields through several years. Unlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited or "peer-invited" submissions, often planned years in advance, which may themselves go through a peer-review process once received. They are typically relied upon by students beginning

6636-402: The submission outright or begin the process of peer review . In the latter case, the submission becomes subject to review by outside scholars of the editor's choosing who typically remain anonymous. The number of these peer reviewers (or "referees") varies according to each journal's editorial practice – typically, no fewer than two, though sometimes three or more, experts in the subject matter of

6720-430: The university now offered a much more welcoming environment to the Republic of Letters. Although most professors and teachers were still uninterested in membership, the ideological and pedagogical changes across the century created the conditions in which the pursuit of curiosity in the university world became much more possible and even attractive. Institutions – academies, journals, literary societies – took over some of

6804-686: The vernacular. One of the plans of this group in 1691 was the publication of translations from the Acta Eruditorum , the Journal des Sçavans , the Bibliothèque Universelle , and the Giornale de' Letterati . The outcome was the formation of The Young Students Library, containing Extracts and Abridgements of the Most Valuable Books Printed in England and in the Foreign Journals from the year Sixty-Five to

6888-545: Was Medical Essays and Observations (1733). The idea of a published journal with the purpose of "[letting] people know what is happening in the Republic of Letters " was first conceived by François Eudes de Mézeray in 1663. A publication titled Journal littéraire général was supposed to be published to fulfill that goal, but never was. Humanist scholar Denis de Sallo (under the pseudonym "Sieur de Hédouville") and printer Jean Cusson took Mazerai's idea, and obtained

6972-531: Was needed because, while the Republic of Letters was structured in theory by egalitarian principles of reciprocity and exchange, the reality of intellectual practice fell far short of this ideal. French men of letters in particular found themselves increasingly engaged in divisive quarrels rather than in constructive debate. With the establishment of Paris as the capital of the Republic, French men of letters had enriched traditional epistolary relations with direct verbal ones. That is, finding themselves drawn together by

7056-679: Was through the reporting in periodical literature . Examples include Benjamin Franklin , who cultivated his perspicuous style in imitation of the Spectator . Jonathan Edwards 's manuscript Catalogue of reading reveals that he not only knew the Spectator before 1720 but was so enamored of Richard Steele that he tried to get his hands on everything: the Guardian , the Englishman ,

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