GB/T 2312-1980 is a key official character set of the People's Republic of China , used for Simplified Chinese characters . GB2312 is the registered internet name for EUC-CN , which is its usual encoded form. GB refers to the Guobiao standards (国家标准), whereas the T suffix ( 推荐 ; tuījiàn ; 'recommendation') denotes a non-mandatory standard.
167-463: GB/T 2312-1980 was originally a mandatory national standard designated GB 2312-1980 . However, following a National Standard Bulletin of the People's Republic of China in 2017, GB 2312 is no longer mandatory, and its standard code is modified to GB/T 2312-1980 . GB/T 2312-1980 has been superseded by GBK and GB 18030 , which include additional characters, but GB/T 2312 remains in widespread use as
334-527: A Homo erectus who used fire , have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000 years ago . The fossilized teeth of Homo sapiens (dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered in Fuyan Cave . Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 6600 BCE, at Damaidi around 6000 BCE, Dadiwan from 5800 to 5400 BCE, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that
501-577: A failed war in northern Korea provoked widespread unrest. Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties , Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age. The Tang dynasty retained control of the Western Regions and the Silk Road, which brought traders to as far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa , and made the capital Chang'an a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it
668-473: A nuclear-weapon state with the world's largest standing army by military personnel and the second-largest defense budget . It is a great power , and has been described as an emerging superpower . China is known for its cuisine and culture, and has 59 UNESCO World Heritage Sites , the second-highest number of any country . The word "China" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it
835-514: A 7-bit or 8-bit environment), but not both. Which style of C1 invocation is used must be specified in the definition of the code version. For example, ISO/IEC 4873 specifies CR bytes for the C1 controls which it uses (SS2 and SS3). If necessary, which invocation is used may be communicated using announcer sequences . In the latter case, single control functions from the C1 control code set are invoked using "type Fe" escape sequences, meaning those where
1002-401: A climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many other crops. In 2021, 12 percent of global permanent meadows and pastures belonged to China, as well as 8% of global cropland. China is one of 17 megadiverse countries , lying in two of the world's major biogeographic realms :
1169-532: A cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the modern Han Chinese . The Han expanded the empire's territory considerably , with military campaigns reaching Central Asia, Mongolia , Korea , and Yunnan , and the recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam from Nanyue . Han involvement in Central Asia and Sogdia helped establish the land route of the Silk Road , replacing
1336-634: A disputed land border with India and Bhutan . China is additionally involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over territory in the East and South China Seas , such as the Senkaku Islands and the entirety of South China Sea Islands . The People's Republic of China is a one-party state governed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP is officially guided by socialism with Chinese characteristics , which
1503-730: A far-reaching popular uprising (the May Fourth Movement ). In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings known collectively as the Northern Expedition . The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of
1670-515: A graphical set designation sequence, if the second I byte (for a single-byte set) or the third I byte (for a double-byte set) is 0x20 (space), the set denoted is a " dynamically redefinable character set " (DRCS) defined by prior agreement, which is also considered private use. A graphical set being considered a DRCS implies that it represents a font of exact glyphs, rather than a set of abstract characters. The manner in which DRCS sets and associated fonts are transmitted, allocated and managed
1837-475: A high density of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonal rainforests , though confined to Yunnan and Hainan , contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China. China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi . In the early 2000s, China has suffered from environmental deterioration and pollution due to its rapid pace of industrialization. Regulations such as
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#17327910455332004-555: A line. Furthermore, the escape sequences declaring the national character sets may be absent if a specific ISO-2022-based encoding permits or requires this, and dictates that particular national character sets are to be used. For example, ISO-8859-1 states that no defining escape sequence is needed. To represent large character sets, ISO/IEC 2022 builds on ISO/IEC 646 's property that a seven-bit character representation will normally be able to represent 94 graphic (printable) characters (in addition to space and 33 control characters); if only
2171-497: A major focus, special economic zones (SEZs) were created. Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and some closed. This marked China's transition away from planned economy. China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, there were protests such those in Tiananmen Square , and then throughout the entire nation. Zhao Ziyang was put under house arrest for his sympathies to
2338-466: A national counterpart to ASCII . Compare row 3 of KS X 1001 , which does the same with South Korea 's ISO 646 version, and row 3 of JIS X 0208 and of KPS 9566 , which include only the alphanumeric subset, but in the same layout. The following chart lists ISO 646-CN. When used in an encoding allowing combination with ASCII such as EUC-CN (and its superset GB 18030 ), these characters are usually implemented as fullwidth characters, hence mappings to
2505-404: A permanent navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade. Between the 10th and 11th century CE, the population of China doubled to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw a revival of Confucianism , in response to
2672-447: A risk for misencoding as improper handling of text can result in missing information. To map the qūwèi code points to ISO-2022 bytes, add 32 ( 0x20 ) to both the row number (or qū, 区) and cell/column number (or wèi, 位). The result of addition to the row number of the code point will form the high byte, and the result of addition to the cell number of the code point will form the low byte similar to EUC encoding. For example, to encode
2839-449: A single byte, regardless of the number of bytes used for graphical characters. CJK encodings used in 7-bit environments which use ISO 2022 mechanisms to switch between character sets are often given names starting with "ISO-2022-", most notably ISO-2022-JP , although some other CJK encodings such as EUC-JP also make use of ISO 2022 mechanisms. Since the first 256 code points of Unicode were taken from ISO 8859-1 , Unicode inherits
3006-634: A standard document; however, registration does not create a new ISO standard, does not commit the ISO or IEC to adopt it as an international standard, and does not commit the ISO or IEC to add any of its characters to the Universal Coded Character Set . ISO-IR registered escape sequences are also used encapsulated in a Formal Public Identifier to identify character sets used for numeric character references in SGML (ISO 8879). For example,
3173-408: A subset of those encodings. As of September 2022, GB2312 is the second-most popular encoding served from China and territories (after UTF-8 ), with 5.5% of web servers serving a page declaring it. Globally, GB2312 is declared on 0.1% of all web pages. However, all major web browsers decode GB2312-marked documents as if they were marked with the superset GBK encoding, except for Safari and Edge on
3340-829: A term which developed under the Western Zhou dynasty in reference to its royal demesne . It was used in official documents as an synonym for the state under the Qing . The name Zhongguo is also translated as 'Middle Kingdom' in English. China is sometimes referred to as " mainland China " or "the Mainland" when distinguishing it from the Republic of China or the PRC's Special Administrative Regions . Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China 2.25 million years ago. The hominid fossils of Peking Man ,
3507-457: Is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances . The Chinese constitution states that the PRC "is a socialist state governed by a people's democratic dictatorship that is led by the working class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants," that the state institutions "shall practice the principle of democratic centralism ," and that "the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics
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#17327910455333674-487: Is a data file which was previously provided by the Unicode Consortium , although it has been designated as obsolete since August 2011 and is no longer hosted as of September 2016. As of 2015, Microsoft .Net Framework follows GB 18030 mappings when mapping those two characters in data labelled gb2312 , whereas ICU , iconv-1.14, php-5.6, ActivePerl-5.20, Java 1.7 and Python 3.4 follow GB2312.TXT in response to
3841-473: Is a matter of debate. Alternative suggestions include the names for Yelang and the Jing or Chu state. The official name of the modern state is the "People's Republic of China" ( simplified Chinese : 中华人民共和国 ; traditional Chinese : 中華人民共和國 ; pinyin : Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó ). The shorter form is "China" ( 中国 ; 中國 ; Zhōngguó ), from zhōng ('central') and guó ('state'),
4008-856: Is bounded by the Bohai , Yellow , East China and South China seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe . The territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N , and longitudes 73° and 135° E . The geographical center of China is marked by the Center of the Country Monument at 35°50′40.9″N 103°27′7.5″E / 35.844694°N 103.452083°E / 35.844694; 103.452083 ( Geographical center of China ) . China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In
4175-585: Is commonly agreed that pre-modern China's population experienced two growth spurts, one during the Northern Song period (960–1127), and other during the Qing period (around 1700–1830). By the High Qing era China was possibly the most commercialized country in the world, and imperial China experienced a second commercial revolution by the end of the 18th century. On the other hand, the centralized autocracy
4342-415: Is divided into 33 province-level divisions : 22 provinces , five autonomous regions , four municipalities , and two semi-autonomous special administrative regions . Beijing is the country's capital, while Shanghai is its most populous city by urban area and largest financial center . China is considered one of the cradles of civilization : the first human inhabitants in the region arrived during
4509-543: Is encoded over GR, both bytes have the eighth bit set (i.e. are greater than 0x7F). GBK and GB 18030 also make use of two-byte codes in which only the first byte has the eighth bit set for extension purposes: such codes are outside of the GB/T 2312 plane, and are not tabulated here. This chart details the overall layout of the main plane of the GB/T 2312 character set by lead byte. For lead bytes used for characters other than hanzi , links are provided to charts on this page listing
4676-461: Is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear , along with over 120 bird species. The understory of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo . In higher montane stands of juniper and yew , the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons . Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support
4843-659: Is in turn conformed to by ISO/IEC 8859 , and Extended Unix Code , which is used for East Asian languages. More specialised applications of ISO 2022 include the MARC-8 encoding system used in MARC 21 library records. The escape sequences for switching to particular character sets or encodings are registered with the ISO-IR registry (except for those set apart for private use, the meanings of which are defined by vendors, or by protocol specifications such as ARIB STD-B24 ) and follow
5010-419: Is not stipulated by ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 itself, although it recommends allocating them sequentially starting with F byte 0x40 ( @ ); however, a manner for transmitting DRCS fonts is defined within some telecommunication protocols such as World System Teletext . There are also three special cases for multi-byte codes. The code sequences ESC $ @ , ESC $ A , and ESC $ B were all registered when
5177-468: Is often used as the character encoding (i.e. for external storage) in programs that deal with GB/T 2312, thus maintaining compatibility with ASCII . Two bytes are used to represent every character not found in ASCII . The value of the first byte is from 0xA1–0xF7 (161–247), while the value of the second byte is from 0xA1–0xFE (161–254). Since all of these ranges are beyond ASCII, like UTF-8, it
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5344-506: Is possible to check if a byte is part of a multi-byte construct when using EUC-CN, but not if a byte is first or last. Compared to UTF-8 , GB/T 2312 (whether native or encoded in EUC-CN) is more storage efficient: while UTF-8 uses three bytes per CJK ideograph , GB/T 2312 only uses two. However, GB/T 2312 does not cover as many ideographs as Unicode does. To map the qūwèi code points to EUC bytes, add 160 ( 0xA0 ) to both
5511-451: Is protected by law, and as of 2005 , the country has over 2,349 nature reserves , covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area. Most wild animals have been eliminated from the core agricultural regions of east and central China, but they have fared better in the mountainous south and west. The Baiji was confirmed extinct on 12 December 2006. China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants, and
5678-560: Is required that any C0 character set include the ESC character at position 0x1B, so that further changes are possible. The control set designation sequences (as opposed to the graphical set ones) may also be used from within ISO/IEC 10646 (UCS/Unicode), in contexts where processing ANSI escape codes is appropriate, provided that each byte in the sequence is padded to the code unit size of the encoding. A table of escape sequence I bytes and
5845-451: Is the direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters . The Shang were overthrown by the Zhou , who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though the centralized authority of Son of Heaven was slowly eroded by fengjian lords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou and continually waged war with each other during the 300-year Spring and Autumn period . By
6012-497: Is the earliest font template based on GB/T 2312 that features corrections and extensions including: GB/T 2312 did not have corrections, but these corrections are included in font templates that are based on GB/T 2312 including GB/T 12345; its supersets GBK and GB 18030 also included these corrections. GB/T 2312 is also used in ISO-IR-165 . People%27s Republic of China China , officially
6179-401: Is the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party." The PRC officially terms itself as a democracy , using terms such as "socialist consultative democracy", and " whole-process people's democracy ". However, the country is commonly described as an authoritarian one-party state and a dictatorship , with among the heaviest restrictions worldwide in many areas, most notably against freedom of
6346-559: Is the world's leading investor in renewable energy and its commercialization , with $ 546 billion invested in 2022; it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects. Long heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adaptation of renewable energy has increased significantly in recent years, with their share increasing from 26.3 percent in 2016 to 31.9 percent in 2022. In 2023, 60.5% of China's electricity came from coal (largest producer in
6513-576: The gb2312 label. Ruby 2.2 is compatible with both implementations; it internally converts the conflictive characters to the GB 18030 subset. The W3C / WHATWG technical recommendation for use with HTML5 specifies a GBK encoding to be inferred for streams labelled gb2312 , which in turn uses a GB18030 decoder. Other differing mappings have been defined and used by individual vendors, including one from Apple . This row contains punctuation, mathematical operators, and other symbols. The following table shows
6680-493: The ESC control code, which can likewise be used for in-band instructions. Specific sets of control codes and escape sequences designed to be used with ISO 2022 include ISO/IEC 6429 , portions of which are implemented by ANSI.SYS and terminal emulators . ISO 2022 itself also defines particular control codes and escape sequences which can be used for switching between different coded character sets (for example, between ASCII and
6847-702: The Encyclopædia Britannica , to 9,596,961 km (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook , and The World Factbook . China has the longest combined land border in the world , measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) and its coastline covers approximately 14,500 km (9,000 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River (Amnok River) to the Gulf of Tonkin . China borders 14 nations and covers
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7014-456: The 18th CCP National Congress in 2012. Shortly after his ascension to power, Xi launched a vast anti-corruption crackdown , that prosecuted more than 2 million officials by 2022. During his tenure , Xi has consolidated power unseen since the initiation of economic and political reforms. China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the arid north to
7181-778: The Cultural Revolution , sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the ROC in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council. After Mao's death, the Gang of Four was arrested by Hua Guofeng and held responsible for the Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolution
7348-537: The Cyrillic script , sufficient to write the modern Russian alphabet and Bulgarian alphabet , although other forms of Cyrillic require additional letters. Compare with row 7 of JIS X 0208 , which this row matches, and with row 12 of KS X 1001 and row 5 of KPS 9566 , which use the same layout but in different rows. This row contains bopomofo and pinyin characters, excluding ASCII letters (which are in row 3). The highlighted characters are those which are not in
7515-692: The English alphabet ), and does not provide good support for languages which use additional letters, or which use a different writing system altogether. Other writing systems with relatively few characters, such as Greek , Cyrillic , Arabic or Hebrew , as well as forms of the Latin script using diacritics or letters absent from the ISO Basic Latin alphabet, have historically been represented on personal computers with different 8- bit , single byte , extended ASCII encodings, which follow ASCII when
7682-776: The Great Leap Forward was largely responsible for the Great Chinese Famine that ended with millions of Chinese people having died, and the subsequent Cultural Revolution was a period of social turmoil and persecution characterized by Maoist populism. Following the Sino-Soviet split , the Shanghai Communiqué in 1972 would precipitate the normalization of relations with the United States . Economic reforms that began in 1978 moved
7849-581: The Greek and Cyrillic alphabets , Zhuyin , and a double-byte set of Pinyin letters with tone marks. In later version GB/T 2312-1980, there are 7,445 letters. Characters in GB/T ;2312 are arranged in a 94×94 grid (as in ISO ;2022 ), and the two-byte code point of each character is expressed in the qūwèi ( 区位 ) form, which specifies a row ( 区 ; qū ) and the position of the character within
8016-603: The Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms block are used as shown below. GB 6345.1 also handles this row as fullwidth, and adds the halfwidth forms (as above) as row 10. Apple mostly maps this row to fullwidth code points as below, but uses non-fullwidth mappings for the overline and yuan sign as above. This set contains Hiragana for writing the Japanese language . Compare with row 4 of JIS X 0208 , which this row matches, and with row 10 of KS X 1001 and of KPS 9566 , which use
8183-513: The Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system. According to traditional Chinese historiography , the Xia dynasty was established during the late 3rd millennium BCE, marking the beginning of the dynastic cycle that was understood to underpin China's entire political history. In the modern era, the Xia's historicity came under increasing scrutiny, in part due to
8350-636: The Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China. Afterwards, the CCP took control of most of mainland China, and the ROC government retreated offshore to Taiwan . On 1 October 1949, CCP Chairman Mao Zedong formally proclaimed
8517-568: The Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879 , in which between 9 and 13 million people died. The Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan in 1898 to establish a modern constitutional monarchy , but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi . The ill-fated anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms known as the late Qing reforms ,
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#17327910455338684-620: The Palearctic and the Indomalayan . By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil and Colombia . The country is a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity ; its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was received by the convention in 2010. China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest in
8851-578: The Paleolithic . By the late 2nd millennium BCE, the earliest dynastic states had emerged in the Yellow River basin. The 8th–3rd centuries BCE saw a breakdown in the authority of the Zhou dynasty , accompanied by the emergence of administrative and military techniques, literature , philosophy , and historiography . In 221 BCE, China was unified under an emperor , ushering in more than two millennia of imperial dynasties including
9018-513: The People's Republic of China ( PRC ), is a country in East Asia . With a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the second-most populous country after India , representing 17.4% of the world population. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and borders fourteen countries by land . With an area of nearly 9.6 million square kilometers (3,700,000 sq mi), it is the third-largest country by total land area. The country
9185-557: The Qin , Han , Tang , Yuan , Ming , and Qing . With the invention of gunpowder and paper , the establishment of the Silk Road , and the building of the Great Wall , Chinese culture flourished and has heavily influenced both its neighbors and lands further afield. However, China began to cede parts of the country in the late 19th century to various European powers by a series of unequal treaties . After decades of Qing China on
9352-476: The State Council , China's cabinet, composed of four vice premiers, state councilors , and the heads of ministries and commissions. The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) is a political advisory body that is critical in China's " united front " system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP. Similar to the people's congresses, CPPCC's exist at various division, with
9519-505: The Turpan Depression . China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons , which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist. A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts , particularly
9686-537: The VT100 , and are thus supported by terminal emulators . By default, GL codes specify G0 characters and GR codes (where available) specify G1 characters; this may be otherwise specified by prior agreement. The set invoked over each area may also be modified with control codes referred to as shifts, as shown in the table below. An 8-bit code may have GR codes specifying G1 characters, i.e. with its corresponding 7-bit code using Shift In and Shift Out to switch between
9853-621: The World Trade Organization in 2001. At the 16th CCP National Congress in 2002, Hu Jintao succeeded Jiang as the general secretary. Under Hu, China maintained its high rate of economic growth, overtaking the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Japan to become the world's second-largest economy. However, the growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment, and caused major social displacement. Xi Jinping succeeded Hu as paramount leader at
10020-719: The Xi , Mekong , Brahmaputra and Amur . To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848 m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border. The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154 m) in
10187-426: The Xinhai Revolution of 1911–1912 ended the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China . Puyi , the last Emperor, abdicated in 1912 . On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT) was proclaimed provisional president. In March 1912, the presidency was given to Yuan Shikai , a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China . In
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#173279104553310354-422: The campaigns against Western Xia by Genghis Khan , who also invaded Jin territories . In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty , which conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew
10521-418: The interpunct ( Chinese : 间隔点 ; lit. 'separator dot') and em dash ( Chinese : 破折号 ) in the subset of GBK and GB 18030 corresponding to GB/T 2312 ( U+00B7 · MIDDLE DOT and U+2014 — EM DASH ) differ from those which are listed in GB2312.TXT ( U+30FB ・ KATAKANA MIDDLE DOT and U+2015 ― HORIZONTAL BAR ), which
10688-510: The most significant bit is 0 (i.e. bytes 0x00–7F, when represented in hexadecimal ), and include additional characters for a most significant bit of 1 (i.e. bytes 0x80–FF). Some of these, such as the ISO 8859 series, conform to ISO 2022, while others such as DOS code page 437 do not, usually due to not reserving the bytes 0x80–9F for control codes. Certain East Asian languages, specifically Chinese , Japanese , and Korean (collectively " CJK "), are written using far more characters than
10855-422: The subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya , Karakoram , Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia . The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long and
11022-447: The 0x20/A0 and 0x7F/FF bytes are actually assigned by the set; some examples of graphical character sets which are registered as 96-sets but do not use those bytes include the G1 set of I.S. 434 , the box drawing set from ISO/IEC 10367 , and ISO-IR-164 (a subset of the G1 set of ISO-8859-8 with only the letters, used by CCITT ). Characters are expected to be spacing characters, not combining characters, unless specified otherwise by
11189-440: The 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, though they are poorly enforced, frequently disregarded in favor of rapid economic development. China has the second-highest death toll because of air pollution, after India , with approximately 1 million deaths. Although China ranks as the highest CO 2 emitting country, it only emits 8 tons of CO 2 per capita , significantly lower than developed countries such as
11356-406: The 2010s. In 2020, the Chinese government announced its aims for the country to reach its peak emissions levels before 2030, and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 in line with the Paris Agreement , which, according to Climate Action Tracker , would lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2–0.3 degrees – "the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker". China
11523-416: The British under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking , the first of what have been termed as the " unequal treaties ". The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula , as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan . The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the White Lotus Rebellion ,
11690-406: The C0 control codes (narrowly defined) are excluded, this can be expanded to 96 characters. Using two bytes, it is thus possible to represent up to 8,836 (94×94) characters; and, using three bytes, up to 830,584 (94×94×94) characters. Though the standard defines it, no registered character set uses three bytes (although EUC-TW 's unregistered G2 does, as does the similarly unregistered CCCII ). For
11857-438: The C0 set, besides the ten included by ISO 6429 / ECMA-48 (namely SOH, STX, ETX, EOT, ENQ, ACK, DLE, NAK, SYN and ETB), or inclusion of any of those ten in the C1 set, is also prohibited by the ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard. A C0 control set is invoked over the CL range 0x00 through 0x1F, whereas a C1 control function may be invoked over the CR range 0x80 through 0x9F (in an 8-bit environment) or by using escape sequences (in
12024-449: The CCP. The NPC is dominated by the CCP, with another eight minor parties having nominal representation under the condition of upholding CCP leadership. The president is elected by the NPC. The presidency is the ceremonial state representative, but not the constitutional head of state. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general secretary of the CCP and the chairman of
12191-515: The CR range always either invokes the secondary (C1) controls or is unused. The delete character DEL (0x7F), the escape character ESC (0x1B) and the space character SP (0x20) are designated "fixed" coded characters and are always available when G0 is invoked over GL, irrespective of what character sets are designated. They may not be included in graphical character sets, although other sizes or types of whitespace character may be. Sequences using
12358-638: The Central Military Commission , making him China's paramount leader and supreme commander of the Armed Forces. The premier is the head of government , with Li Qiang being the incumbent. The premier is officially nominated by the president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second- or third-ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The premier presides over
12525-448: The ESC (escape) character take the form ESC [ I ...] F , where the ESC character is followed by zero or more intermediate bytes ( I ) from the range 0x20–0x2F, and one final byte ( F ) from the range 0x30–0x7E. The first I byte, or absence thereof, determines the type of escape sequence; it might, for instance, designate a working set, or denote a single control function. In all types of escape sequences, F bytes in
12692-563: The ESC (escape) control character at 0x1B (a C0 set containing only ESC is registered as ISO-IR-104), whereas a C1 control set may not contain the escape control whatsoever. Hence, they are entirely separate registrations, with a C0 set being only a C0 set and a C1 set being only a C1 set. If codes from the C0 set of ISO 6429 / ECMA-48, i.e. the ASCII control codes , appear in the C0 set, they are required to appear at their ISO 6429 / ECMA-48 locations. Inclusion of transmission control characters in
12859-542: The ESC control character is followed by a byte from columns 04 or 05 (that is to say, ESC 0x40 (@) through ESC 0x5F (_) ). Additional control functions are assigned to "type Fs" escape sequences (in the range ESC 0x60 (`) through ESC 0x7E (~) ); these have permanently assigned meanings rather than depending on the C0 or C1 designations. Registration of control functions to type "Fs" sequences must be approved by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2 . Other single control functions may be registered to type "3Ft" escape sequences (in
13026-461: The GB 18030 mappings for these GB/T 2312 characters first, followed by any other documented mappings. This row contains various types of list marker. Lowercase forms of the Roman numerals were not included in the original GB/T 2312 nor in GB/T 12345, but are included in both Windows code page 936 and GB 18030 . A euro sign was also added by GB 18030. This row contains ISO 646-CN (GB/T 1988-80),
13193-450: The Gobi Desert. Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms , prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Japan and Korea. Water quality, erosion , and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in
13360-717: The Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people. According to academics, in order to limit climate change in China to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) electricity generation from coal in China without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045. With current policies, the GHG emissions of China will probably peak in 2025, and by 2030 they will return to 2022 levels. However, such pathway still leads to three-degree temperature rise. Official government statistics about Chinese agricultural productivity are considered unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary government levels. Much of China has
13527-566: The ISO-IR registry is specified by ISO/IEC 2375 . Each registration receives a unique escape sequence, and a unique registry entry number to identify it. For example, the CCITT character set for Simplified Chinese is known as ISO-IR-165 . Registration of coded character sets with the ISO-IR registry identifies the documents specifying the character set or control function associated with an ISO/IEC 2022 non‑private-use escape sequence. This may be
13694-490: The ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard itself. They may be described elsewhere using hexadecimal , as is often used in this article, or using the corresponding ASCII characters, although the escape sequences are actually defined in terms of byte values, and the graphic assigned to that byte value may be altered without affecting the control sequence. Byte values from the 7-bit ASCII graphic range (hexadecimal 0x20–0x7F), being on
13861-564: The Japanese JIS X 0208 ) so as to use multiple in a single document, effectively combining them into a single stateful encoding (a feature less important since the advent of Unicode ). It is designed to be usable in both 8-bit environments and 7-bit environments (those where only seven bits are usable in a byte, such as e-mail without 8BITMIME ). The ASCII character set supports the ISO Basic Latin alphabet (equivalent to
14028-761: The Kuomintang and the CCP. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died. An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinese were massacred in Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation. China, along with the UK, the United States, and the Soviet Union , were recognized as the Allied " Big Four " in the Declaration by United Nations . Along with
14195-805: The National Committee of the CPPCC being chaired by Wang Huning , fourth-ranking member of the PSC. ISO-2022-CN ISO/IEC 2022 Information technology—Character code structure and extension techniques , is an ISO / IEC standard in the field of character encoding . It is equivalent to the ECMA standard ECMA-35 , the ANSI standard ANSI X3.41 and the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS X 0202 . Originating in 1971, it
14362-580: The PRC initially allied closely with the Soviet Union , the relations between the two communist nations gradually deteriorated , leading China to develop an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons . The Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974. However, the Great Leap Forward , an idealistic massive industrialization project, resulted in an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths between 1959 and 1961, mostly from starvation. In 1964, China detonated its first atomic bomb. In 1966, Mao and his allies launched
14529-1002: The People program for transforming China into a modern democratic state. The Kuomintang briefly allied with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during the Northern Expedition, though the alliance broke down in 1927 after Chiang violently suppressed the CCP and other leftists in Shanghai, marking the beginning of the Chinese Civil War . The CCP declared areas of the country as the Chinese Soviet Republic (Jiangxi Soviet) in November 1931 in Ruijin , Jiangxi . The Jiangxi Soviet
14696-535: The People's Republic of China in Tiananmen Square , Beijing . In 1950, the PRC captured Hainan from the ROC and annexed Tibet . However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s. The CCP consolidated its popularity among the peasants through the Land Reform Movement , which included the state-tolerated executions of between 1 and 2 million landlords by peasants and former tenants. Though
14863-949: The UN representative for China was changed from the ROC to the PRC in 1971. It is a founding member of several multilateral and regional organizations such as the AIIB , the Silk Road Fund , the New Development Bank , and the RCEP . It is a member of the BRICS , the G20 , APEC , the SCO , and the East Asia Summit . Making up around one-fifth of the world economy, the Chinese economy is
15030-488: The United States (16.1), Australia (16.8) and South Korea (13.6). Greenhouse gas emissions by China are the world's largest . The country has significant water pollution problems; only 89.4% of China's national surface water was graded suitable for human consumption by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment in 2023. China has prioritized clamping down on pollution, bringing a significant decrease in air pollution in
15197-681: The Yuan in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty as the Hongwu Emperor . Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that admiral Zheng He led the Ming treasure voyages throughout the Indian Ocean, reaching as far as East Africa. In
15364-465: The base GB 2312 set but are added by GB 6345.1 , and also included in GB/T 12345, Windows code page 936 , Mac OS Simplified Chinese and GB 18030. They are seen as "standard extensions to GB 2312". GB 6345.1 treats the pinyin in this row as fullwidth, and includes halfwidth counterparts as row 11; GB 18030 does not do this. GB 5007.1-85 24×24 Bitmap Font Set of Chinese Characters for Information Exchange ( Chinese : 信息交换用汉字 24x24 点阵字模集 )
15531-542: The basis that it leaves the graphical character repertoire undefined. ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 does, however, permit the use of the GCC function provided that the sequence of characters is kept the same and merely displayed in one space, rather than being over-stamped to form a character with a different meaning. Control character sets are classified as "primary" or "secondary" control code sets, respectively also called "C0" and "C1" control code sets. A C0 control set must contain
15698-614: The beginning and end of a range of GB 2312 text differ. In the tables below, where a pair of hexadecimal numbers is given for a prefix byte or a coding byte, the smaller (with the eighth bit unset or unavailable) is used when encoded over GL ( 0x 21-0x7E), as in ISO-2022-CN or HZ-GB-2312 , and the larger (with the eighth bit set) is used in the more typical case of it being encoded over GR (0xA1-0xFE), as in EUC-CN , GBK or GB 18030 . Qūwèi numbers are given in decimal. When GB/T 2312
15865-820: The bulk of East Asia, bordering Vietnam , Laos , and Myanmar in Southeast Asia; India , Bhutan , Nepal , Pakistan and Afghanistan in South Asia; Tajikistan , Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; and Russia, Mongolia , and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia . It is narrowly separated from Bangladesh and Thailand to the southwest and south, and has several maritime neighbors such as Japan , Philippines , Malaysia , and Indonesia . China has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued substantial compromises in most of them. China currently has
16032-508: The cell number 66: 66+160=226= 0xE2 . So, the full encoding is <CD E2> . ISO-2022-CN is another encoding form of GB/T 2312, which is also the encoding specified in the official documentation. This encoding references the ISO-2022 standard, which also uses two bytes to encode characters not found in ASCII. However, instead of using the extended region of ASCII, ISO-2022 uses
16199-469: The character "外" at qūwèi cell 45-66, the high byte will use the row number 45: 45+32=77= 0x4D , and the low byte will come from the cell number 66: 66+32=98= 0x62 . So, the full encoding is <4D 62> . HZ is another encoding of GB/T 2312 that is used mostly for Usenet postings; characters are represented with the same byte pairs as in ISO-2022-CN, but the byte sequences denoting
16366-560: The characters encoded under that lead byte. For lead bytes used for hanzi, links are provided to the appropriate section of Wiktionary 's hanzi index. The following charts list the non- hanzi characters available in GB/T 2312, in GB/T 12345, and in double-byte region 1 of GB 18030 (which roughly corresponds to the non-hanzi region of GB/T 2312). Notes are made where these differ, and where GB 6345.1 and ISO-IR-165 differ from these. Cross-references are made to articles on other CJK national character sets for comparison. Unicode mappings of
16533-497: The code positions used for the vertical extensions. Compare with row 6 of JIS X 0208 , which this row matches when the vertical forms are not included, and with row 6 of KPS 9566 , which includes the same Greek letters in the same layout, but adds Roman numerals rather than vertical forms. Contrast row 5 of KS X 1001 , which offsets the Greek letters to include the Roman numerals first. This set includes both cases of 33 letters from
16700-503: The concept of C0 and C1 control codes from ISO 2022, although it adds other non-printing characters besides the ISO 2022 control codes. However, Unicode transformation formats such as UTF-8 generally deviate from the ISO 2022 structure in various ways, including: ISO 2022 escape sequences do, however, exist for switching to and from UTF-8 as a " coding system different from that of ISO 2022 ", which are supported by certain terminal emulators such as xterm . ISO/IEC 2022 specifies
16867-513: The contemporary version of the standard allowed multi-byte sets only in G0, so must be accepted in place of the sequences ESC $ ( @ through ESC $ ( B to designate to the G0 character set. There are additional (rarely used) features for switching control character sets, but this is a single-level lookup, in that (as noted above) the C0 set is always invoked over CL, and the C1 set is always invoked over CR or by using escape codes. As noted above, it
17034-492: The country away from a socialist planned economy towards an increasingly capitalist market economy , spurring significant economic growth. The corresponding movement for increased democracy and liberalization stalled after the Tiananmen Square protests and massacre in 1989. China is a unitary one-party socialist republic led by the CCP. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council ;
17201-505: The decline, the 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty and the monarchy and the Republic of China (ROC) was established the following year. The country under the nascent Beiyang government was unstable and ultimately fragmented during the Warlord Era , which was ended upon the Northern Expedition conducted by the Kuomintang (KMT) to reunify the country. The Chinese Civil War began in 1927, when KMT forces purged members of
17368-434: The designation or other function which they perform is below. Note that the registry of F bytes is independent for the different types. The 94-character graphic set designated by ESC ( A through ESC + A is not related in any way to the 96-character set designated by ESC - A through ESC / A . And neither of those is related to the 94 -character set designated by ESC $ ( A through ESC $ + A , and so on;
17535-610: The earlier path over the Himalayas to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world. Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor of Confucianism , Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors. After the end of the Han dynasty , a period of strife known as Three Kingdoms followed, at
17702-436: The earliest for which there are both contemporary written records and undisputed archaeological evidence. The Shang ruled much of the Yellow River valley until the 11th century BCE, with the earliest hard evidence dated c. 1300 BCE . The oracle bone script , attested from c. 1250 BCE but generally assumed to be considerably older, represents the oldest known form of written Chinese , and
17869-455: The earliest known attestation of the Xia being written millennia after the date given for their collapse. In 1958, archaeologists discovered sites belonging to the Erlitou culture that existed during the early Bronze Age ; they have since been characterized as the remains of the historical Xia, but this conception is often rejected. The Shang dynasty that traditionally succeeded the Xia is
18036-537: The early Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such as Wang Yangming critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations . The scholar-official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense against Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) and Later Jin incursions led to an exhausted treasury. In 1644, Beijing
18203-737: The east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains , while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include
18370-656: The end of which Wei was swiftly overthrown by the Jin dynasty . The Jin fell to civil war upon the ascension of a developmentally disabled emperor ; the Five Barbarians then rebelled and ruled northern China as the Sixteen States . The Xianbei unified them as the Northern Wei , whose Emperor Xiaowen reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and enforced a drastic sinification on his subjects . In
18537-516: The escape sequences listed below, whereas the others are part of a C0 or C1 control code set (as shown below, SI (LS0) and SO (LS1) are C0 controls and SS2 and SS3 are C1 controls), meaning that their coding and availability may vary depending on which control sets are designated: they must be present in the designated control sets if their functionality is used. The C1 controls themselves, as mentioned above, may be represented using escape sequences or 8-bit bytes, but not both. Alternative encodings of
18704-473: The face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army , he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916. After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory. During this period , China participated in World War I and saw
18871-555: The failed Taiping Rebellion that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in the northwest. The initial success of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s. In the 19th century, the great Chinese diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as
19038-683: The following: A specific implementation does not have to implement all of the standard; the conformance level and the supported character sets are defined by the implementation. Although many of the mechanisms defined by the ISO/IEC 2022 standard are infrequently used, several established encodings are based on a subset of the ISO/IEC 2022 system. In particular, 7-bit encoding systems using ISO/IEC 2022 mechanisms include ISO-2022-JP (or JIS encoding ), which has primarily been used in Japanese-language e-mail . 8-bit encoding systems conforming to ISO/IEC 2022 include ISO/IEC 4873 (ECMA-43), which
19205-490: The form ESC ( ! F have been assigned. At the other extreme, no multibyte 96-sets have been registered, so the sequences below are strictly theoretical. As with other escape sequence types, the range 0x30–0x3F is reserved for private-use F bytes, in this case for private-use character set definitions (which might include unregistered sets defined by protocols such as ARIB STD-B24 or MARC-8 , or vendor-specific sets such as DEC Special Graphics ). However, in
19372-492: The graphical set in question. ISO 2022 / ECMA-35 also recognizes the use of the backspace and carriage return control characters as means of combining otherwise spacing characters, as well as the CSI sequence "Graphic Character Combination" (GCC) ( CSI 0x20 (SP) 0x5F (_) ). Use of the backspace and carriage return in this manner is permitted by ISO/IEC 646 but prohibited by ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 and by ISO/IEC 8859 , on
19539-612: The growth of Buddhism during the Tang, and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and porcelain were brought to new levels of complexity. However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jin dynasty . In 1127, Emperor Huizong of Song and the capital Bianjing were captured during the Jin–Song wars . The remnants of the Song retreated to southern China . The Mongol conquest of China began in 1205 with
19706-400: The informal paramount leader . The current general secretary is Xi Jinping , who took office on 15 November 2012. At the local level, the secretary of the CCP committee of a subdivision outranks the local government level; CCP committee secretary of a provincial division outranks the governor while the CCP committee secretary of a city outranks the mayor. The government in China is under
19873-426: The label GB_2312 . There is an analogous character set known as GB/T 12345 Code of Chinese ideogram set for information interchange supplementary set , which supplements GB/T 2312 with traditional character forms by replacing simplified forms in their qūwèi code, and some extra 62 supplemental characters. GB-encoded fonts often come in pairs, one with the GB/T 2312 (simplified) character set and
20040-409: The largest importer of Russian crude oil in 2022. China is the third-largest country in the world by land area after Russia , and the third- or fourth-largest country in the world by total area. China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km (3,700,000 sq mi). Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km (3,696,100 sq mi) according to
20207-467: The left side of a character code table, are referred to as "GL" codes (with "GL" standing for "graphics left") while bytes from the "high ASCII" range (0xA0–0xFF), if available (i.e. in an 8-bit environment), are referred to as the "GR" codes ("graphics right") . The terms "CL" (0x00–0x1F) and "CR" (0x80–0x9F) are defined for the control ranges, but the CL range always invokes the primary (C0) controls, whereas
20374-537: The maximum of 256 which can be represented in a single byte, and were first represented on computers with language-specific double-byte encodings or variable-width encodings ; some of these (such as the Simplified Chinese encoding GB 2312 ) conform to ISO 2022 , while others (such as the Traditional Chinese encoding Big5 ) do not. Control codes in ISO 2022 are always represented with
20541-715: The multiple consultation mechanisms that exist in Chinese government. According to the CCP constitution , its highest body is the National Congress held every five years. The National Congress elects the Central Committee , who then elects the party's Politburo , Politburo Standing Committee and the general secretary ( party leader ), the top leadership of the country. The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over party and state and serves as
20708-472: The other three great powers, China was one of the four major Allies of World War II , and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war. After the surrender of Japan in 1945, Taiwan, including the Penghu , was handed over to Chinese control ; however, the validity of this handover is controversial. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between
20875-438: The other with the GB/T 12345 (traditional) character set. There exists more GB supplementary encoding sets that supplements GB/T 2312, including GB/T 7589 Code of Chinese ideograms set forinformation interchange--The 2nd supplementary set and GB/T 7590 Code of Chinese ideograms set forinformation interchange--The 4th supplementary set which provides additional [Variant Chinese characters|variant characters] in
21042-408: The patterns defined within the standard. Character encodings making use of these escape sequences require data to be processed sequentially in a forward direction, since the correct interpretation of the data depends on previously encountered escape sequences. Specific profiles such as ISO-2022-JP may impose extra conditions, such as that the current character set is reset to US-ASCII before the end of
21209-553: The press , freedom of assembly , free formation of social organizations , freedom of religion and free access to the Internet . China has consistently been ranked amongst the lowest as an "authoritarian regime" by the Economist Intelligence Unit 's Democracy Index , ranking at 148th out of 167 countries in 2023. Other sources suggest that terming China as "authoritarian" does not sufficiently account for
21376-417: The protests and was replaced by Jiang Zemin . Jiang continued economic reforms, closing many SOEs and trimming down " iron rice bowl " (life-tenure positions). China's economy grew sevenfold during this time. British Hong Kong and Portuguese Macau returned to China in 1997 and 1999 , respectively, as special administrative regions under the principle of one country, two systems . The country joined
21543-777: The range ESC 0x23 (#) [ I ...] 0x40 (@) through ESC 0x23 (#) [ I ...] 0x7E (~) ), although no "3Ft" sequences are currently assigned (as of 2019). Some of these are specified in ECMA-35 (ISO 2022 / ANSI X3.41), others in ECMA-48 (ISO 6429 / ANSI X3.64). ECMA-48 refers to these as "independent control functions". Escape sequences of type "Fp" ( ESC 0x30 (0) through ESC 0x3F (?) ) or of type "3Fp" ( ESC 0x23 (#) [ I ...] 0x30 (0) through ESC 0x23 (#) [ I ...] 0x3F (?) ) are reserved for single private use control codes, by prior agreement between parties. Several such sequences of both types are used by DEC terminals such as
21710-446: The range 0x20–0x2F, then by a single byte in the range 0x40–0x7E, the entire sequence being called a "control sequence". Each of the four working sets G0 through G3 may be a 94-character set or a 94 -character multi-byte set . Additionally, G1 through G3 may be a 96- or 96 -character set. In a 96- or 96 -character set, the bytes 0x20 through 0x7F when GL-invoked, or 0xA0 through 0xFF when GR-invoked, are allocated to and may be used by
21877-475: The range 0x30–0x3F are reserved for unregistered private uses defined by prior agreement between parties. Control functions from some sets may make use of further bytes following the escape sequence proper. For example, the ISO 6429 control function " Control Sequence Introducer ", which can be represented using an escape sequence, is followed by zero or more bytes in the range 0x30–0x3F, then zero or more bytes in
22044-648: The rival Chinese Communist Party (CCP), who proceeded to engage in sporadic fighting against the KMT-led Nationalist government . Following the country's invasion by the Empire of Japan in 1937, the CCP and KMT formed the Second United Front to fight the Japanese. The Second Sino-Japanese War eventually ended in a Chinese victory; however, the CCP and the KMT resumed their civil war as soon as
22211-462: The row (cell; 位 ; wèi ). (This structure is the same as used by other ISO-2022-based national CJK character set standards; compare kuten .) For example, the character "外" (meaning: foreign) is located in row 45 position 66, thus its qūwèi code is 45-66. The rows (numbered from 1 to 94) contain characters as follows: The rows 10–15 and 88–94 are unassigned. For GB/T 2312-1980, it contains 682 signs and 6763 Chinese Characters. EUC-CN
22378-400: The row number (or qū, 区) and cell/column number ( ten or wèi, 位). The result of addition to the row number of the code point will form the high byte, and the result of addition to the cell number of the code point will form the low byte. For example, to encode the character "外" at qūwèi cell 45-66, the high byte will use the row number 45: 45+160=205= 0xCD , and the low byte will come from
22545-461: The same qūwèi encoding format (later used in ISO-2022-CN), but has no relation with characters encoded in GB/T 2312. While GB/T 2312 covers over 99.99% contemporary Chinese text usage, historical texts and many names remain out of scope. Old GB 2312 standard includes 6,763 Chinese characters (on two levels: the first is arranged by reading, the second by radical then number of strokes), along with symbols and punctuation, Japanese kana ,
22712-404: The same byte range as ASCII: the value of the first byte is from 0x21–0x77 (33–119), while the value of the second byte is from 0x21–0x7E (33–126). As the byte range overlaps ASCII significantly, special characters are required to indicate whether a character is in the ASCII range or is part of the two-byte sequence of extended region, namely the Shift Out and Shift In functions. This poses
22879-590: The same layout, but in a different row. This row contains basic support for the modern Greek alphabet , without diacritics or the final sigma . The highlighted characters are presentation forms of punctuation marks for vertical writing, and are not included in GB/T 2312 proper, but are included in this row by GB/T 12345, Windows code page 936 , Mac OS Simplified Chinese, and GB 18030. They are seen as "standard extensions to GB 2312". Conversely, ISO-IR-165 includes patterned semigraphic characters in this row (mostly without exact counterparts in Unicode), colliding with
23046-460: The same layout, but in a different row. This set contains Katakana for writing the Japanese language . However, the Japanese long vowel mark , which is used in katakana text and included in row 1 of JIS X 0208 , is not included in GB/T 2312, although it is added in GBK and GB 18030 outside of the main GB/T 2312 plane, at 0xA960. Compare with row 5 of JIS X 0208 , which this row matches, and with row 11 of KS X 1001 and of KPS 9566 , which use
23213-669: The same pair of C0 control characters (0x0F and 0x0E) as the names "shift in" (SI) and "shift out" (SO). However, the standard refers to them as LS0 and LS1 when they are used in 8-bit environments and as SI and SO when they are used in 7-bit environments. The ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard permits, but discourages, invoking G1, G2 or G3 in both GL and GR simultaneously. The ISO International register of coded character sets to be used with escape sequences (ISO-IR) lists graphical character sets, control code sets, single control codes and so forth which have been registered for use with ISO/IEC 2022. The procedure for registering codes and sets with
23380-440: The set is single-byte or multi-byte (although not how many bytes it uses if it is multi-byte), and also whether each byte has 94 or 96 permitted values. ISO/IEC 2022 coding specifies a two-layer mapping between character codes and displayed characters. Escape sequences allow any of a large registry of graphic character sets to be "designated" into one of four working sets, named G0 through G3, and shorter control sequences specify
23547-407: The set. In a 94- or 94 -character set, the bytes 0x20 and 0x7F are not used. When a 96- or 96 -character set is invoked in the GL region, the space and delete characters (codes 0x20 and 0x7F) are not available until a 94- or 94 -character set (such as the G0 set) is invoked in GL. 96-character sets cannot be designated to G0. Registration of a set as a 96-character set does not necessarily mean that
23714-424: The sets (e.g. JIS X 0201 ), although some instead have GR codes specifying G2 characters, with the corresponding 7-bit code using a single-shift code to access the second set (e.g. T.51 ). The codes shown in the table below are the most common encodings of these control codes, conforming to ISO/IEC 6429 . The LS2, LS3, LS1R, LS2R and LS3R shifts are registered as single control functions and are always encoded as
23881-403: The single-shift area. This must be specified in the definition of the code version. For instance, ISO/IEC 4873 specifies GL, whereas packed EUC specifies GR. In 7-bit environments, only GL is used as the single-shift area. If necessary, which single-shift area is used may be communicated using announcer sequences . The names "locking shift zero" (LS0) and "locking shift one" (LS1) refer to
24048-468: The single-shifts as C0 control codes are available in certain control code sets. For example, SS2 and SS3 are usually available at 0x19 and 0x1D respectively in T.51 and T.61 . This coding is currently recommended by ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 for applications requiring 7-bit single-byte representations of SS2 and SS3, and may also be used for SS2 only, although older code sets with SS2 at 0x1C also exist, and were mentioned as such in an earlier edition of
24215-563: The sole control of the CCP. The CCP controls appointments in government bodies, with most senior government officials being CCP members. The National People's Congress (NPC), with nearly 3,000-members, is constitutionally the " highest organ of state power ", though it has been also described as a " rubber stamp " body. The NPC meets annually, while the NPC Standing Committee , around 150 members elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months. Elections are indirect and not pluralistic, with nominations at all levels being controlled by
24382-495: The south, the general Liu Yu secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the Liu Song . The various successors of these states became known as the Northern and Southern dynasties , with the two areas finally reunited by the Sui in 581. The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy and imperial examination system, constructed the Grand Canal , and patronized Buddhism . However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and
24549-521: The standard. The 0x8E and 0x8F coding of the single shifts as shown below is mandatory for ISO/IEC 4873 levels 2 and 3. Although officially considered shift codes and named accordingly, single-shift codes are not always viewed as shifts, and they may simply be viewed as prefix bytes (i.e. the first bytes in a multi-byte sequence), since they do not require the encoder to keep the currently active set as state , unlike locking shift codes. In 8-bit environments, either GL or GR, but not both, may be used as
24716-443: The standardization of Chinese characters, measurements , road widths, and currency . His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes in Guangxi , Guangdong , and Northern Vietnam . The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death. Following widespread revolts during which the imperial library was burned , the Han dynasty emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, creating
24883-405: The string ISO 646-1983//CHARSET International Reference Version (IRV)//ESC 2/5 4/0 can be used to identify the International Reference Version of ISO 646 -1983, and the HTML 4.01 specification uses ISO Registration Number 177//CHARSET ISO/IEC 10646-1:1993 UCS-4 with implementation level 3//ESC 2/5 2/15 4/6 to identify Unicode. The textual representation of the escape sequence, included in
25050-409: The third element of the FPI, will be recognised by SGML implementations for supported character sets. Escape sequences to designate character sets take the form ESC I [ I ...] F . As mentioned above, the intermediate ( I ) bytes are from the range 0x20–0x2F, and the final ( F ) byte is from the range 0x30–0x7E. The first I byte (or, for a multi-byte set, the first two) identifies
25217-458: The time of the Warring States period of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven major powerful states left. The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six states, reunited China and established the dominant order of autocracy . King Zheng of Qin proclaimed himself the Emperor of the Qin dynasty , becoming the first emperor of a unified China. He enacted Qin's legalist reforms, notably
25384-424: The two-byte character sets, the code point of each character is normally specified in so-called row-cell or kuten form, which comprises two numbers between 1 and 94 inclusive, specifying a row and cell of that character within the zone. For a three-byte set, an additional plane number is included at the beginning. The escape sequences do not only declare which character set is being used, but also whether
25551-423: The type of character set and the working set it is to be designated to, whereas the F byte (and any additional I bytes) identify the character set itself, as assigned in the ISO-IR register (or, for the private-use escape sequences, by prior agreement). Additional I bytes may be added before the F byte to extend the F byte range. This is currently only used with 94-character sets, where codes of
25718-424: The war ended. In 1949, the resurgent Communists established control over most of the country, proclaiming the People's Republic of China and forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to the island of Taiwan . The country was split, with both sides claiming to be the sole legitimate government of China . Following the implementation of land reforms , further attempts by the PRC to realize communism failed:
25885-410: The working set that is "invoked" to interpret bytes in the stream. Encoding byte values ("bit combinations") are often given in column-line notation , where two decimal numbers in the range 00–15 (each corresponding to a single hexadecimal digit) are separated by a slash. Hence, for instance, codes 2/0 (0x20) through 2/15 (0x2F) inclusive may be referred to as "column 02". This is the notation used in
26052-399: The world's largest economy by PPP-adjusted GDP , the second-largest economy by nominal GDP , and the second-wealthiest country , albeit ranking poorly in measures of democracy , human rights and religious freedom . The country has been one of the fastest-growing major economies and is the world's largest manufacturer and exporter , as well as the second-largest importer . China is
26219-485: The world), 1,221 species of birds (eighth), 424 species of reptiles (seventh) and 333 species of amphibians (seventh). Wildlife in China shares habitat with, and bears acute pressure from, one of the world's largest population of humans. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction , due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and traditional Chinese medicine . Endangered wildlife
26386-428: The world), 13.2% from hydroelectric power (largest), 9.4% from wind (largest), 6.2% from solar energy (largest), 4.6% from nuclear energy (second-largest), 3.3% from natural gas (fifth-largest), and 2.2% from bioenergy (largest); in total, 31% of China's energy came from renewable energy sources. Despite its emphasis on renewables, China remains deeply connected to global oil markets and next to India, has been
26553-453: Was wiped out by the KMT armies in 1934, leading the CCP to initiate the Long March and relocate to Yan'an in Shaanxi . It would be the base of the communists before major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949. In 1931, Japan invaded and occupied Manchuria . Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theater of World War II . The war forced an uneasy alliance between
26720-406: Was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by Li Zicheng . The Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing dynasty , then allied with Ming dynasty general Wu Sangui , overthrew Li's short-lived Shun dynasty and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912,
26887-417: Was devastated and weakened by the An Lushan rebellion in the 8th century. In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended the separatist situation in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and the Liao dynasty . The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish
27054-414: Was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahabharata (5th century BCE) and the Laws of Manu (2nd century BCE). In 1655, Martino Martini suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE). Although use in Indian sources precedes this dynasty, this derivation is still given in various sources. The origin of the Sanskrit word
27221-464: Was most recently revised in 1994. ISO 2022 specifies a general structure which character encodings can conform to, dedicating particular ranges of bytes ( 0x 00–1F and 0x7F–9F) to be used for non-printing control codes for formatting and in-band instructions (such as line breaks or formatting instructions for text terminals ), rather than graphical characters . It also specifies a syntax for escape sequences, multiple-byte sequences beginning with
27388-448: Was not used by the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced through Portuguese , Malay , and Persian back to the Sanskrit word Cīna , used in ancient India . "China" appears in Richard Eden 's 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa . Barbosa's usage was derived from Persian Chīn ( چین ), which in turn derived from Sanskrit Cīna ( चीन ). Cīna
27555-408: Was rebuked, with millions rehabilitated. Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978, and instituted large-scale political and economic reforms , together with the " Eight Elders ", most senior and influential members of the party. The government loosened its control and the communes were gradually disbanded. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized. While foreign trade became
27722-492: Was strengthened in part to suppress anti-Qing sentiment with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, like the Haijin during the early Qing period and ideological control as represented by the literary inquisition , causing some social and technological stagnation. In the mid-19th century, the Opium Wars with Britain and France forced China to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to
27889-422: Was the last imperial dynasty of China. The Ming-Qing transition (1618–1683) cost 25 million lives, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurated another flowering of the arts. After the Southern Ming ended, the further conquest of the Dzungar Khanate added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire. Meanwhile, China's population growth resumed and shortly began to accelerate. It
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