117-455: Burushaski ( / ˌ b ʊr ʊ ˈ ʃ æ s k i / ; Burushaski : بُرُݸشَسکݵ , romanized: burúśaski , IPA: [bʊˈruːɕʌskiː] ) is a language isolate , spoken by the Burusho people , who predominantly reside in northern Gilgit-Baltistan , Pakistan . There are also a few hundred speakers of this language in northern Jammu and Kashmir , India . In Pakistan, Burushaski
234-513: A Kashmiri way of speaking the language. The Srinagar variety of Burushaski has only 300 speakers. Burushaski primarily has five vowels, /i e a o u/. There are two sets of long vowels, distinguished by whether it's the first or the second mora that bears a stress or higher pitch. Various contractions result in long vowels; stressed vowels (marked with acute accents in Berger's transcription) tend to be longer and less "open" than unstressed ones ( [i e
351-637: A colony of Srinagar built by him. The Muslim rulers that came after him established their capitals in areas of present-day old city Srinagar. During the rule of the Sultans, the city became synonymous with the Kashmir valley, and 'Srinagar' fell into disuse as a name for it. During the rule of Qutbuddin, Islamic preacher Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani visited the valley and established his seat of preaching in Srinagar. Sultan Sikandar Shahmiri (1389–1413 CE) built
468-1379: A consonant with the letter round he ( ھ ) that represent aspirated consonants that occur in Burushaski. Below tables show how vowels are written in different parts of the word. Below poetry, written in praise of University of Karachi for its role in documentation and preservation of Burushaski language and literature, is presented as a sample text in Burushaski Arabic alphabet, alongside Urdu and English translation of each verse. ذاتِ خدا یَکُ ڎُم کھݸت بݺ اکھݵݽ رَحمتَن جامعهٔ کراچی میر اݹدِکِھرَس نِعمَتَن جامعهٔ کراچی میر تازہ جَہانَن بِلݳ چشمِ بصیرت پُھٹ اݺ عَقَلݺ نِشانَن بِلݳ رَبِّ تَعالیٰ کرم! علم و ادب بُٹ اُیَم! اَلتݸ جَہانِݣ ݽِقَم! شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! علم و ادبݺ صاحِبان، فضل و ہُنرݺ کامِلان! اُیون کݺ اُیون دوستان! شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! جامِعَه کُڎ نامدار، اسپِ قلَمݺ شَہسَوار علم و ادبݺ تاجدار شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! جامِعَه آبِ حیات مَعَلِّمِین اُبون باغبان شگِرِشݸ ڞا ݽِقَم بَسݵݣ شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! تازہ گلابݺ نَس اُیَم، دوستیݺ تھݸمَلݺ تَھس اُیَم قَلَم گیݸ شان کݺ ہَس اُیَم شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! یَرمݸ ہݸئیلتَرڎ نصیر! جامِعه گمَنا بݵیَم؟ تِک نُمݳ سݵن تِل اَکول شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! Burushaski
585-1248: A consonant with the letter round he ( ھ ) that represent aspirated consonants that occur in Burushaski. Below tables show how vowels are written in different parts of the word. Below poetry, written in praise of University of Karachi for its role in documentation and preservation of Burushaski language and literature, is presented as a sample text in Burushaski Arabic alphabet, alongside Urdu and English translation of each verse. ذاتِ خدا یَکُ ڎُم کھݸت بݺ اکھݵݽ رَحمتَن جامعهٔ کراچی میر اݹدِکِھرَس نِعمَتَن جامعهٔ کراچی میر تازہ جَہانَن بِلݳ چشمِ بصیرت پُھٹ اݺ عَقَلݺ نِشانَن بِلݳ رَبِّ تَعالیٰ کرم! علم و ادب بُٹ اُیَم! اَلتݸ جَہانِݣ ݽِقَم! شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! علم و ادبݺ صاحِبان، فضل و ہُنرݺ کامِلان! اُیون کݺ اُیون دوستان! شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! جامِعَه کُڎ نامدار، اسپِ قلَمݺ شَہسَوار علم و ادبݺ تاجدار شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! جامِعَه آبِ حیات مَعَلِّمِین اُبون باغبان شگِرِشݸ ڞا ݽِقَم بَسݵݣ شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! تازہ گلابݺ نَس اُیَم، دوستیݺ تھݸمَلݺ تَھس اُیَم قَلَم گیݸ شان کݺ ہَس اُیَم شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! یَرمݸ ہݸئیلتَرڎ نصیر! جامِعه گمَنا بݵیَم؟ تِک نُمݳ سݵن تِل اَکول شُکرݸ مَنِݽ یا خدا! Burushaski
702-568: A few other words). Berger (1998) finds the following consonants to be phonemic , shown below in the IPA and in his romanization scheme: Notes: Burushaski is predominantly a spoken rather than a written language. One of the earliest examples of modern Burushaski literature was the poetry written by Prof. Allamah Nasiruddin Nasir Hunzai in the 1940s. He began by using the Urdu alphabet to write
819-409: A few other words). Berger (1998) finds the following consonants to be phonemic , shown below in the IPA and in his romanization scheme: Notes: Burushaski is predominantly a spoken rather than a written language. One of the earliest examples of modern Burushaski literature was the poetry written by Prof. Allamah Nasiruddin Nasir Hunzai in the 1940s. He began by using the Urdu alphabet to write
936-598: A metro system in the city. The feasibility report for the Srinagar Metro is planned to be carried out by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation . In December 2013, the 594m cable car allowing people to travel to the shrine of the Sufi saint Hamza Makhdoom on Hari Parbat was unveiled. The project is run by the Jammu and Kashmir Cable Car Corporation (JKCCC), and has been envisioned for 25 years. An investment of 300 million INR
1053-576: A newly constructed 11 km long Banihal tunnel, and subsequently to the Indian railway network after a few years. It takes approximately 9 minutes and 30 seconds for a train to cross the tunnel. It is the longest rail tunnel in India. This railway system, proposed in 2001, is not expected to connect the Indian railway network until 2017 at the earliest, with a cost overrun of 55 billion INR. The train also runs during heavy snow. There are proposals to develop
1170-445: A o u] as opposed to [ɪ ɛ ʌ ɔ ʊ] ). Some have described this as an intentional utterance of a rising tone or a falling tone. For example, a word óosanam اوسَنَم ‘i made them say’ has a falling tone and the stress is on first mora. Another word, oósanam اݹسَنَم ‘i did not say’ has a rising tone and stress is on the second mora. Long vowels only ever appear in stressed syllables, and will thus carry one tone or
1287-444: A o u] as opposed to [ɪ ɛ ʌ ɔ ʊ] ). Some have described this as an intentional utterance of a rising tone or a falling tone. For example, a word óosanam اوسَنَم ‘i made them say’ has a falling tone and the stress is on first mora. Another word, oósanam اݹسَنَم ‘i did not say’ has a rising tone and stress is on the second mora. Long vowels only ever appear in stressed syllables, and will thus carry one tone or
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#17327726272421404-581: A part of those laid by the Mughal emperors across the Indian subcontinent. Those of Srinagar and its close vicinity include Chashma Shahi (the royal fountains); Pari Mahal (the palace of the fairies); Nishat Bagh (the garden of spring); Shalimar Bagh ; the Naseem Bagh. Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Botanical Garden is a botanical garden in the city, set up in 1969. The Indian government has included these gardens under "Mughal Gardens of Jammu and Kashmir" in
1521-404: A popular tourist destination among Europeans and Indian elites during this time, with several hotels and its iconic houseboats being built. In 1952, the city became the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir , a region administered by India as a state, with Jammu being its winter capital. It was the flashpoint of violence during the 1990s and early 2000s insurgency in the region. In 2019, it became
1638-469: A rule uncountable abstractions or mass nouns, such as rice, fire, water, snow, wool, etc. However, these rules are not universal – countable objects in the y-class are sometimes encountered, e.g. ha , 'house'. Related words can subtly change their meanings when used in different classes – for example, bayú , when a member of the x-class, means salt in clumps, but when in the y-class, it means powdered salt. Fruit trees are understood collectively and placed in
1755-469: A rule uncountable abstractions or mass nouns, such as rice, fire, water, snow, wool, etc. However, these rules are not universal – countable objects in the y-class are sometimes encountered, e.g. ha , 'house'. Related words can subtly change their meanings when used in different classes – for example, bayú , when a member of the x-class, means salt in clumps, but when in the y-class, it means powdered salt. Fruit trees are understood collectively and placed in
1872-501: A unique plural suffix, whose form depends on the class of the noun they modify, e.g. burúm 'white' gives the x-class plural burum-išo and the y-class plural burúm-ing . Examples of pluralisation in Burushaski: Burushaski is an ergative language. It has five primary cases . The case suffixes are appended to the plural suffix, e.g. Huséiniukutse , 'the people of Hussein' (ergative plural). The genitive ending
1989-426: A unique plural suffix, whose form depends on the class of the noun they modify, e.g. burúm 'white' gives the x-class plural burum-išo and the y-class plural burúm-ing . Examples of pluralisation in Burushaski: Burushaski is an ergative language. It has five primary cases . The case suffixes are appended to the plural suffix, e.g. Huséiniukutse , 'the people of Hussein' (ergative plural). The genitive ending
2106-747: Is 14 km (8.7 mi) north of Srinagar, and is a world class wetland spread over 13.75 km (5.31 sq mi) including lake and marshy area . It is the most accessible and well-known of Kashmir's wetlands which include Hygam, Shalibug and Mirgund. A record number of migratory birds have visited Hokersar in recent years. Birds found in Hokersar are migratory ducks and geese which include brahminy duck , tufted duck , gadwall , garganey , greylag goose , mallard , common merganser , northern pintail , common pochard , ferruginous pochard , red-crested pochard , ruddy shelduck , northern shoveller , common teal , and Eurasian wigeon . Under
2223-657: Is Islam with 96% of the population being Muslim. Hindus constitute the second largest religious group representing 2.75% of the population. The remaining population constitutes Sikhs, Buddhist and Jains. Kashmiri Hindus constituted 21.9% of Srinagar's population as per 1891 census and 2.75% as per 2011 census. The city is served by many highways, including National Highway 1A and National Highway 1D . Sheikh ul-Alam International Airport has regular domestic flights to Leh , Jammu , Chandigarh , Delhi and Mumbai and occasional international flights. An expanded terminal capable of handling both domestic and international flights
2340-559: Is a double-marking language and word order is generally subject–object–verb . Nouns in Burushaski are divided into four genders : human masculine, human feminine, countable objects, and uncountable ones (similar to mass nouns ). The assignment of a noun to a particular gender is largely predictable. Some words can belong both to the countable and to the uncountable class, producing differences in meaning. For example, when countable, báalt means 'apple' but when uncountable, it means 'apple tree' (Grune 1998). Noun morphology consists of
2457-559: Is a double-marking language and word order is generally subject–object–verb . Nouns in Burushaski are divided into four genders : human masculine, human feminine, countable objects, and uncountable ones (similar to mass nouns ). The assignment of a noun to a particular gender is largely predictable. Some words can belong both to the countable and to the uncountable class, producing differences in meaning. For example, when countable, báalt means 'apple' but when uncountable, it means 'apple tree' (Grune 1998). Noun morphology consists of
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#17327726272422574-733: Is a very voluminous Buddhist tantra of the 'Ancient' ( rNying ma ) school of Tibetan Buddhism, preserved in Tibetan as the mDo dgongs 'dus , which has been the subject of numerous Tibetological publications, including a recent monograph by Jacob P. Dalton, The Gathering of Intentions , which is supposed to be translated from the Burushaski ( bru zha'i skad ). It contains words that are not Sanskrit but which have not, thus far, been demonstrated satisfactorily to be relatable either to Burushaski, or to any other language (or, for that matter, to be purely "elfic" ). If at least part of this text had actually been translated from Burushaski, it would make it one of
2691-675: Is a very voluminous Buddhist tantra of the 'Ancient' ( rNying ma ) school of Tibetan Buddhism, preserved in Tibetan as the mDo dgongs 'dus , which has been the subject of numerous Tibetological publications, including a recent monograph by Jacob P. Dalton, The Gathering of Intentions , which is supposed to be translated from the Burushaski ( bru zha'i skad ). It contains words that are not Sanskrit but which have not, thus far, been demonstrated satisfactorily to be relatable either to Burushaski, or to any other language (or, for that matter, to be purely "elfic"). If at least part of this text had actually been translated from Burushaski, it would make it one of
2808-405: Is a wetland situated near Srinagar. Thousands of migratory birds come to Hokersar from Siberia and other regions in the winter season. Migratory birds from Siberia and Central Asia use wetlands in Kashmir as their transitory camps between September and October and again around spring. These wetlands play a vital role in sustaining a large population of wintering, staging and breeding birds. Hokersar
2925-499: Is also broadcast. The city is home to the Sher-i-Kashmir Stadium , where international cricket matches have been played. The first international match was played in 1983 in which West Indies defeated India and the last international match was played in 1986 in which Australia defeated India by six wickets. Since then no international matches have been played in the stadium due to the security situation (although
3042-618: Is generally believed that the language was spoken in a much wider area in the past. It is also known as Werchikwar and Miśa:ski . Attempts have been made to establish links between Burushaski and several different language families, although none has been accepted by a majority of linguists . Some hypotheses posit a genealogical relationship between Burushaski and the North Caucasian languages , Kartvelian languages , Yeniseian languages and/or Indo-European languages , usually in proposed macrofamilies : Blench (2008) notes that
3159-552: Is generally believed that the language was spoken in a much wider area in the past. It is also known as Werchikwar and Miśa:ski . Attempts have been made to establish links between Burushaski and several different language families, although none has been accepted by a majority of linguists . Some hypotheses posit a genealogical relationship between Burushaski and the North Caucasian languages , Kartvelian languages , Yeniseian languages and/or Indo-European languages , usually in proposed macrofamilies : Blench (2008) notes that
3276-481: Is irregular, /mo/, for singular f-class nouns, but /-e/ in all others (identical to the ergative ending). The dative ending, /-ar/, /-r/ is attached to the genitive ending for singular f-class nouns, but to the stem for all others. Examples: The genitive is placed before the thing possessed: Hunzue tham , 'the Emir of Hunza.' The endings of the secondary cases are formed from a secondary case suffix (or infix) and one of
3393-430: Is irregular, /mo/, for singular f-class nouns, but /-e/ in all others (identical to the ergative ending). The dative ending, /-ar/, /-r/ is attached to the genitive ending for singular f-class nouns, but to the stem for all others. Examples: The genitive is placed before the thing possessed: Hunzue tham , 'the Emir of Hunza.' The endings of the secondary cases are formed from a secondary case suffix (or infix) and one of
3510-512: Is one of several places that have been called the " Venice of the East ". Lakes around the city include Dal Lake – noted for its houseboats – and Nigeen Lake . Apart from Dal Lake and Nigeen Lake, Wular Lake and Manasbal Lake both lie to the north of Srinagar. Wular Lake is one of the largest fresh water lakes in Asia. Srinagar has some Mughal gardens , forming
3627-475: Is said to have halved the city's population. Consequently, due to the famine and forced labour in the villages, a considerable number of people migrated to Srinagar. The Darbar Move was introduced in 1872 by Ranbir Singh , whereby the capital moved to Jammu for six months during the winter albeit later phased down by Hari Singh who "fixed his headquarters permanently at Jammu". The Ministers and Heads of Departments continued to followed it, nevertheless, it
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3744-496: Is sometimes considered a distinct language and thought to be the "pure" or "original" Burushaski by the speakers of Yasin valley itself. Yasin is the least affected by contact with neighboring languages , though speakers are bilingual in Khowar . Yasin is spoken by a quarter of Burushaski speakers. In India , Jammu & Kashmir Burushaski (JKB) "has developed divergent linguistic features which make it systematically different from
3861-442: Is sometimes considered a distinct language and thought to be the "pure" or "original" Burushaski by the speakers of Yasin valley itself. Yasin is the least affected by contact with neighboring languages , though speakers are bilingual in Khowar . Yasin is spoken by a quarter of Burushaski speakers. In India , Jammu & Kashmir Burushaski (JKB) "has developed divergent linguistic features which make it systematically different from
3978-531: Is spoken by about 120,000 speakers in Pakistan, and also by a few hundred in India. In Pakistan, it is spoken in three main valleys: Yasin , Hunza , and Nagar . The varieties of Hunza and Nagar diverge slightly, but are clearly dialects of a single language. The Yasin variety, also known by the Khowar exonym Werchikwar , is much more divergent. Intelligibility between Yasin and Hunza-Nagar is difficult, and Yasin
4095-421: Is spoken by about 120,000 speakers in Pakistan, and also by a few hundred in India. In Pakistan, it is spoken in three main valleys: Yasin , Hunza , and Nagar . The varieties of Hunza and Nagar diverge slightly, but are clearly dialects of a single language. The Yasin variety, also known by the Khowar exonym Werchikwar , is much more divergent. Intelligibility between Yasin and Hunza-Nagar is difficult, and Yasin
4212-969: Is spoken by people in the Hunza District , the Nagar District , the northern Gilgit District , the Yasin Valley in the Gupis-Yasin District and the Ishkoman Valley of the northern Ghizer District . Their native region is located in northern Gilgit–Baltistan . It also borders the Pamir corridor to the north. In India, Burushaski is spoken in Botraj Mohalla of the Hari Parbat region in Srinagar . It
4329-417: Is spoken by people in the Hunza District , the Nagar District , the northern Gilgit District , the Yasin Valley in the Gupis-Yasin District and the Ishkoman Valley of the northern Ghizer District . Their native region is located in northern Gilgit–Baltistan . It also borders the Pamir corridor to the north. In India, Burushaski is spoken in Botraj Mohalla of the Hari Parbat region in Srinagar . It
4446-649: Is the citation form and is also used for imperatives and nominalization ; the consecutive stem is similar to a past participle and is used for coordination . Agreement on the verb has both nominative and ergative features: transitive verbs and unaccusatives mark both the subject and the object of a clause, while unergatives verbs mark only subject agreement on the verb. Altogether, a verb can take up to four prefixes and six suffixes. In Burushaski, there are four noun classes , similar to declensional classes in Indo-European languages , but unlike Indo-European,
4563-585: Is the citation form and is also used for imperatives and nominalization ; the consecutive stem is similar to a past participle and is used for coordination . Agreement on the verb has both nominative and ergative features: transitive verbs and unaccusatives mark both the subject and the object of a clause, while unergatives verbs mark only subject agreement on the verb. Altogether, a verb can take up to four prefixes and six suffixes. In Burushaski, there are four noun classes , similar to declensional classes in Indo-European languages , but unlike Indo-European,
4680-756: Is the second-largest metropolitan area in the Himalayas (after Kathmandu , the capital of Nepal). Founded in the 6th century during the rule of the Gonanda dynasty according to the Rajatarangini , the city took on the name of an earlier capital thought to have been founded by the Mauryas in its vicinity. The city remained the most important capital of the Kashmir Valley under the Hindu dynasties, and
4797-442: Is unmarked, while the plural is expressed by means of suffix, which vary depending on the class of the noun: Some nouns admit two or three different suffixes, while others have no distinctive suffix, and occur only in the plural, e.g. bras 'rice', gur 'wheat', bishké , 'fur', (cf. plurale tantum ). On the other hand, there are also nouns which have identical forms in the singular and plural, e.g. hagúr 'horses'. Adjectives have
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4914-442: Is unmarked, while the plural is expressed by means of suffix, which vary depending on the class of the noun: Some nouns admit two or three different suffixes, while others have no distinctive suffix, and occur only in the plural, e.g. bras 'rice', gur 'wheat', bishké , 'fur', (cf. plurale tantum ). On the other hand, there are also nouns which have identical forms in the singular and plural, e.g. hagúr 'horses'. Adjectives have
5031-543: Is −20.0 °C (−4.0 °F) recorded on 6 February 1895. Srinagar has been ranked 43rd best “National Clean Air City” (under Category 1 >10L Population cities) in India. In November 2011, the City Mayors Foundation – an advocacy think tank – announced that Srinagar was the 92nd fastest growing urban areas in the world in terms of economic growth, based on actual data from 2006 onwards and projections to 2020. Srinagar
5148-596: The Khanqah-e-Moula at this location, and also built the Jamia Mosque at Nowhatta in 1402. The oldest surviving example of forcible conversion of a Hindu place of worship into Muslim shrine in Kashmir also appears from Srinagar under Sikandar's rule. Sikandar's successor Zain-ul-Abidin undertook several constructions in and around Srinagar. He built the Zainakadal bridge connecting the two halves of
5265-652: The Kashmir Valley along the banks of the Jhelum River , and the shores of Dal Lake and Anchar Lakes , between the Hari Parbat and Shankaracharya hills. The city is known for its natural environment, various gardens, waterfronts and houseboats . It is also known for traditional Kashmiri handicrafts like the Kashmir shawl (made of pashmina and cashmere wool ), papier-mâché, wood carving, carpet weaving, and jewel making, as well as for dried fruits . It
5382-533: The Köppen climate classification , Srinagar has a four-season humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) with hot summers and cool winters. The valley is surrounded by the Himalayas on all sides. Due to influence from Himalayan rain shadow and western disturbances , Srinagar has year-round precipitation; the spring season is the wettest while autumn is the driest. The region also has less rain in the summer due to lying in
5499-670: The Mughal Empire , many of whose emperors used it as their summer resort. Many Mughal gardens were built in the city and around Dal lake during this time, of which Shalimar and Nishat are the most well-known. After passing through the hands of the Afghan Durranis and the Sikhs in the late 18th and early 19th century, it eventually became the summer capital of the Dogra kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir in 1846. The city became
5616-541: The Sikh Empire assumed control of Kashmir. Under them, Srinagar , the old name of the city, was restored. The situation in the city did not improve much under Sikh rule, and the city remained in a state of decay. They also imposed several restrictions on Muslim religious expression, and closed the gates of the Jamia Mosque, which remained closed until 1843. A Shia-Sunni riot happened in the city in 1837. With
5733-455: The Surya " (trans) "City of Sun ." The name was used for an older capital in the vicinity of the present-day city, before being used for it. Between the 14th and 19th centuries, and especially during Mughal rule, the city was also referred to simply as Kashmir or Shahr-i-Kashmir ( lit. ' City of Kashmir ' ). According to the Rajatarangini of Kalhana , a capital city by
5850-593: The Urdu-based and the Latin-based orthography. In the years, 2006, 2009, and 2013, a 3-volume Burushaski- Urdu Dictionary was compiled in a collaboration between the "Burushaski Research Academy" and the University of Karachi , under the auspices of Prof. Allamah Nasiruddin Nasir Hunzai and published by the university's "Bureau of Composition, Compilation & Translation". This dictionary uses primarily
5967-415: The Urdu-based and the Latin-based orthography. In the years, 2006, 2009, and 2013, a 3-volume Burushaski- Urdu Dictionary was compiled in a collaboration between the "Burushaski Research Academy" and the University of Karachi , under the auspices of Prof. Allamah Nasiruddin Nasir Hunzai and published by the university's "Bureau of Composition, Compilation & Translation". This dictionary uses primarily
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#17327726272426084-565: The Urdu-derived alphabet, while employing Berger's Latin alphabet-derived orthography in a supplementary capacity. Tibetan sources record a Bru zha language of the Gilgit valley, which appears to have been Burushaski and the script of which was one of five used also to write the extinct Zhangzhung language . Although Burushaski may once have been a significant literary language , no Bru zha manuscripts are known to have survived. There
6201-450: The Urdu-derived alphabet, while employing Berger's Latin alphabet-derived orthography in a supplementary capacity. Tibetan sources record a Bru zha language of the Gilgit valley, which appears to have been Burushaski and the script of which was one of five used also to write the extinct Zhangzhung language . Although Burushaski may once have been a significant literary language , no Bru zha manuscripts are known to have survived. There
6318-412: The administration of the state grew. During this time, Srinagar, and in turn the Kashmir Valley, was connected to the rest of India via roads, which saw increased trade with Punjab . In 1886, a municipality was established for the city of Srinagar. Works for sanitation and urban development undertaken by the municipality were often met with stiff opposition by the residents, who were averse to changes. In
6435-406: The arts of shawl and carpet weaving, papier-maché, and wood carving in Srinagar. The Mughals annexed Kashmir in 1586 after a period of internal instability in the valley, and added it to their Kabul province. Mughal emperor Akbar visited the valley three times. During his second visit in 1592, an elaborate Diwali celebration was held in Srinagar. On the final such visit, he was accompanied by
6552-566: The base of the Hari Parbat hill on the right bank of the Jhelum, corresponding to the location of modern-day Srinagar. Kalhana describes the capital having several markets, mansions, wooden houses, grand temples and canals, and also refers to the Dal lake and Jhelum river. A long embankment was constructed on the Jhelum by Pravarasena to protect the city from floods, parts of which have survived to
6669-489: The basic forms is given in the following table: Burushaski language Burushaski ( / ˌ b ʊr ʊ ˈ ʃ æ s k i / ; Burushaski : بُرُݸشَسکݵ , romanized: burúśaski , IPA: [bʊˈruːɕʌskiː] ) is a language isolate , spoken by the Burusho people , who predominantly reside in northern Gilgit-Baltistan , Pakistan . There are also a few hundred speakers of this language in northern Jammu and Kashmir , India . In Pakistan, Burushaski
6786-486: The basic forms is given in the following table: Srinagar Srinagar (English: / ˈ s r iː n ə ɡ ər / ; Kashmiri pronunciation: [siriːnagar] ) is a city in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is the largest city and summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir, which is an Indian-administered union territory . It lies in
6903-412: The body and kinship terms are accompanied by an obligatory pronominal prefix. Thus, one cannot simply say 'mother' or 'arm' in Burushaski, but only 'my arm', 'your mother', 'his father', etc. For example, the root mi 'mother', is never found in isolation, instead one finds: The pronominal, or personal, prefixes agree with the person, number and – in the third person, the class of their noun. A summary of
7020-412: The body and kinship terms are accompanied by an obligatory pronominal prefix. Thus, one cannot simply say 'mother' or 'arm' in Burushaski, but only 'my arm', 'your mother', 'his father', etc. For example, the root mi 'mother', is never found in isolation, instead one finds: The pronominal, or personal, prefixes agree with the person, number and – in the third person, the class of their noun. A summary of
7137-670: The city and around the Dal lake during his and his successor Shah Jahan 's reign, including the Shalimar and Nishat Bagh . Empress Nur Jahan built the Pathar Mosque on the left bank of Jhelum river opposite the Khānqāh-e-Moula in 1623, the mosque was however deemed unfit for worship soon after its construction and used instead for non-religious purposes. Shah Jahan made Kashmir into a separate Subah (province) with its administrative seat at Srinagar in 1638. The Aali Masjid
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#17327726272427254-481: The city and founded the Shankaracharya Temple here, at the site of the earlier Jyeshteshwara Temple. The city gradually extended to the left bank of the Jhelum river, and in the early 12th century the royal palace was shifted to this side. Rinchana , a Buddhist convert to Islam who briefly ruled Kashmir in the early 14th century, built the first mosque in Kashmir on the site of a Buddhist temple in
7371-415: The city and the urban agglomeration has average literacy rate of approximately 70%. The child population of both the city and the urban agglomeration is approximately 12% of the total population. Males constituted 53.0% and females 47% of the population. The sex ratio in the city area is 888 females per 1000 males, whereas in the urban agglomeration it is 880 per 1,000. The predominant religion of Srinagar
7488-762: The city depict the historical cultural and religious diversity of the city as well as the Kashmir valley. There are many religious holy places in Srinagar. They include: Additional structures include the Dastgeer Sahib shrine, Mazar-e-Shuhada, Roza Bal shrine, Khanqah of Shah Hamadan , Pathar Masjid ("The Stone Mosque"), Hamza Makhdoom shrine, tomb of the mother of Zain-ul-abidin, tomb of Pir Haji Muhammad, Akhun Mulla Shah Mosque, cemetery of Baha-ud-din Sahib, tomb and Madin Sahib Mosque at Zadibal. Apart from these, dozens of smaller mosques are located all over
7605-463: The city on either side of the Jhelum river, the Mar canal and two islands inside Dal lake called Sona Lank and Rupa Lank. He also built a stone shrine for his Islamic teacher at Madin Sahib , and a brick mausoleum for his mother constructed using materials from a Hindu structure and showing Timurid influences, where he was also buried after his death. He is also credited with establishing industries around
7722-620: The city, which has a human population of just under 900,000. In a survey conducted by an NGO, it was found that some residents welcomed this program, saying the city was overrun by dogs, while critics contended that more humane methods should be used to deal with the animals. The situation has become alarming with local news reports coming up at frequent intervals highlighting people, especially children being mauled by street dogs. Religion in Srinagar City (2011) As of 2011 census Srinagar urban agglomeration had 1,273,312 population. Both
7839-458: The city. Several temples and temple ghats are located on the banks of river Jhelum in Srinagar, including Shurayar temple, Gadhadhar temple, Pratapishwar temple, Ganpatyar Ganesh temple, Purshyar temple, Sheshyar temple, Raghunath Mandir, Durga Patshala and Dhar temple. Gurdwaras are located in Rainawari, Amira Kadal, Jawahar Nagar, Mehjoor Nagar, Shaheed Gunj, Maharajpur and Indra Nagar areas of
7956-426: The city. The city expanded rapidly between 1891 and 1941, partly due to increased migration from the countryside as a result of famines and due to improvements in sanitation and urban development as well as economic expansion, in particular the growth of the textile and tourism industries in the city. Many Punjabis also settled in Srinagar during this time for trade, commerce and administration. Srinagar emerged as
8073-467: The city. There are three Christian churches in Srinagar. The Sheikh Bagh Cemetery is a Christian cemetery located in Srinagar that dates from the British colonial era. The oldest grave in the cemetery is that of a British colonel from the 9th Lancers of 1850 and the cemetery is valued for the variety of persons buried there which provides an insight into the perils faced by British colonisers in India. It
8190-701: The establishment of Dogra rule following the 1846 Treaty of Amritsar , Srinagar became the capital of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir . Taxes were increased and the production of silk, saffron, paper, tobacco, wine, and salt, as well as the sale of grain, became the monopoly of the state. It was a capital offence for a Muslim to kill a cow as late as the 1920s; later, the penalty was reduced to ten years of imprisonment and still later to seven years (Section 219 of Ranbir Penal Code ). The Dogras found Srinagar deteriorating, filthy and overcrowded. The city used to see several break-outs of cholera , as well as earthquakes, floods, fires and famines. The famine of 1877–79
8307-506: The first recorded European visitors to the area. Akbar built fortifications around the Hari Parbat hill, and established a township called Nagar Nagar there. He also built a shrine for Hamza Makhdoom , a Sufi mystic of Kashmir's Rishi order , on the southern slope of Hari Parbat which was later expanded several times. His successor Jahangir was particularly fond of the Kashmir valley and frequently visited it. His rule brought prosperity to Srinagar, and several Mughal gardens were built in
8424-528: The hands of the Afghan Durrani Empire . The Afghans undertook reconstructions in Srinagar and built the palace at Shergarhi at the site of a pre-existing ancient palace, as well as the fort atop Hari Parbat. However, contemporary accounts describe the city as filthy and deteriorating, and it also saw worsening inter-community relations during Afghan rule, with repeated Hindu-Muslim and Shia-Sunni riots, and state persecution of Pandits. In 1819,
8541-489: The hub of political activity within the Kashmir valley during later Dogra rule. Kashmiris at large despised the Dogra rule and considered the dynasty an "alien rule". Many Muslim leaders competed for influence and control over Muslim shrines in the city through which they sought to become representatives of Kashmiri Muslims . Sheikh Abdullah , and his National Conference (NC), eventually succeeded in doing so. In 1947, after
8658-621: The language, but soon realized that Urdu script was not adequate to the task, since it lacked the necessary letters to represent certain phonemes unique to Burushaski. This led him to undertake the task of devising a standardised Urdu -derived alphabet geared specifically to the accurate transcription of the Burushaski language. To this end, he went on to create the new consonants ݼ [tsʰ], څ [ʈʂ], ڎ [ts], ݽ [ʂ], ڞ [ʈʂʰ], and ݣ [ŋ]. Furthermore, innovative writers of Burushaski began to use superscript Urdu numbers to indicate different stress patterns, tones and vowel-lengths. For example, in Burushaski,
8775-619: The language, but soon realized that Urdu script was not adequate to the task, since it lacked the necessary letters to represent certain phonemes unique to Burushaski. This led him to undertake the task of devising a standardised Urdu -derived alphabet geared specifically to the accurate transcription of the Burushaski language. To this end, he went on to create the new consonants ݼ [tsʰ], څ [ʈʂ], ڎ [ts], ݽ [ʂ], ڞ [ʈʂʰ], and ݣ [ŋ]. Furthermore, innovative writers of Burushaski began to use superscript Urdu numbers to indicate different stress patterns, tones and vowel-lengths. For example, in Burushaski,
8892-432: The language. The Srinagar variety of Burushaski has only 300 speakers. Burushaski primarily has five vowels, /i e a o u/. There are two sets of long vowels, distinguished by whether it's the first or the second mora that bears a stress or higher pitch. Various contractions result in long vowels; stressed vowels (marked with acute accents in Berger's transcription) tend to be longer and less "open" than unstressed ones ( [i e
9009-530: The late 19th and early 20th century, modern tourism began to take hold in the city, especially on and around the Dal lake, with houseboats being built to accommodate British officers and their families who came in the summers seeking respite from the heat of the plains of northern India. The Shergarhi Palace was greatly modified by the Dogras, who used it as their official residence in the city. Pratap Singh and his successor Hari Singh also laid out several parks in
9126-525: The leadership of a Mayor . The Srinagar district along with the adjoining Budgam and Ganderbal districts forms the Srinagar Parliamentary seat . Srinagar's city government attracted brief international attention in March 2008 when it announced a mass poisoning program aimed at eliminating the city's population of stray dogs. Officials estimate that 100,000 stray dogs roam the streets of
9243-468: The leeward side of the rain shadow which blocks the monsoon winds from the south. Winters are colder in the region than most areas with monsoon climates due to these influences and its elevation, with daily maximum temperatures averaging 7.1 °C (44.8 °F) in January and dropping below freezing point at night. Moderate to heavy snowfall occurs in winter and the highway connecting Srinagar with
9360-455: The letter ـو ( waw ) represents a long vowel with a falling tone, "óo". The letter ـݸ ( waw with a superscript 2 ) represents a short vowel "o", and the letter ـݹ ( waw with a superscript 3) represents a long vowel with a rising tone, "oó". Parallel to this, a Latin-derived orthography was created by Hermann Berger - a system which has found favour among many researchers and linguists. The "Burushaski Research Academy" currently recognises both
9477-454: The letter ـو ( waw ) represents a long vowel with a falling tone, "óo". The letter ـݸ ( waw with a superscript 2 ) represents a short vowel "o", and the letter ـݹ ( waw with a superscript 3) represents a long vowel with a rising tone, "oó". Parallel to this, a Latin-derived orthography was created by Hermann Berger - a system which has found favour among many researchers and linguists. The "Burushaski Research Academy" currently recognises both
9594-456: The major monuments of an apparently lost literature. Below table shows the standardized orthography used in University of Karachi -published Burushaski-Urdu Dictionary. In addition, linguists working on Burushaski use various makeshift transcriptions based on the Latin alphabet, most commonly that by Berger (see below), in their publications. Below table shows the digraphs, a combination of
9711-401: The major monuments of an apparently lost literature. Below table shows the standardized orthography used in University of Karachi -published Burushaski-Urdu Dictionary. In addition, linguists working on Burushaski use various makeshift transcriptions based on the Latin alphabet, most commonly that by Berger (see below), in their publications. Below table shows the digraphs, a combination of
9828-501: The minority Hindus—particularly the Kashmiri Pandits —during the insurgency which resulted in their ultimate exodus . Kashmiri Hindus constituted 8.39% of Srinagar's population in the 1981 census and 2.75% in the 2011 census. The Gawakadal massacre took place in the city in January 1990, resulting in 50–100 deaths. As a result, bunkers and checkpoints are found throughout the city, although their numbers have come down in
9945-404: The name of Srinagari was built in the Kashmir valley by Ashoka . Kalhana calls this capital puranadhisthana , Sanskrit for 'old capital', identified as present-day Pandrethan, 3.5 kilometres south-east of Srinagar. A 'new capital' was built by king Pravarasena , called Parvarapura , in 6th century CE. Srinagari continued to be used as a name for this capital. This new capital was located at
10062-413: The nominal classes in Burushaski are associated with four grammatical "genders": Below, the abbreviation " h " will stand for the combination of the m- and f-classes, while " hx " will stand for the combination of the m-, f- and x-classes. Nouns in the x-class typically refer to countable, non-human beings or things, for example animals, fruit, stones, eggs, or coins; conversely, nouns in the y-class are as
10179-413: The nominal classes in Burushaski are associated with four grammatical "genders": Below, the abbreviation " h " will stand for the combination of the m- and f-classes, while " hx " will stand for the combination of the m-, f- and x-classes. Nouns in the x-class typically refer to countable, non-human beings or things, for example animals, fruit, stones, eggs, or coins; conversely, nouns in the y-class are as
10296-477: The noun stem, a possessive prefix (mandatory for some nouns, and thus an example of inherent possession), and number and case suffixes . Distinctions in number are singular, plural, indefinite, and grouped. Cases include absolutive , ergative / oblique , genitive , and several locatives ; the latter indicate both location and direction and may be compounded. Burushaski verbs have three basic stems: past tense, present tense, and consecutive. The past stem
10413-477: The noun stem, a possessive prefix (mandatory for some nouns, and thus an example of inherent possession), and number and case suffixes . Distinctions in number are singular, plural, indefinite, and grouped. Cases include absolutive , ergative / oblique , genitive , and several locatives ; the latter indicate both location and direction and may be compounded. Burushaski verbs have three basic stems: past tense, present tense, and consecutive. The past stem
10530-671: The oldest and earliest Institutions of the country including the University of Kashmir dating back to 1948 while the National Institute of Technology Srinagar was established during the second Five year plan . The educational institutions in the City include: Schools Medical colleges Universities General degree colleges Srinagar is broadcasting hub for radio channels in UT which are Radio Mirchi 98.3FM, Red FM 93.5 and AIR Srinagar . State television channel DD Kashir
10647-544: The only name for a fruit (tree) reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European , may have been borrowed from a language ancestral to Burushaski. ("Apple" and "apple tree" are báalt in modern Burushaski.) Kashmiri linguist Sadaf Munshi stated that Burushaski may have developed alongside the Dravidian languages before the Indo-Aryan migration to South Asia, mentioning the fact that both possess retroflex sounds . Burushaski
10764-429: The only name for a fruit (tree) reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European , may have been borrowed from a language ancestral to Burushaski. ("Apple" and "apple tree" are báalt in modern Burushaski.) Kashmiri linguist Sadaf Munshi stated that Burushaski may have developed alongside the Dravidian languages before the Indo-Aryan migration to South Asia, mentioning the fact that both possess retroflex sounds . Burushaski
10881-538: The other. As for short vowels, mid vowels and open vowels [e], [o], [a] can appear in either stressed syllables or unstressed syllables. Short close vowels [i] and [u] usually only appear in unstressed syllables. Furthermore, the pair [i] and [u] alternate with [e] and [o] respectively in a stressed syllable. All vowels have nasal counterparts in Hunza (in some expressive words) and in Nager (also in proper names and
10998-431: The other. As for short vowels, mid vowels and open vowels [e], [o], [a] can appear in either stressed syllables or unstressed syllables. Short close vowels [i] and [u] usually only appear in unstressed syllables. Furthermore, the pair [i] and [u] alternate with [e] and [o] respectively in a stressed syllable. All vowels have nasal counterparts in Hunza (in some expressive words) and in Nager (also in proper names and
11115-459: The past few years as militancy has declined. However, protests still occur against Indian rule, with large demonstrations happening in 2008, 2010 , 2013, and 2016 . After revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir and the subsequent devolution of the state into a union territory in August 2019, a lockdown was imposed in Kashmir, including in Srinagar. The city is located on both
11232-522: The present day. The two capitals are also mentioned in the chronicle of Chinese traveller Huein Tsang who visited the city in 631 CE. Although several other capitals of Kashmir were constructed by other rulers over the next few centuries, Pravarasena's Srinagar survived as the capital. The city was divided into several parts, each with its own guardian deity, which continue to be worshipped by Hindu Kashmiris . The 8th century scholar Adi Shankara visited
11349-481: The primary endings /-e/, /-ar/ or /-um/. These endings are directional, /-e/ being locative (answering 'where?'), /-ar/ being terminative (answering 'where to?'), and /-um/ being ablative (answering 'where from?'). The infixes, and their basic meanings, are as follows: From these, the following secondary or compound cases are formed: The regular endings /-ul-e/ and /-ul-ar/ are archaic and are now replaced by /-ul-o/ and /-ar-ulo/ respectively. Nouns indicating parts of
11466-481: The primary endings /-e/, /-ar/ or /-um/. These endings are directional, /-e/ being locative (answering 'where?'), /-ar/ being terminative (answering 'where to?'), and /-um/ being ablative (answering 'where from?'). The infixes, and their basic meanings, are as follows: From these, the following secondary or compound cases are formed: The regular endings /-ul-e/ and /-ul-ar/ are archaic and are now replaced by /-ul-o/ and /-ar-ulo/ respectively. Nouns indicating parts of
11583-403: The princely state's accession to India following an invasion of the state by Pakistani irregulars in the aftermath of the partition of India , Indian forces were airlifted to Srinagar on 27 October to defend the city and the larger Kashmir valley. The National Conference also established a popular people's militia in the city to aid the army in their defence of the territory. Srinagar became
11700-399: The rest of India faces frequent blockades due to icy roads, landslides and avalanches. Summers are warm to hot, slightly moderated from its elevation, with a July daytime average of 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). The average annual rainfall is around 697.5 millimetres (27.46 in). The highest temperature reliably recorded is 38.3 °C (100.9 °F) recorded on 10 July 1946, and the lowest
11817-637: The sides of the Jhelum River , called Vyath in Kashmir. The river passes through the city and meanders through the valley, moving onward and deepening in the Wular Lake . The city is known for its nine old bridges, connecting the two parts of the city. There are a number of lakes and swamps in and around the city. These include the Dal , the Nigeen , the Anchar , Khushal Sar , Gil Sar and Hokersar . Hokersar
11934-483: The situation has now improved quite considerably). Srinagar has an outdoor stadium namely Bakshi Stadium for hosting football matches. It is named after Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad . The city has a golf course named Royal Springs Golf Course, Srinagar located on the banks of Dal lake, which is considered one of the best golf courses of India. Football is followed by the youth of Srinagar and the TRC Turf Ground
12051-518: The summer capital of a smaller region which is administered by India as a union territory, after the former state's reorganisation . The earliest records, such as Kalhana's Rajatarangini , mentions the Sanskrit name shri-nagara which have been interpreted distinctively by scholars in two ways: one being "The city of "Shri " (श्री), the Hindu goddess of prosperity, meaning " City of Lakshmi " and other being sūrya-nagar , meaning " City of
12168-485: The summer capital of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir when it was established in 1952. In 1963–1964, the relic at the Hazratbal Shrine in Srinagar briefly disappeared, causing political turmoil. Following this, the shrine was reconstructed between 1968 and 1979 in a Mughal-inspired style. In 1989, Srinagar became the focus of the insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir . The city saw increased violence against
12285-476: The supposed evidence for external relationships of Burushaski rely on lexical data which may be better explained as originating from language contact. In particular, almost all Burushaski agricultural vocabulary appears to be borrowed from Dardic , Tibeto-Burman , and North Caucasian languages. Following Berger (1956), the American Heritage dictionaries suggested that the word *abel ' apple ',
12402-409: The supposed evidence for external relationships of Burushaski rely on lexical data which may be better explained as originating from language contact. In particular, almost all Burushaski agricultural vocabulary appears to be borrowed from Dardic , Tibeto-Burman , and North Caucasian languages. Following Berger (1956), the American Heritage dictionaries suggested that the word *abel ' apple ',
12519-672: The tentative list for sites to be included in world Heritage sites . The Sher Garhi Palace houses administrative buildings from the state government. Another palace of the Maharajas, the Gulab Bhavan , has now become the Lalit Grand Palace hotel. The Shankaracharya Temple lies on a hill top in the middle of the city. The city is run by the Srinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC) under
12636-454: The varieties spoken in Pakistan." The dialect of Burushashki spoken in India has been influenced by Kashmiri , as well as Hindi and Urdu . Unique to JKB is the features of vowel syncopation . Jammu & Kashmir Burushaski shares more similarities with the dialect spoken in Nagar than with that spoken in Hunza. The Srinagar variety of Burushaski has been known as low toned and is spoken
12753-425: The varieties spoken in Pakistan." The dialect of Burushashki spoken in India has been influenced by Kashmiri , as well as Hindi and Urdu . Unique to JKB is the features of vowel syncopation . Jammu & Kashmir Burushaski shares more similarities with the dialect spoken in Nagar than with that spoken in Hunza. The Srinagar variety of Burushaski has been known as low toned and is spoken a Kashmiri way of speaking
12870-476: The y-class, but their individual fruits belong to the x-class. Objects made of particular materials can belong to either the x- or the y- class: stone and wood are in the x-class, but metal and leather in the y-class. The article , adjectives , numerals and other attributes must be in agreement with the noun class of their subject. There are two numbers in Burushaski: singular and plural . The singular
12987-417: The y-class, but their individual fruits belong to the x-class. Objects made of particular materials can belong to either the x- or the y- class: stone and wood are in the x-class, but metal and leather in the y-class. The article , adjectives , numerals and other attributes must be in agreement with the noun class of their subject. There are two numbers in Burushaski: singular and plural . The singular
13104-477: Was a major centre of learning. During the 14th–16th centuries the city's old town saw major expansions, particularly under the Shah Mir dynasty , whose kings used various parts of it as their capitals. It became the spiritual centre of Kashmir, and attracted several Sufi preachers. It also started to emerge as a hub of shawl weaving and other Kashmiri handicrafts. In the late 16th century, the city became part of
13221-537: Was built during the reign of Aurangzeb (1658–1707), as was the Safa kadal bridge over the Jhelum. The moi muqaddas , a relic believed to be the hair strand of prophet Muhammad's beard, also arrived in Kashmir during this time, and was housed in a Mughal palace at Hazratbal , which became the Hazratbal Dargah . A number of Europeans visited the city during the later Mughal period. In 1753, Kashmir passed into
13338-521: Was damaged by floods in 2014. It contains a number of war graves. The notable interments here are Robert Thorpe and Jim Borst . Srinagar is home to various premiere Higher Education Institutes including the University of Kashmir , the Cluster University of Srinagar , Central University of Kashmir besides the National Institute of Technology Srinagar formerly known as Regional Engineering College (REC Srinagar). Most of these are among
13455-522: Was inaugurated on 14 February 2009 with Air India Express flights to Dubai . Hajj flights also operate from this airport to Saudi Arabia . Srinagar is a station on the 119 km (74 mi) long Banihal-Baramulla line that started in October 2009 and connects Baramulla to Srinagar, Anantnag and Qazigund . The railway track also connects to Banihal across the Pir Panjal mountains through
13572-571: Was made, and it is the second cable car in Kashmir after the Gulmarg Gondola . Whilst popular since the 7th century, water transport is now mainly confined to Dal Lake , where shikaras (wooden boats) are used for local transport and tourism. There are efforts to revive transportation on the River Jhelum . Like the territory of Jammu and Kashmir , Srinagar too has a distinctive blend of cultural heritage. Holy places in and around
13689-417: Was still a move which was resented by Kashmiris, particularly Pandits. The Raghunath Temple was also completed during Ranbir Singh's rule. With a global decline in shawl trade during late 19th century, the shawl weaving class of the city was upended. Several changes were ushered in during the reign of Pratap Singh (1885–1925). A British Residency was established in Srinagar and direct British influence on
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