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139-675: A symbol of the conservative "retrenchment" promised by President Richard Nixon in the 1968 election , Burger was often overshadowed by the liberal William Brennan and the more conservative William Rehnquist . The Burger Court had a less generous interpretation of the protections offered by the Fourth Amendment and the Fifth Amendment than those of the Warren Court, but the Burger Court did not overrule any of

278-432: A brokered convention . Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot. He was able to secure the nomination to the support of many Southern delegates, after he and his subordinates made concessions to Strom Thurmond and Harry Dent . He selected Maryland governor Spiro Agnew as his running mate, a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party, appealing both to Northern moderates and to Southerners disaffected with

417-399: A senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander . When announcing his California campaign, Nixon had pledged not to run for president in 1964; even if he had not, he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy, or after his assassination , Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson. In 1964, Nixon won write-in votes in the primaries , and was considered

556-413: A "respectable Republican cloth coat". The speech was remembered for the gift which Nixon had received, but which he would not give back, which he described as "a little cocker spaniel dog   ...sent all the way from Texas. And our little girl—Tricia, the 6-year-old—named it Checkers." The speech prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon. Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket, and

695-508: A 1960 presidential run. Nixon believed this would destroy his political career. When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956, he hedged on the choice of his running mate, saying it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated. Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower, Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the president in the 1956 New Hampshire primary election. In late April,

834-568: A bestselling book, Six Crises , which included coverage of the Hiss case, Eisenhower's heart attack, and the Fund Crisis, which had been resolved by the Checkers speech. Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent Pat Brown for governor of California in the 1962 gubernatorial election. Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race. The campaign

973-584: A categorical distinction of selected due process cases, and by 1950 had been mentioned twice in Supreme Court opinions. SDP involves liberty-based due process challenges which seek certain outcomes instead of merely contesting procedures and their effects; in such cases, the Supreme Court recognizes a constitutionally-based "liberty" which then renders laws seeking to limit said "liberty" either unenforceable or limited in scope. Critics of SDP decisions typically assert that those liberties ought to be left to

1112-584: A cessation of bombings. On October 22, 1968, candidate Nixon received information that Johnson was preparing a so-called " October surprise ", abandoning three non-negotiable conditions for a bombing halt, to help elect Humphrey in the last days of the campaign. Whether the Nixon campaign interfered with negotiations between the Johnson administration and the South Vietnamese by engaging Anna Chennault ,

1251-457: A college campus, where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy. The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached Lima , Peru, where he was met with student demonstrations. Nixon went to the historical campus of National University of San Marcos , the oldest university in the Americas, got out of his car to confront the students, and stayed until forced back into the car by

1390-447: A consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him. In 1945, they formed a "Committee of 100" to decide on a candidate, hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to previous Voorhis victories. After the committee failed to attract higher-profile candidates, Herman Perry, manager of Whittier's Bank of America branch, suggested Nixon, a family friend with whom he had served on Whittier College's board of trustees before

1529-647: A constitutional dimension to the question of whether a judge should recuse themself from a case. Specifically, the Supreme Court has ruled that in certain circumstances, the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires a judge to recuse themself on account of a potential or actual conflict of interest . For example, in Caperton v. A. T. Massey Coal Co. (2009), the Court ruled that

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1668-502: A conversational tone as much as possible. At the start of his junior year in September 1928, Nixon's parents permitted him to transfer to Whittier High School. At Whittier, Nixon lost a bid for student body president—his first electoral defeat. He often rose at 4 a.m. to drive the family truck to Los Angeles to purchase vegetables at the market and then drove to the store to wash and display them before going to school. Harold

1807-497: A debilitating stroke , and died four days later . Rankings of his time in office have proven complex, with the successes of his presidency contrasted against the circumstances of both his ascension and his departure from office. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, in what was then the township precinct of Yorba Linda, California , in a house built by his father, on his family's lemon ranch. His parents were Francis A. Nixon and Hannah (Milhous) Nixon . His mother

1946-725: A deferral due to his government service, Nixon nevertheless sought a commission in the Navy. His application was approved, and he was appointed a lieutenant junior grade in the United States Naval Reserve on June 15, 1942. In October 1942, he was given his first assignment as aide to the commander of the Naval Air Station Ottumwa in Wapello County, Iowa , until May 1943. Seeking more excitement, he requested sea duty; on July 2, 1943, he

2085-433: A divisive figure to some. Televised presidential debates made their debut as a political medium during the campaign. In the first of four such debates, Nixon appeared pale, with a five o'clock shadow , in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy. Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought Nixon had won. Nixon narrowly lost

2224-466: A due process clause for Congress. Madison cut out some language and inserted the word without , which had not been proposed by New York. Congress then adopted the exact wording that Madison proposed after Madison explained that the due process clause would not be sufficient to protect various other rights: Although I know whenever the great rights, the trial by jury, freedom of the press, or liberty of conscience, come in question in that body [Parliament],

2363-406: A former State Department official, had been a Soviet spy, Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation. After Hiss filed suit, alleging defamation, Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations, including paper and microfilm copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after hiding them overnight in a field; they became known as

2502-654: A full partner in the firm the following year. In later years, Nixon proudly said he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney. During this period, Nixon was also the president of the Citra-Frost Company, which attempted to produce and sell frozen orange juice, but the company went bankrupt after just 18 months. In January 1938, Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower in which he played opposite his future wife,

2641-481: A fundraiser for the Republican party, remains a controversy. It is not clear whether the government of South Vietnam needed encouragement to opt out of a peace process they considered disadvantageous. In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and American Independent Party candidate George Wallace , Nixon defeated Humphrey by only 500,000 votes, a margin almost as close as in 1960, with both elections seeing

2780-401: A gap of less than one percentage point of the popular vote. However, Nixon earned 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace, a majority. He became the first non-incumbent vice president to be elected president. In his victory speech, Nixon pledged that his administration would try to bring the divided nation together . Nixon said: "I have received a very gracious message from

2919-551: A grocery store and gas station at what is now the corner of Whittier Boulevard and Santa Gertrudes Avenue. During this time period, the Nixon family attended East Whittier Friends Church. Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 at the age of seven after a short illness. Richard was 12 years old when a spot was found on his lung; with a family history of tuberculosis , he was forbidden to play sports. The spot turned out to be scar tissue from an early bout of pneumonia . Nixon attended East Whittier Elementary School, where he

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3058-650: A heart attack and his condition was initially believed to be life-threatening. Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks. The Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution had not yet been proposed, and the vice president had no formal power to act. Nonetheless, Nixon acted in Eisenhower's stead during this period, presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power. According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose , Nixon had "earned

3197-412: A high school teacher named Thelma "Pat" Ryan . In his memoirs, Nixon described it as "a case of love at first sight ", but apparently for Nixon only, since Pat Ryan turned him down several times before agreeing to date him. Once they began their courtship, Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal. They wed in a small ceremony on June 21, 1940. After

3336-754: A honeymoon in Mexico , the Nixons began their married life in Whittier. They had two daughters: Tricia , born in 1946, and Julie , born in 1948. In January 1942, the couple moved to the Northern Virginia suburbs, where Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration in Washington, D.C. In his political campaigns, Nixon suggested that this was his response to Pearl Harbor , but he had sought

3475-640: A justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia could not participate in a case involving a major donor to his election to that court. In criminal cases, many of these due process protections overlap with procedural protections provided by the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution , which guarantees reliable procedures that protect innocent people from being executed, which would be an obvious example of cruel and unusual punishment. An example of criminal due process rights

3614-507: A law, courts may find that law to be void for vagueness . See Coates v. Cincinnati , where the word "annoying" was deemed to lack due process insertion of fair warning. Incorporation is the legal doctrine by which the Bill of Rights , either in full or in part, is applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause. The basis for incorporation is substantive due process regarding substantive rights enumerated elsewhere in

3753-526: A list of basic due process rights "that remains highly influential, as to both content and relative priority". These rights, which apply equally to civil due process and criminal due process, are: Procedural due process is essentially based on the concept of "fundamental fairness". For example, in 1934, the United States Supreme Court held that due process is violated "if a practice or rule offends some principle of justice so rooted in

3892-454: A political fund, maintained by his backers, which reimbursed him for political expenses. Such a fund was not illegal, but it exposed Nixon to allegations of a potential conflict of interest. With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon's resignation from the ticket , Nixon went on television to address the nation on September 23, 1952. The address, later named the Checkers speech ,

4031-595: A port or airport) without the protection of the Due Process Clause because, while technically on U.S. soil, they are not considered to have entered the United States. In Bucklew v. Precythe , 587 U.S. ___ (2019), the Supreme Court held that the Due Process Clause expressly allows the death penalty in the United States because "the Fifth Amendment, added to the Constitution at the same time as

4170-619: A potential industrial center. He visited Saigon and Hanoi in French Indochina . On his return to the United States at the end of 1953, Nixon increased the time he devoted to foreign relations. Biographer Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional years, said of his vice presidency: Eisenhower radically altered the role of his running mate by presenting him with critical assignments in both foreign and domestic affairs once he assumed his office. The vice president welcomed

4309-559: A representative and suggested that Voorhis's endorsement by a group linked to Communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views. Nixon won the election, receiving 65,586 votes to Voorhis's 49,994. In June 1947, Nixon supported the Taft–Hartley Act , a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions, and he served on the Education and Labor Committee . In August 1947, he became one of 19 House members to serve on

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4448-596: A second time. Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life, being embarrassed, for example, by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech. She still managed to be supportive of her husband's ambitions. Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the Vietnam War , a Republican had a good chance of winning, although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960. An exceptionally tumultuous primary election season began as

4587-434: A serious contender by both Gallup polls and members of the press. He was even placed on a primary ballot as an active candidate by Oregon's secretary of state. As late as two months before the 1964 Republican National Convention , however, Nixon fulfilled his promise to remain out of the presidential nomination process and instead endorsed Arizona senator Barry Goldwater , the eventual Republican nominee. When Goldwater won

4726-486: A source of fundamental judicially enforceable rights, including a general right to privacy, as discussed by Justice Goldberg concurring in Griswold . The courts have generally determined that laws which are too vague for the average citizen to understand deprive citizens of their rights to due process. If an average person cannot determine who is regulated, what conduct is prohibited, or what punishment may be imposed by

4865-409: A volley of thrown objects. At his hotel, Nixon faced another mob, and one demonstrator spat on him. In Caracas , Venezuela, Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti-American demonstrators and their limousine was attacked by a pipe-wielding mob. According to Ambrose, Nixon's courageous conduct "caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect". Reporting to the cabinet after

5004-515: Is a compelling state interest being furthered by the violation of the right, and whether the law in question is narrowly tailored to address the state interest. Privacy, which is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was at issue in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), wherein the Court held that criminal prohibition of contraceptive devices for married couples violated federal, judicially enforceable privacy rights. The right to contraceptives

5143-524: Is a fundamental right , by examining if the right can be found deeply rooted in American history and traditions. Where the right is not a fundamental right, the court applies a rational basis test : if the violation of the right can be rationally related to a legitimate government purpose, then the law is held valid. If the court establishes that the right being violated is a fundamental right, it applies strict scrutiny . This test inquires into whether there

5282-430: Is facing a deprivation of life, liberty, or property, procedural due process mandates that they are entitled to adequate notice, a hearing, and a neutral judge. The Supreme Court has formulated a balancing test to determine the rigor with which the requirements of procedural due process should be applied to a particular deprivation, for the obvious reason that mandating such requirements in the most expansive way for even

5421-412: Is inherently unfair for the judicial machinery of a state to take away the property of a person who has no connection to it whatsoever. A significant portion of U.S. constitutional law is therefore directed to what kinds of connections to a state are enough for that state's assertion of jurisdiction over a nonresident to comport with procedural due process. The requirement of a neutral judge has introduced

5560-608: Is possible that some of these rights could be protected by other provisions of the state or federal constitutions, and alternatively they could be protected by legislatures. The Court focuses on three types of rights under substantive due process in the Fourteenth Amendment , which originated in United States v. Carolene Products Co. , 304 U.S. 144 (1938), footnote 4. Those three types of rights are: The Court usually looks first to see if there

5699-475: Is the case Vitek v. Jones , 445 U.S. 480 (1980). The due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires certain procedural protections for state prisoners who may be transferred involuntarily to a state mental hospital for treatment of a mental disease or defect, such protections including written notice of the transfer, an adversary hearing before an independent decision-maker, written findings, and effective and timely notice of such rights. As established by

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5838-669: The 1962 race for governor of California, he announced his retirement from politics. However, in 1968 , he made another run for the presidency and narrowly defeated the Democratic incumbent vice president Hubert Humphrey . Seeking to bring the North Vietnamese to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered military operations and carpet bombing campaigns in Cambodia. He ended American combat involvement in Vietnam in 1973 and

5977-477: The 1966 congressional elections in which he campaigned for many Republicans and sought to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide. Nixon was credited with helping Republicans win major electoral gains that year. In 1967, Nixon was approached by an associate at his firm in Leonard Garment about a case involving the press and perceived invasion of privacy. Garment suggested Nixon to argue on behalf of

6116-652: The Environmental Protection Agency and passed legislation such as the Endangered Species Act and the Clean Air Acts . He implemented the ratified Twenty-sixth Amendment , which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, and enforced the desegregation of Southern schools. Under Nixon, relations with Native Americans improved, seeing an increase in self-determination for Native Americans and his administration rescinded

6255-624: The Herter Committee , which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid. Nixon was the youngest member of the committee and the only Westerner. Advocacy by Herter Committee members, including Nixon, led to congressional passage of the Marshall Plan . In his memoirs, Nixon wrote that he joined the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) "at the end of 1947". However, he

6394-558: The Lochner era approach (c. 1897-1937) when substantive due process was used to strike down minimum wage and labor laws in order to protect freedom of contract . Since then, the Supreme Court has decided that numerous other freedoms that do not appear in the plain text of the Constitution are nevertheless protected by the Constitution. If these rights were not protected by the federal courts' doctrine of substantive due process, they could nevertheless be protected in other ways; for example, it

6533-801: The Tet Offensive was launched in January 1968. President Johnson withdrew as a candidate in March, after an unexpectedly poor showing in the New Hampshire primary. In June, Senator Robert F. Kennedy , a Democratic candidate, was assassinated just moments after his victory in the California primary. On the Republican side, Nixon's main opposition was Michigan governor George Romney , though New York governor Nelson Rockefeller and California governor Ronald Reagan each hoped to be nominated in

6672-666: The Yom Kippur War , a conflict which led to the oil crisis at home. From 1973, ongoing revelations from the Nixon administration's involvement in Watergate eroded his support in Congress and the country. The scandal began with a break-in at the Democratic National Committee office, ordered by administration officials, and escalated despite cover-up efforts by the Nixon administration, of which he

6811-408: The hippie counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators. Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right. Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras. He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender of the United States' nuclear superiority by

6950-696: The military draft the same year. His visit to China in 1972 eventually led to diplomatic relations between the two nations , and he then finalized the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union. Domestically, Nixon pushed for the Controlled Substances Act and began the war on drugs . Nixon's first term took place at the height of the American environmental movement and enacted many progressive environmental policy shifts; his administration created

7089-521: The termination policy . Nixon imposed wage and price controls for 90 days, began the war on cancer , and presided over the Apollo 11 Moon landing, which signaled the end of the Space Race . He was re-elected in 1972 , when he defeated George McGovern in one of the largest landslide victories in American history . In his second term, Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli materiel losses in

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7228-532: The " Pumpkin Papers ". Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers. In 1948, Nixon successfully cross-filed as a candidate in his district, winning both major party primaries, and was comfortably reelected. In 1949, Nixon began to consider running for the United States Senate against the Democratic incumbent, Sheridan Downey , and entered

7367-611: The 1873 Slaughter-House Cases as a reason why. Although the Slaughter-House Court did not expressly preclude application of the Bill of Rights to the states, the clause largely ceased to be invoked in opinions of the Court following the Slaughter-House Cases , and when incorporation did begin, it was under the rubric of due process. Scholars who share Justice Black's view, such as Akhil Amar , argue that

7506-514: The 36th vice president from 1953 to 1961 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower . His presidency saw the reduction of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War , détente with the Soviet Union and China , the Apollo 11 Moon landing, and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency and Occupational Safety and Health Administration . Nixon's second term ended early when he became

7645-822: The Bill of Rights to state governments; and equal protection under the laws of the federal government . The clause in the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides: No person shall ... be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. The clause in Section One of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides: ...nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. Clause 39 of Magna Carta provided: No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any other way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by

7784-533: The Bill of Rights have been deemed sufficiently fundamental to warrant enforcement against the states. Some people, such as Justice Black, have argued that the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment would be a more appropriate textual source for the incorporation doctrine. The Court has not taken that course, and some point to the treatment given to the Privileges or Immunities Clause in

7923-425: The Burger Court include: Although Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Reagan all criticized the rulings of the Warren Court and sought to appoint conservative justices, the legacy of the Warren Court remained strong throughout the 1970s. The Burger Court upheld many of the precedents of the Warren Court, even in regards to due process and criminal law. The latter era of the Warren Court was dominated by liberal justices, but

8062-479: The Constitution, and procedural due process regarding procedural rights enumerated elsewhere in the Constitution. Incorporation started in 1897 with a takings case, continued with Gitlow v. New York (1925), which was a First Amendment case, and accelerated in the 1940s and 1950s. Justice Hugo Black famously favored the jot-for-jot incorporation of the entire Bill of Rights. Justice Felix Frankfurter , however—joined later by Justice John M. Harlan —felt that

8201-411: The Democrats. Nixon's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President Hubert Humphrey , who was nominated at a convention marked by violent protests . Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during this period of national unrest and upheaval. He appealed to what he later called the " silent majority " of socially conservative Americans who disliked

8340-576: The Democrats. Nixon promised " peace with honor " in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific". He did not give specifics of how he hoped to end the war, resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret plan". His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective. Johnson's negotiators hoped to reach a truce in Vietnam, or at least

8479-565: The Eighth, expressly contemplates that a defendant may be tried for a ‘capital’ crime and 'deprived of life' as a penalty, so long as proper procedures are followed". The U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted the term "liberty" in the Due Process Clauses broadly: Although the Court has not assumed to define "liberty" with any great precision, that term is not confined to mere freedom from bodily restraint. Liberty under law extends to

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8618-599: The FBI's William C. Sullivan who by 1961 headed domestic intelligence under J. Edgar Hoover . By May 1948, Nixon had co-sponsored the Mundt–Nixon Bill to implement "a new approach to the complicated problem of internal communist subversion   ... It provided for registration of all Communist Party members and required a statement of the source of all printed and broadcast material issued by organizations that were found to be Communist fronts." He served as floor manager for

8757-499: The Fifth Amendment and another in the Fourteenth is too frivolous to require elaborate rejection. In 1855, the Supreme Court explained that, to ascertain whether a process is due process, the first step is to "examine the constitution itself, to see whether this process be in conflict with any of its provisions". In the same 1855 case, the Supreme Court said, The words, "due process of law", were undoubtedly intended to convey

8896-470: The Framers of the Fourteenth Amendment, like Senator Jacob Howard and Congressman John Bingham , included a Due Process Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment for the following reason: "By incorporating the rights of the Fifth Amendment, the privileges or immunities clause would ... have prevented states from depriving 'citizens' of due process. Bingham, Howard, and company wanted to go even further by extending

9035-538: The Hill family in Time, Inc. v. Hill at the Supreme Court of the United States . Nixon studied strenuously in the months prior to the oral argument before the Court. While the final decision was in favor of Time Inc., Nixon was encouraged by the praise he received for his argument. It was the first and only case he argued in front of the Supreme Court. At the end of 1967, Nixon told his family he planned to run for president

9174-482: The Navy, Nixon became a very good five-card stud poker player, helping finance his first congressional campaign with the winnings. In a 1983 interview, he described turning down an invitation to dine with Charles Lindbergh because he was hosting a game. Republicans in California's 12th congressional district were frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic representative Jerry Voorhis , and they sought

9313-640: The Nixon campaign suggesting that Douglas's voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman Vito Marcantonio , reputed to be a communist, and their political views must be nearly identical. Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points. During the campaign, Nixon was first called "Tricky Dick" by his opponents for his campaign tactics. In the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism , traveling frequently and speaking out against it. He maintained friendly relations with Joseph McCarthy , his fellow anti-communist , controversial U.S. Senate colleague from Wisconsin , but

9452-450: The President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate. Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the November 1956 election . In early 1957, Nixon undertook another foreign trip, this time to Africa. On his return, he helped shepherd the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress. The bill was weakened in the Senate, and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it. Nixon advised

9591-401: The President to sign the bill, which he did. Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957, and Nixon gave a press conference, assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower's brief illness. On April 27, 1958, Richard and Pat Nixon reluctantly embarked on a goodwill tour of South America . In Montevideo , Uruguay, Nixon made an impromptu visit to

9730-447: The Republican Party. On May 19, 1948, the bill passed the House by 319 to 58, but later it failed to pass the Senate. The Nixon Library cites this bill's passage as Nixon's first significant victory in Congress. Nixon first gained national attention in August 1948, when his persistence as a House Un-American Activities Committee member helped break the Alger Hiss spy case. While many doubted Whittaker Chambers 's allegations that Hiss,

9869-487: The Republican primaries and chose former Massachusetts senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate. His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy and the race remained close for the duration. Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower–Nixon administration had allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in quantity and quality of ballistic missiles . While Kennedy faced issues about his Catholicism, Nixon remained

10008-694: The Senate. Fortas's replacement, Harry Blackmun , was finally confirmed in 1970; the 391-day vacancy was the longest since the 1860s (this was eclipsed by the 419 days between the death of Antonin Scalia in February 2016 and the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch in April 2017). Black and Harlan both died in 1971, and Nixon replaced them with Lewis F. Powell, Jr. and William Rehnquist . Nixon considered Mildred Lillie for nomination, but according to former White House Counsel John Dean , Chief Justice Warren E. Burger

10147-593: The Vice President, congratulating me for winning the election. I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds. I also told him that I know exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to lose a close one ." Due Process Clause A Due Process Clause is found in both the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution , which prohibit

10286-414: The Whittier police chief, but they broke up in 1935. After graduating summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history from Whittier in 1934, Nixon was accepted at the new Duke University School of Law , which offered scholarships to top students, including Nixon. It paid high salaries to its professors, many of whom had national or international reputations. The number of scholarships

10425-463: The accused be an officer of the State. It is enough that he is a willful participant in joint activity with the State or its agents". Procedural due process requires government officials to follow fair procedures before depriving a person of life , liberty , or property . When the government seeks to deprive a person of one of those interests, procedural due process requires the government to afford

10564-653: The base of all our civil and political institutions, and the greatest security for which resides in the right of the people to make their own laws, and alter them at their pleasure. Due process also applies to the creation of taxing districts, as taxation is a deprivation of property. Due process typically requires public hearings prior to the creation of a taxing district. Due process applies to U.S. territories, although they are not States. The Due Process Clauses apply to both natural persons, including citizens and non-citizens, as well as to "legal persons" (that is, corporate personhood ). The Fifth Amendment's Due Process Clause

10703-506: The benefits of state due process to aliens." The Supreme Court has consistently held that Fifth Amendment due process means substantially the same as Fourteenth Amendment due process, and therefore the original meaning of the former is relevant to the incorporation doctrine of the latter. When the Bill of Rights was originally proposed by Congress in 1789 to the states, various substantive and procedural rights were "classed according to their affinity to each other" instead of being submitted to

10842-453: The center and eventually the left, allowing liberals to claim more victories as the 1970s continued. However, the conservatives on the court were strengthened in 1981 when Stewart was replaced by the more conservative O'Connor, who was also the first female justice. Nonetheless, Justice Brennan was often credited for winning the votes of the more centrist judges, especially Stevens, with his intellectual leadership. The large number of moderates on

10981-496: The court and the resulting decisions gave the court a paradoxical reputation for being both conservative and liberal. Although Burger was often overshadowed by the intellectual leadership of Brennan and Rehnquist, he earned a reputation as important judicial administrator who helped to create institutions such as the National Center for State Courts . Burger also often questioned the need for a judicial remedy in cases; Burger

11120-414: The court shifted to the right early in 1969, following Nixon's appointments. Brennan and Marshall generally took liberal positions, while Stevens (after he replaced the liberal Douglas in 1975), Stewart, and White often took centrist positions, and Rehnquist, Burger, and (to a lesser extent) Powell made up the conservative bloc of the court. During his time on the court, Blackmun shifted from the right towards

11259-581: The defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career. In an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election, Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference." The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of Howard K. Smith 's ABC News show, Howard K. Smith: News and Comment , titled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon". Alger Hiss appeared on

11398-405: The deprivation of "life, liberty, or property" by the federal and state governments, respectively, without due process of law. The U.S. Supreme Court interprets these clauses to guarantee a variety of protections: procedural due process (in civil and criminal proceedings); substantive due process (a guarantee of some fundamental rights); a prohibition against vague laws ; incorporation of

11537-471: The district court and upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in Vitek v. Jones , these due process rights include: By the middle of the 19th century, "due process of law" was interpreted by the U.S. Supreme Court to mean that "it was not left to the legislative power to enact any process which might be devised. The due process article is a restraint on the legislative as well as on the executive and judicial powers of

11676-573: The election, with Kennedy winning the popular vote by only 112,827 votes (0.2 percent). There were charges of voter fraud in Texas and Illinois, both states won by Kennedy. Nixon refused to consider contesting the election, feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world and that the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests. At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote

11815-575: The federal courts should only apply those sections of the Bill of Rights that were "fundamental to a scheme of ordered liberty". It was the latter course that the Warren Court of the 1960s took, although almost all of the Bill of Rights has now been incorporated jot-for-jot against the states. The latest Incorporation is the Excessive Fines Clause of the Eighth Amendment ; see Timbs v. Indiana , 586 U.S. ____ (2019). The role of

11954-506: The five Nixon boys were named after historic British kings; Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart . Nixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he later quoted Dwight Eisenhower in describing his boyhood: "We were poor, but the glory of it was we didn't know it". The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the family moved to Whittier, California . In an area of East Whittier with many Quakers, Frank Nixon opened

12093-440: The full range of conduct which the individual is free to pursue, and it cannot be restricted except for a proper governmental objective. The prohibitions of the due process clauses apply only to the actions of state actors and not against private citizens. However, "[p]rivate persons, jointly engaged with state officials in the prohibited action, are acting 'under color' of law.... To act 'under color' of law does not require that

12232-433: The government, and cannot be so construed as to leave Congress free to make any process 'due process of law' by its mere will." The term "substantive due process" (SDP) is commonly used in two ways: first to identify a particular line of case law, and second to signify a particular attitude toward judicial review under the Due Process Clause. The term "substantive due process" began to take form in 1930s legal casebooks as

12371-414: The high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power". His spirits buoyed, Nixon sought a second term, but some of Eisenhower's aides aimed to displace him. In a December 1955 meeting, Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration, to give him administrative experience before

12510-431: The incorporation doctrine in applying the guarantees of the Bill of Rights to the states is just as notable as the use of due process to define new fundamental rights that are not explicitly guaranteed by the Constitution's text. In both cases, the question has been whether the right asserted is "fundamental", so that, just as not all proposed "new" constitutional rights are afforded judicial recognition, not all provisions of

12649-493: The invasion of them is resisted by able advocates, yet their Magna Carta does not contain any one provision for the security of those rights, respecting which the people of America are most alarmed. The Supreme Court has interpreted the Due Process Clauses in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendment identically, as Justice Felix Frankfurter once explained in a concurring opinion: To suppose that 'due process of law' meant one thing in

12788-637: The last minute due to budget cuts. He was admitted to the California bar in 1937, and began practicing in Whittier with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in the National Bank of Whittier Building . His work concentrated on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters, as well as on wills . Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases, disliking frank sexual talk from women. In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra, California , and became

12927-475: The lawful judgment of his equals or by the law of the land. The phrase "due process of law" first appeared in a statutory rendition of Magna Carta in 1354 during the reign of Edward III of England , as follows: No man of what state or condition he be, shall be put out of his lands or tenements nor taken (taken to mean arrested or deprived of liberty by the state), nor disinherited, nor put to death, without he be brought to answer by due process of law. New York

13066-417: The leaders. Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio, Governor Alfred Driscoll of New Jersey, and Senator Everett Dirksen of Illinois. On the campaign trail, Eisenhower spoke of his plans for the country, and left the negative campaigning to his running mate . In mid-September, the Republican ticket faced a major crisis when the media reported that Nixon had

13205-617: The loading and unloading of the transport aircraft. For this service, he received a Navy Letter of Commendation , awarded a Navy Commendation Ribbon, which was later updated to the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal , from his commanding officer for "meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command". Upon his return to the U.S., Nixon

13344-432: The major precedents set by the Warren Court. In 1969, President Richard Nixon appointed Warren E. Burger as the replacement for the retiring Earl Warren . Warren had attempted to retire in 1968, but President Lyndon B. Johnson 's nomination of Associate Justice Abe Fortas as Chief Justice was successfully filibustered by Senate Republicans. Fortas resigned from the court in 1969 following an ethics scandal, and Burger

13483-495: The more politically accountable branches of government. Courts have viewed the due process clause, and sometimes other clauses of the Constitution, as embracing those fundamental rights that are "implicit in the concept of ordered liberty". Just what those rights are is not always clear, nor is the Supreme Court's authority to enforce such unenumerated rights clear. Some of those rights have long histories or "are deeply rooted" in American society. The courts have largely abandoned

13622-404: The most minor deprivations would bring the machinery of government to a halt. The Court set out the test as follows: "[I]dentification of the specific dictates of due process generally requires consideration of three distinct factors: first, the private interest that will be affected by the official action; second, the risk of an erroneous deprivation of such interest through the procedures used, and

13761-423: The nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce him at the convention. Nixon felt that Goldwater was unlikely to win, but campaigned for him loyally. In the 1964 general election , Goldwater lost in a landslide to Johnson and Republicans experienced heavy losses in Congress and among state governors. Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and he sought to build on that in

13900-606: The only U.S. president to resign from office, as a result of the Watergate scandal . Nixon was born into a poor family of Quakers in Yorba Linda , Southern California . He graduated from Duke Law School in 1937, practiced law in California, and then moved with his wife Pat to Washington, D.C. , in 1942 to work for the federal government . After serving active duty in the Naval Reserve during World War II , he

14039-461: The person, at minimum, notice, an opportunity to be heard, and a decision made by a neutral decisionmaker. This protection extends to all government proceedings that can result in an individual's deprivation, whether civil or criminal in nature, from parole violation hearings to administrative hearings regarding government benefits and entitlements to full-blown criminal trials. The article "Some Kind of Hearing" written by Judge Henry Friendly created

14178-426: The position of Chief Justice by President Reagan. Rehnquist's Associate Justice seat was filled by Antonin Scalia. Presidents during this court included Richard Nixon , Gerald Ford , Jimmy Carter , and Ronald Reagan . Congresses during this court included 91st through the 99th United States Congresses. The Burger Court issued several notable rulings touching on many aspects of American life. Landmark cases of

14317-485: The position throughout the latter part of 1941. Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier. He was assigned to the tire rationing division, where he was tasked with replying to correspondence. He did not enjoy the role, and four months later applied to join the United States Navy . Though he could have claimed an exemption from the draft as a birthright Quaker, or

14456-584: The president's initiatives and worked energetically to accomplish White House objectives. Because of the collaboration between these two leaders, Nixon deserves the title, "the first modern vice president". Despite intense campaigning by Nixon, who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1954 elections . These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term. On September 24, 1955, President Eisenhower suffered

14595-463: The probable value, if any, of additional or substitute procedural safeguards; and, finally, the Government's interest, including the function involved and the fiscal and administrative burdens that the additional or substitute procedural requirement would entail." Procedural due process has also been an important factor in the development of the law of personal jurisdiction , in the sense that it

14734-422: The program, and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to give a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president. The furor drove Smith and his program from the air, and public sympathy for Nixon grew. In 1963 the Nixon family traveled to Europe, where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited. The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became

14873-415: The race in November. Downey, faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas , announced his retirement in March 1950. Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing Korean War was a major issue. Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas's liberal voting record. As part of that effort, a " Pink Sheet " was distributed by

15012-476: The same meaning as the words, " by the law of the land ", in Magna Charta. In the 1884 case of Hurtado v. California , the Court said: Due process of law in the [Fourteenth Amendment] refers to that law of the land ... in each state which derives its authority from the inherent and reserved powers of the state, exerted within the limits of those fundamental principles of liberty and justice which lie at

15151-517: The states "as a single act to be adopted or rejected in the gross", as James Madison put it. Roger Sherman explained in 1789 that each amendment "may be passed upon distinctly by the States, and any one that is adopted by three fourths of the legislatures may become a part of the Constitution". Thus, the states were allowed to reject the Sixth Amendment, for example, while ratifying all of

15290-459: The ticket was victorious in the November election . Eisenhower granted Nixon more responsibilities during his term than any previous vice president. Nixon attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings and chaired them in Eisenhower's absence. A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States, and gave Nixon an appreciation of the region as

15429-415: The traditions and conscience of our people as to be ranked as fundamental". As construed by the courts, it includes an individual's right to be adequately notified of charges or proceedings, the opportunity to be heard at these proceedings, and that the person or panel making the final decision over the proceedings be impartial in regards to the matter before them. To put it more simply, where an individual

15568-560: The trip, Nixon claimed there was "absolute proof that [the protestors] were directed and controlled by a central Communist conspiracy." Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother, Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles , both concurred with Nixon. In July 1959, President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow. On July 24, Nixon

15707-537: The war. Perry wrote to Nixon in Baltimore , and after a night of excited conversation with his wife, Nixon gave Perry an enthused response, confirming that he was registered to vote in California at his parents' Whittier residence. Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee. When he left the Navy at the start of 1946, Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier, where he began a year of intensive campaigning. He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as

15846-451: The week. He played junior varsity football, and seldom missed a practice, though he rarely was used in games. He had greater success as a debater, winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton's Head of English, H. Lynn Sheller. Nixon later mused on Sheller's words, "Remember, speaking is conversation...don't shout at people. Talk to them. Converse with them." Nixon said he tried to use

15985-468: Was a Quaker , and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith. Through his mother, Nixon was a descendant of the early English settler Thomas Cornell . Nixon's upbringing was influenced by Quaker observances of the time such as abstinence from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. He had four brothers: Harold (1909–1933), Donald (1914–1987), Arthur (1918–1925), and Edward (1930– 2019). Four of

16124-457: Was a strong believer that courts could not cure all injustices, and Burger was not reluctant to limit the standing of plaintiffs. Law professor Michael J. Graetz and court journalist Linda Greenhouse characterize the Burger Court as conservative in many respects, handing down rulings that undermined Brown v. Board of Education and other liberal precedents of the Warren Court. More prosaically, publisher Larry Flynt , whose magazine Hustler

16263-632: Was already a HUAC member in early February 1947, when he heard "Enemy Number One" Gerhard Eisler and his sister Ruth Fischer testify. On February 18, 1947, Nixon referred to Eisler's belligerence toward HUAC in his maiden speech to the House. Also by early February 1947, fellow U.S. Representative Charles J. Kersten had introduced him to Father John Francis Cronin in Baltimore. Cronin shared with Nixon his 1945 privately circulated paper "The Problem of American Communism in 1945", with much information from

16402-726: Was appointed the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station in Alameda, California . In January 1945, he was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics office in Philadelphia , where he helped negotiate the termination of World War II contracts, and received his second letter of commendation, from the Secretary of the Navy for "meritorious service, tireless effort, and devotion to duty". Later, Nixon

16541-682: Was assigned to Marine Aircraft Group 25 and the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command (SCAT), where he supported the logistics of operations in the South Pacific theater during World War II . On October 1, 1943, Nixon was promoted to lieutenant . Nixon commanded the SCAT forward detachments at Vella Lavella , Bougainville , and finally at Nissan Island . His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for R4D/C-47 operations and supervised

16680-411: Was aware. On August 9, 1974, facing almost certain impeachment and removal from office, Nixon resigned. Afterward, he was issued a controversial pardon by his successor, Gerald Ford . During nearly 20 years of retirement, Nixon wrote nine books and undertook many foreign trips, rehabilitating his image into that of an elder statesman and leading expert on foreign affairs. On April 18, 1994, he suffered

16819-529: Was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy's allegations. Nixon criticized President Harry S. Truman 's handling of the Korean War . He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii , voted in favor of civil rights for minorities, and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia . He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions, benefits for illegal immigrants, and public power. General Dwight D. Eisenhower

16958-457: Was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping stone for another presidential run, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor. Nixon hoped a successful run would confirm his status as the nation's leading active Republican politician, and ensure he remained a major player in national politics. Instead, he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points, and

17097-440: Was deeply opposed to the idea of a woman on the court at the time. Burger threatened to resign over the nomination, and Nixon chose to nominate Lewis Powell rather than Lillie. In November 1975, Douglas retired after 36 years of service. He suffered a debilitating stroke on the last day of 1974 and was unable to return to the Court full-time. President Gerald Ford , who had led an impeachment inquiry against Douglas in 1970 when he

17236-401: Was diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year; when their mother took him to Arizona hoping to improve his health, the demands on Nixon increased, causing him to give up football. Nevertheless, Nixon graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207. Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend Harvard University , but with Harold's continued illness requiring his mother's care, Richard

17375-490: Was easily confirmed the next month. The Burger Court thus began on June 23, 1969, with Burger and seven veterans of the Warren Court : Hugo Black , William O. Douglas , John Marshall Harlan II , William J. Brennan, Jr. , Potter Stewart , Byron White , and Thurgood Marshall . Nixon attempted to fill Fortas's vacant seat, but Nixon's nominations of Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell were both voted down by

17514-665: Was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 . His work on the Alger Hiss case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist . In 1950 , he was elected to the Senate . Nixon was the running mate of Eisenhower, the Republican Party's presidential nominee in the 1952 election , and served for eight years as vice president. He narrowly lost the 1960 presidential election to John F. Kennedy . After his loss in

17653-558: Was first applied to corporations in 1893 by the Supreme Court in Noble v. Union River Logging R. Co. Noble was preceded by Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad in 1886. The Due Process Clauses apply to non-citizens within the United States – no matter whether their presence may be or is "unlawful, involuntary or transitory" – although the U.S. Supreme Court has recognized that non-citizens can be stopped, detained, and denied past immigration officials at points of entry (e.g. at

17792-515: Was found in what the Court called the " penumbras ", or shadowy edges, of certain amendments that arguably refer to certain privacy rights. The penumbra-based rationale of Griswold has since been discarded; the Supreme Court now uses the Due Process Clause as a basis for various unenumerated privacy rights. Although it has never been the majority view, some have argued that the Ninth Amendment (addressing unenumerated rights) could be used as

17931-742: Was greatly reduced for second- and third-year students, creating intense competition. Nixon kept his scholarship, was elected president of the Duke Bar Association, inducted into the Order of the Coif , and graduated third in his class in June 1937. After graduating from Duke, Nixon initially hoped to join the FBI . He received no response to his letter of application, and learned years later that he had been hired, but his appointment had been canceled at

18070-400: Was heard by about 60 million Americans, which represented the largest audience ever for a television broadcast at that point. In the speech, Nixon emotionally defended himself, stating that the fund was not secret and that his donors had not received special favors. He painted himself as a patriot and man of modest means, mentioning that his wife had no mink coat; instead, he said, she wore

18209-423: Was needed at the store. He remained in his hometown, and enrolled at Whittier College in September 1930. His expenses were met by his maternal grandfather. Nixon played for the basketball team; he also tried out for football, and though he lacked the size to play, he remained on the team as a substitute and was noted for his enthusiasm. Instead of fraternities and sororities, Whittier had literary societies. Nixon

18348-482: Was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952. He had no strong preference for a vice-presidential candidate, and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a " smoke-filled room " and recommended Nixon to the general, who agreed to the senator's selection. Nixon's youth (he was then 39), stance against communism, and political base in California—one of the largest states—were all seen as vote-winners by

18487-574: Was president of his eighth-grade class. His older brother Harold had attended Whittier High School , which his parents thought resulted in Harold's dissolute lifestyle, before he contracted tuberculosis (that killed him in 1933). They decided to send Nixon to the larger Fullerton Union High School . Though he had to ride a school bus an hour each way during his freshman year, he attained excellent grades. Later, he lived with an aunt in Fullerton during

18626-530: Was snubbed by the only one for men, the Franklins, many of whom were from prominent families, unlike Nixon. He responded by helping to found a new society, the Orthogonian Society. In addition to the society, his studies, and work at the store, Nixon engaged in several extracurricular activities; he was a champion debater and hard worker. In 1933, he was engaged to Ola Florence Welch, daughter of

18765-485: Was the House Republican Leader, appointed John Paul Stevens to replace him. In July 1981, Stewart retired, and President Ronald Reagan appointed Sandra Day O'Connor to replace him. O'Connor was the first woman to serve on the Supreme Court. The Burger Court ended on September 26, 1986, when Chief Justice Burger retired. He was succeeded as Chief Justice by William Rehnquist, who was elevated to

18904-435: Was the only state that asked Congress to add "due process" language to the U.S. Constitution. New York ratified the U.S. Constitution and proposed the following amendment in 1788: [N]o Person ought to be taken imprisoned or disseized of his freehold, or be exiled or deprived of his Privileges, Franchises, Life, Liberty or Property but by due process of Law. In response to this proposal from New York, James Madison drafted

19043-504: Was the subject of litigation in 1984, characterized the Burger Court as "nothing but eight assholes and a token cunt". Richard Nixon Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States , serving from 1969 until his resignation in 1974. A member of the Republican Party , he previously served as a representative and senator from California and as

19182-425: Was touring the exhibits with Soviet first secretary and premier Nikita Khrushchev when the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the " Kitchen Debate ". In 1960, Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States, officially announcing on January 9, 1960. He faced little opposition in

19321-488: Was transferred to other offices to work on contracts, and he moved from the Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. to Philadelphia, New York and finally to Baltimore. On October 3, 1945, he was promoted to lieutenant commander . On March 10, 1946, he was relieved of active duty. On June 1, 1953, he was promoted to commander in the U.S. Naval Reserve, and he retired from the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 6, 1966. While in

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