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129-592: Of these five tribal ethnic groups, the Xiongnu and Xianbei were nomadic peoples from the northern steppes . The ethnic identity of the Xiongnu is uncertain, but the Xianbei appear to have been Mongolic . The Jie, another pastoral people, may have been a branch of the Xiongnu, who may have been Yeniseian or Iranian . The Di and Qiang were from the highlands of western China. The Qiang were predominantly herdsmen and spoke Sino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman) languages , while

258-574: A Muslim from Bukhara , Sayyid Ajall Shams al-Din Omar , as governor of Yunnan after conquering the Bai -led Dali Kingdom . Sayyid Ajall is best known among Chinese for helping sinicize the Yunnan province; the promotion of Islam , Confucianism , and Buddhism would be part of his ' civilizing mission ' upon the non-Han Chinese peoples in Yunnan, who he viewed as "backward and barbarian." He founded

387-504: A "Chinese style" city called Zhongjing Cheng, where modern Kunming is today, and ordered that a Buddhist temple , two mosques , and a Confucian temple be built in the city. The latter temple, built in 1274 and doubled as a school, was the first Confucian temple ever to be built in Yunnan. By incorporating Chinese and consequently Confucian thought in the dynasty, scholars now deem Kublai Khan as an adopted Chinese citizen of Mongol ethnicity, rather than simply being mutually excluded from

516-541: A country where 85% of its inhabitants were nomadic herders. Today only 15% remain nomads. As many as 2 million nomadic Kuchis wandered over Afghanistan in the years before the Soviet invasion , and most experts agreed that by 2000 the number had fallen dramatically, perhaps by half. A severe drought had destroyed 80% of the livestock in some areas. Niger experienced a serious food crisis in 2005 following erratic rainfall and desert locust invasions. Nomads such as

645-563: A couple of kilometres from each other. The geographical closeness of families is usually for mutual support. Pastoral nomad societies usually do not have large populations. One nomadic society, the Mongols , gave rise to the largest land empire in history. The Mongols originally consisted of loosely organized nomadic tribes in Mongolia, Manchuria, and Siberia. In the late 12th century, Genghis Khan united them and other nomadic tribes to found

774-418: A derogatory sense. According to Gérard Chaliand , terrorism originated in nomad-warrior cultures. He points to Machiavelli 's classification of war into two types, which Chaliand interprets as describing a difference between warfare in sedentary and nomadic societies: There are two different kinds of war. The one springs from the ambition of princes or republics that seek to extend their empire; such were

903-768: A descendant of the Qiangqu tribe (羌渠) of the Southern Xiongnu. Their exact origins is still debated by modern scholars, as theories range from them originating from the Tocharian or Eastern Iranian people of Sogdia to the Yeniseian people , but with no general consensus. When a great famine broke out in Bing province in 303, many of the Jie and other hu people were displaced before being captured and sold into slavery by

1032-438: A desire for improved standards of living, effectively led most Bedouin to become settled citizens of various nations, rather than stateless nomadic herders. A century ago, nomadic Bedouin still made up some 10% of the total Arab population. Today, they account for some 1% of the total. At independence in 1960, Mauritania was essentially a nomadic society. The great Sahel droughts of the early 1970s caused massive problems in

1161-620: A fixed annual or seasonal pattern of movements and settlements. Nomadic people traditionally travel by animal, canoe or on foot. Animals include camels, horses and alpaca. Today, some nomads travel by motor vehicle. Some nomads may live in homes or homeless shelters, though this would necessarily be on a temporary or itinerant basis. Nomads keep moving for different reasons. Nomadic foragers move in search of game, edible plants, and water. Aboriginal Australians, Negritos of Southeast Asia, and San of Africa, for example, traditionally move from camp to camp to hunt and gather wild plants. Some tribes of

1290-709: A form of legitimacy. In 304, at the height of the War of the Eight Princes , Liu Yuan of the Five Divisions rebelled and founded the Han-Zhao dynasty . He claimed direct descent from the Southern Xiongnu chanyus and, by extension, the Han princesses, as he portrayed his state as a restoration of the Han dynasty. The Tiefu tribe also descended from a member of the Southern Xiongnu imperial family, but had intermingled with

1419-483: A key part of enhancing "ethnic unity". As of 2019 , it was estimated that Chinese authorities may have detained one and a half million people in secretive internment camps. The vast majority of those forcibly interned are Muslim Uyghurs but Kazakhs and other minority groups have also been included. In September 2020, sinicization policies targeted Muslim Utsuls in the Hainan province. Restrictions included limiting

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1548-458: A part of the secondary-products revolution proposed by Andrew Sherratt , in which early pre-pottery Neolithic cultures that had used animals as live meat ("on the hoof") also began using animals for their secondary products, for example: milk and its associated dairy products , wool and other animal hair, hides (and consequently leather ), manure (for fuel and fertilizer ), and traction. The first nomadic pastoral society developed in

1677-435: A pattern of transhumance . Since the 1990s, as the cash economy shrank, unemployed relatives were reabsorbed into family farms, and the importance of this form of nomadism has increased. The symbols of nomadism, specifically the crown of the grey felt tent known as the yurt , appears on the national flag, emphasizing the central importance of nomadism in the genesis of the modern nation of Kyrgyzstan . From 1920 to 2008,

1806-473: A quote by the Former Qin ruler, Fu Jian , although it was not specified who the five exactly were. Modern historians like Chen Yinke and Zhou Yiliang believe that the "Five Barbarians" in this case was simply in reference to the " Five Virtues of Beginning and End ", a theoretical concept often invoked by Chinese dynasties to legitimize their reigns. The Five Barbarians as a concept only emerged during

1935-576: A separate dialect or language is spoken. They are speaking languages of Indic origin and many are structured somewhat like an argot or secret language, with vocabularies drawn from various languages. There are indications that in northern Iran at least one community speaks Romani language , and some groups in Turkey also speak Romani. In Afghanistan, the Nausar worked as tinkers and animal dealers. Ghorbat men mainly made sieves , drums, and bird cages, and

2064-510: A service community to the Jamshedi , after they fled Baluchistan because of feuds. Still some groups such as Sarıkeçililer continues nomadic lifestyle between coastal towns Mediterranean and Taurus Mountains even though most of them were settled by both late Ottoman and Turkish republic. The Bukat people of Borneo in Malaysia live within the region of the river Mendalam , which

2193-411: A variety of commercial or service activities. Formerly, all or a majority of their members were itinerant, and this largely holds true today. Migration generally takes place within the political boundaries of a single state these days. Each of the peripatetic communities is multilingual, it speaks one or more of the languages spoken by the local sedentary populations, and, additionally, within each group,

2322-440: Is tsampa and they drink Tibetan style butter tea . Pala will eat heartier foods in the winter months to help keep warm. Some of the customary restrictions they explain as cultural saying only that drokha do not eat certain foods, even some that may be naturally abundant. Though they live near sources of fish and fowl these do not play a significant role in their diet, and they do not eat carnivorous animals, rabbits or

2451-617: Is also a lifestyle adapted to infertile regions such as steppe , tundra , or ice and sand , where mobility is the most efficient strategy for exploiting scarce resources. For example, many groups living in the tundra are reindeer herders and are semi-nomadic, following forage for their animals. Sometimes also described as "nomadic" are various itinerant populations who move among densely populated areas to offer specialized services ( crafts or trades ) to their residents—external consultants , for example. These groups are known as " peripatetic nomads ". The English word nomad comes from

2580-795: Is also often used to refer to processes or policies of acculturation or assimilation of norms from China on neighboring East Asian societies , or on minority ethnic groups within China. Evidence of this process is reflected in the histories of Korea , Japan , and Vietnam in the adoption of the Chinese writing system , which has long been a unifying feature in the Sinosphere as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to other Asian countries. In recent times, sinicization has been used in reference to China's policy toward minorities, particularly toward religious minorities within China. Policies include

2709-451: Is an issue in, for example, the Taiwan independence movement and Taiwan localization movements . The sinicization of Tibet is the change of Tibetan society to Han Chinese standards by means of state propaganda , police presence, cultural assimilation , religious persecution , immigration , population transfer , land development, land transfer, and political reform . According to

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2838-706: Is known for certain about the past of these communities; the history of each is almost entirely contained in their oral traditions. Although some groups—such as the Vangawala—are of Indian origin, some—like the Noristani—are most probably of local origin; still others probably migrated from adjoining areas. The Ghorbat and the Shadibaz claim to have originally come from Iran and Multan, respectively, and Tahtacı traditional accounts mention either Baghdad or Khorāsān as their original home. The Baluch say they were attached as

2967-987: Is not considered as one of the Sixteen Kingdoms. The Dingling that remained behind on the northern steppes were later known at the Chile , Gaoche or Tiele people . Goguryeo was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea and a rival to the Murong-Xianbei during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. During its invasion of Goguryeo in 342, the Former Yan captured several members of the Goguryeo imperial family and resettled them in Qingshan (青山, in modern Jinzhou , Liaoning ). One of them, Gao Yun , served

3096-487: Is served in bowls, possibly with sugar or milk . Milk and other dairy products, like cheese and yogurt , are especially important. Kumiss is a drink of fermented milk. Wrestling is a popular sport, but the nomadic people do not have much time for leisure. Horse riding is a valued skill in their culture. Ann Marie Kroll Lerner states that the pastoral nomads were viewed as "invading, destructive, and altogether antithetical to civilizing, sedentary societies" during

3225-679: Is still debated by scholars today, and a leading theory is that they were descendants of the Lesser Yuezhi that intermingled with the Qiang people. The Juqu clan of the Northern Liang dynasty were of Lushuihu ethnicity, but as their ancestors once served under the Xiongnu empire, they have been classified in more recent historiographies as "Xiongnu" to fit the Five Barbarians terminology. The region of Ba in eastern Sichuan

3354-484: Is thought to have developed in three stages that accompanied population growth and an increase in the complexity of social organization . Karim Sadr has proposed the following stages: The pastoralists are sedentary to a certain area, as they move between the permanent spring, summer, autumn and winter (or dry and wet season) pastures for their livestock . The nomads moved depending on the availability of resources. Nomadic pastoralism seems to have developed first as

3483-644: The Battle of White Wolf Mountain in 207. Many of the Wuhuan were relocated further south in China, and they gradually lost their cultural identity as they assimilated with the Han Chinese and Xianbei that filled the power vacuum. The Wuhuan continued to appear during the Jin dynasty and Sixteen Kingdoms period, but their name had become a generic term for hu tribes with Donghu backgrounds. They fought as auxiliaries for

3612-581: The Boxer Rebellion and the anti-Christian movement of 1922–1927 as early efforts to sinicize Christianity. The TSPM and China Christian Council arranged a conference in Shanghai on August 4–6, 2014, commemorating the anniversary of the TSPM. This conference included a seminar on the sinicizaton of Christianity, with Fu Xianwei, chairman of the TSPM, saying "churches in China will continue to explore

3741-504: The Di and Qiang were farmers and herders from the mountains of western Sichuan of southwest China. As migrants, they lived among ethnic Chinese and were sinicized to varying degrees. Many worked as farm laborers. Some attained official positions in the court and military. The numerous tribal groups in the north and northwest who had been heavily drafted into the military then exploited the chaos to seize power by local Chinese warlords. During

3870-867: The Duan -Xianbei who was granted a dukedom in Liaoxi Commandery for their services. The Xianbei were a deciding factor in the civil wars, and when the Han-Zhao broke away from Jin, the Tuoba joined forces with Jin and were also given a dukedom in Dai Commandery . Meanwhile, the Murong in Liaodong , isolated from the conflicts of the Central Plains, expanded their influence in the region by providing refuge to fleeing Chinese officials and peasants. As

3999-694: The Fulani of the Sahel , the Khoikhoi of South Africa and Namibia , groups of Northeast Africa such as Somalis and Oromo , and the Bedouin of the Middle East. Most nomads travel in groups of families, bands, or tribes . These groups are based on kinship and marriage ties or on formal agreements of cooperation. A council of adult males makes most of the decisions, though some tribes have chiefs. In

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4128-840: The Gadia Lohar blacksmiths of India, the Roma traders, Scottish travellers and Irish travellers. Many nomadic and pastorally nomadic peoples are associated with semi-arid and desert climates ; examples include the Mongolic and Turkic peoples of Central Asia , the Plains Indians of the Great Plains , and the Amazigh and other peoples of the Sahara Desert . Pastoral nomads who are residents of arid climates include

4257-528: The Hui population and adopted Chinese culture practice Chinese customs, speaking varieties of Chinese as their language. From the late Han dynasty to the early Jin dynasty (266–420) , large numbers of non-Chinese peoples living along China's northern periphery settled in northern China. Some of these migrants such as the Xiongnu and Xianbei had been pastoralist nomads from the northern steppes. Others such as

4386-797: The Later Yan dynasty and eventually overthrew the Murong. Historians either consider him to be the last ruler of Later Yan or the first ruler of Northern Yan , though his successors were from the Feng clan of Han Chinese ethnicity. According to the Xi Rong Lun , there had also been several Goguryeo families living in Xingyang since the Cao Wei period following the Wei campaigns against Goguryeo . Much like

4515-541: The Middle French nomade , from Latin nomas ("wandering shepherd"), from Ancient Greek νομᾰ́ς ( nomás , “roaming, wandering, esp. to find pasture”), which is derived from the Ancient Greek νομός ( nomós , “pasture”). Nomads are communities who move from place to place as a way of obtaining food, finding pasture for livestock, or otherwise making a living. Most nomadic groups follow

4644-552: The Mongol Empire , which eventually stretched the length of Asia. The nomadic way of life has become increasingly rare. Many countries have converted pastures into cropland and forced nomadic peoples into permanent settlements. Modern forms of nomadic peoples are variously referred to as "shiftless", " gypsies ", " rootless cosmopolitans ", hunter-gatherers, refugees and urban homeless or street-people , depending on their individual circumstances. These terms may be used in

4773-498: The Three Kingdoms period, Cao Cao initiated the policy of settling Xiongnu nomads away from the frontier near Taiyuan in modern Shanxi province, where they would be less likely to rebel. The Xiongnu abandoned nomadism and the elite were educated in Chinese-Confucian literate culture. The migration of northern Chinese people to the south further settled China as a multi-ethnic empire. The Northern and Southern dynasties

4902-656: The Tuareg and Fulani , who make up about 20% of Niger's 12.9 million population, had been so badly hit by the Niger food crisis that their already fragile way of life is at risk. Nomads in Mali were also affected. The Fulani of West Africa are the world's largest nomadic group. Pala nomads living in Western Tibet have a diet that is unusual in that they consume very few vegetables and no fruit. The main staple of their diet

5031-472: The War of the Eight Princes , many of these "barbarians" rebelled alongside their Han Chinese compatriots in the Upheaval of the Five Barbarians , although there were also those who initially fought on the side of Jin. Throughout the 4th century and early-5th century, several states were founded by the "Five Barbarians" in northern China and Sichuan , collectively known as the Sixteen Kingdoms . Ruling over

5160-548: The Western Jin period, their population had grown substantially, becoming a cause for concern among a few officials within the imperial court as they began to revolt. There were calls to have the tribes relocated outside the borders, most notably by the minister Jiang Tong in his essay, Xi Rong Lun (徙戎論; Discussion on Relocating the Rong Tribe), but these proposals were disregarded. As central authority collapsed due to

5289-663: The Xianbei and were pushed out from Bing to the Hetao region. When their member, Helian Bobo founded the Helian Xia dynasty in 407, he began emphasising his Xiongnu lineage as to claim descent from the Xia dynasty , which the Xiongnu traditionally regarded as their ancestors. The Jie were one of the many miscellaneous hu tribes in Bing province . The most famous Jie, Shi Le , was

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5418-554: The Xinjiang internment camps is a part of the ongoing sinicization policy by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Since 2015, it has been estimated that over a million Uyghurs have been detained in these camps. The camps were established under CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping 's administration with the main goal of ensuring adherence to national ideology. Critics of China's treatment of Uyghurs have accused

5547-526: The Xiongnu , the Qiang gradually turned to the Han dynasty as the Xiongnu empire collapsed. They were allowed to settle in the Guanzhong region along with the watersheds of the Wei and Jing rivers, where they practiced agriculture and lived with Han Chinese settlers. The Qiang were not a unified entity, and the various Qiang tribes often fought among themselves. However, the Qiang also faced oppression by

5676-443: The 11th century BC, some of the Baiyue peoples in the Yangtze River Delta started to sinicize, marked by their establishment of the Wu State . These Yue peoples, together with their southerner neighbours who formed the Yue State centuries later, are collectively termed as Yuyue peoples. Over time, the mutual contact between Baiyue peoples and Han Chinese, as well as southward spread of Han Chinese, mostly as war refugees , led to

5805-424: The 12th century in the Southern Song dynasty, when the official, Hong Mai wrote an essay titled " Wuhu Luanhua " (五胡亂華; " Upheaval of the Five Barbarians ") in his book, Rongzhai Suibi (容齋隨筆). Even so, he did not properly define the term, as the seven rulers he mentioned only accounted for four non-Han groups, namely the Xiongnu , Jie , Xianbei and Di . A later Southern Song official, Wang Yinglin defined

5934-501: The 18th century, the emperors developed a sense of Manchu identity and used Central Asian models of rule as much as Confucian ones. There is also evidence of sinicization, however. For example, Manchus originally had their own separate style of naming from the Han Chinese, but eventually adopted Han Chinese naming practices. Manchu names consisted of more than the two or one syllable Chinese names , and when phonetically transcribed into Chinese, they made no sense at all. The meaning of

6063-417: The 19th century even the imperial court had lost fluency in the language. The Jiaqing Emperor (reigned 1796–1820) complained that his officials were not proficient at understanding or writing Manchu. Eventually, the Qing royal family (the Aisin Gioro ) gave their children Chinese names, which were separate from the Manchu names, and even adopted the Chinese practice of generation names , although its usage

6192-513: The Americas followed this way of life. Pastoral nomads, on the other hand, make their living raising livestock such as camels, cattle, goats, horses, sheep, or yaks; these nomads usually travel in search of pastures for their flocks. The Fulani and their cattle travel through the grasslands of Niger in western Africa. Some nomadic peoples, especially herders, may also move to raid settled communities or to avoid enemies. Nomadic craftworkers and merchants travel to find and serve customers. They include

6321-405: The Baluch were musicians and dancers. The Baluch men were warriors that were feared by neighboring tribes and often were used as mercenaries. Jogi men and women had diverse subsistence activities, such as dealing in horses, harvesting, fortune-telling , bloodletting , and begging . In Iran, the Asheq of Azerbaijan, the Challi of Baluchistan, the Luti of Kurdistan, Kermānshāh, Īlām, and Lorestān,

6450-451: The Basseri were smiths and tinkers, traded in pack animals, and made sieves, reed mats, and small wooden implements. In the Fārs region, the Qarbalband, the Kuli, and Luli were reported to work as smiths and to make baskets and sieves; they also dealt in pack animals, and their women peddled various goods among pastoral nomads. In the same region, the Changi and Luti were musicians and balladeers, and their children learned these professions from

6579-548: The Battle of Fei River that they establish their first and only state of the Sixteen Kingdoms under the Later Qin dynasty . The second ruler of Later Qin, Yao Xing , was a key proponent in the spread of Buddhism by making it his state religion and sponsoring the influential Buddhist translator, Kumārajīva . The Qiang also founded the minor polities of Dangchang and Dengzhi . The Lushuihu (盧水胡; Lu River Barbarians) were an ethnic group that were distributed between Zhangye in modern-day Gansu and central Shaaxi . Their origin

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6708-608: The Chinese government of propagating a policy of sinicization in Xinjiang in the 21st century, calling this policy a cultural genocide , or ethnocide , of Uyghurs. After the Republic of China took control of Taiwan from the Empire of Japan in 1945 and relocated its capital to Taipei in 1949, the intention of Chiang Kai-shek was to eventually go back to mainland China and retake control of it. Chiang believed that to retake mainland China, it would be necessary to re-Sinicize Taiwan's inhabitants who had undergone assimilation under Japanese rule . Examples of this policy included

6837-412: The Di tribes. The Juqu clan of Northern Liang , though often classed as Xiongnu, were of Lushuihu ethnicity, while Gao Yun , who can either be interpreted as the last ruler of Later Yan or first ruler of Northern Yan , was an ethnic Goguryeo . The earliest recorded use of the phrase "Five Barbarians" or "Wu Hu" (五胡) comes from the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms (501–522) from

6966-434: The Di were farmers who may have spoken a Sino-Tibetan or Turkic language . Although the term "Five Barbarians" is often used alongside the Sixteen Kingdoms , there were in fact more than five relevant ethnic groups during the period, such as the Dingling and Wuhuan . Patrilineally , the ruling family of Cheng-Han descended from the Bandun Man , also known as Cong (賨), but are referred to as Ba-Di as they mingled with

7095-515: The Eurasian steppe ( c.  3300–2600 BCE), and of the Mongol spread in the later Middle Ages . Yamnaya steppe pastoralists from the Pontic–Caspian steppe , who were among the first to master horseback riding , played a key role in Indo-European migrations and in the spread of Indo-European languages across Eurasia. Trekboers in southern Africa adopted nomadism from the 17th century. Some elements of gaucho culture in colonial South America also re-invented nomadic lifestyles. One of

7224-643: The Five Barbarians as " Liu Yuan's Xiongnu, Shi Le's Jie, Murong -Xianbei, Fu Hong's Di and Yao Chang's Qiang ." Hu Sanxing's annotation of the Zizhi Tongjian affirms Wang Yinglin's view by listing the five as the Xiongnu, Jie, Xianbei, Di and Qiang, after which it became widely accepted. They were a mix of tribes from various stocks, such as proto-Mongolic , Turkic , Tibetan and Yeniseian . Others divide them into two Turkic tribes, one Tungusic tribe, and two Tibetan tribes, and yet others into Tibetan and Altaic (proto-Mongolian and early Turkic). While later historians determined that there were more than five,

7353-493: The Five Barbarians has become a collective term for all northern and western non-Han groups that lived during the Jin dynasty (266–420) and Sixteen Kingdoms period. Since the later Han dynasty , northern China was home to various ethnic groups from the north and west. These peoples were subjects of the Han, taking up agriculture and serving in the military force. While many of them retained their respective tribal identity, they also underwent various degrees of Sinicization . By

7482-470: The Five Divisions adopted "Liu" as their surname, claiming that their Xiongnu ancestors had married Han princesses through heqin , and their nobility were even allowed to hold government offices under the Western Jin dynasty . Nonetheless, they continued to resent the ruling Chinese dynasties due to their lower status and privileges. Though the Xiongnu were no longer a unified entity by the 4th-century, their descendants continued to invoke their ancestors as

7611-436: The Japanese influences on the culture that had occurred in the previous 50 years, and to help unite the recent immigrants from mainland China that had come to Taiwan with the KMT and among whom there was a tendency to be more loyal to one's city, county or province than to China as a nation. The process of re-asserting non-Chinese identity, as in the case of ethnic groups in Taiwan, is sometimes known as desinicization . This

7740-402: The Jie ceased to appear in records, though some key figures in later history may have descended from them. When the Xiongnu empire defeated them in the 3rd century BC, the Donghu people splintered into the Xianbei and Wuhuan . The Xianbei began occupying the Mongolian plateau in around 93 AD after the Northern Xiongnu were forced to the northwest by the Han dynasty. In the mid-2nd century,

7869-460: The Jin during the War of the Eight Princes and Upheaval of the Five Barbarians , and there were several fortified settlements (塢堡; wubao ) in northern China that were led by the Wuhuan during the Later Yan dynasty period. Nomadic people Nomads are communities without fixed habitation who regularly move to and from areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers , pastoral nomads (owning livestock ), tinkers and trader nomads. In

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7998-423: The Jin were pushed out of northern China, however, the Xianbei distanced themselves from Jin and established full autonomy over their fiefdoms. The Xianbei founded several states during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Murong were a prominent player during this period, as they founded the Former Yan , Later Yan , Western Yan and Southern Yan that ruled over the Central Plains . After the Battle of Fei River ,

8127-414: The Mehtar in the Mamasani district, the Sazandeh of Band-i Amir and Marv-dasht, and the Toshmal among the Bakhtyari pastoral groups worked as professional musicians. The men among the Kowli worked as tinkers, smiths, musicians, and monkey and bear handlers; they also made baskets, sieves, and brooms and dealt in donkeys. Their women made a living from peddling, begging, and fortune-telling. The Ghorbat among

8256-436: The Mongols in China, and bringing 'civilization' to Yunnan" (1997); and in "The Origins of Confucian and Islamic Education in Southwest China: Yunnan in the Yuan Period" (n.d.) and "The Sinicization and Confucianization in Chinese and Western Historiography of a Muslim from Bukhara Serving Under the Mongols in China" (1989). During the Ming conquest of Yunnan Chinese military soldiers were settled in Yunnan, and many married

8385-415: The Qifu and Tufa tribes in the Hexi founded the Western Qin and Southern Liang , respectively, competing for control over the region among themselves and other rival claimants. Most importantly, the Tuoba of Dai later founded the Northern Wei dynasty , which reunified the north in 439 and ushered China into the Northern and Southern dynasties period . The Di were a semi-nomadic people that resided in

8514-474: The Sinicisation of Protestantism will never change, and our determination to walk a path that is adapted to a socialist society will never waver." In December 2023, Wang Huning stated that Christian groups must "adhere to the direction of the sinicisation of Christianity." In December 2016, the Ninth National Congress of the Chinese Catholic Representatives reaffirmed their plan for the United Front Work Department 's Catholic Patriotic Association to uphold

8643-570: The U.S. branch of the Offices of Tibet , it has been underway since the Chinese regained control of Tibet in 1951. Sources quoted by Radio Free Asia have stated that in present-day Tibet, traditional Tibetan festivals have "been turned into a platform for propaganda and political theater" where "government workers and retirees are barred from engaging in religious activities, and government workers and students in Tibetan schools are forbidden from visiting local monasteries." In April 2016, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping declared that to "actively guide

8772-417: The Xianbei, the Wuhuan was another group that splintered from the Donghu people. Since the 2nd century BC, the Han dynasty allowed them to settle in the northeastern commanderies of Shanggu , Yuyang , Youbeiping , Liaodong and Liaoxi in exchange for their military services. During the fall of Han, the Wuhuan looked to establish their own dominion, but their power was broken after Cao Cao defeated them at

8901-405: The Xiongnu empire. A branch of the Dingling migrated west and resided in Kangju , becoming known as the Western Dingling, before moving into China. During the Sixteen Kingdoms period, the Zhai clan of the Western Dingling were one of the earliest groups to rebel against the Former Qin after their defeat at the Battle of Fei River , and in 388, they founded the short-lived Zhai Wei dynasty , which

9030-509: The adaptation of religions to socialist society, an important task is supporting China's religions' persistence in the direction of sinicization." He later reiterated this plan to the 19th Communist Party Congress saying "We will fully implement the Party's basic policy on religious affairs, insist on the sinicization of Chinese religions, and provide active guidance for religion and socialism to coexist." The Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) of Protestant churches in China has described

9159-525: The age of 7 or 8 years. The nomadic groups in Turkey make and sell cradles, deal in animals, and play music. The men of the sedentary groups work in towns as scavengers and hangmen; elsewhere they are fishermen, smiths, basket makers, and singers; their women dance at feasts and tell fortunes. Abdal men played music and made sieves, brooms, and wooden spoons for a living. The Tahtacı traditionally worked as lumberers; with increased sedentarization, however, they have taken to agriculture and horticulture. Little

9288-441: The animals can graze. Most nomads usually move within the same region and do not travel very far. Since they usually circle around a large area, communities form and families generally know where the other ones are. Often, families do not have the resources to move from one province to another unless they are moving out of the area permanently. A family can move on its own or with others; if it moves alone, they are usually no more than

9417-729: The bringing together of these two terms, which indicate two real visions of the world." In June 2018, the Bishops' Conference of the Catholic Church in China and the Catholic Patriotic Association issued a "Five-Year Plan on Carrying Forward the Catholic Church's Adherence to the Direction of Sinicization in Our Country". This document calls for Catholics to accept Communist party leadership, love

9546-512: The camp and most do not eat again until they return to camp for the evening meal. The typical evening meal may include thin stew with tsampa , animal fat and dried radish . Winter stew would include a lot of meat with either tsampa or boiled flour dumplings . Nomadic diets in Kazakhstan have not changed much over centuries. The Kazakh nomad cuisine is simple and includes meat, salads, marinated vegetables and fried and baked breads . Tea

9675-408: The case of Mongolian nomads, a family moves twice a year. These two movements generally occur during the summer and winter. The winter destination is usually located near the mountains in a valley and most families already have fixed winter locations. Their winter locations have shelter for animals and are not used by other families while they are out. In the summer they move to a more open area in which

9804-469: The chieftain, Tanshihuai unified the Xianbei and launched incessant raids on the Han's northern borders. Following his death, however, his descendants failed to maintain the support of the chieftains and his confederation fell apart. In the northeast, several Xianbei tribes near the border became Chinese vassals and were allowed to live within the Great Wall such as the Murong and Tuoba tribes after

9933-509: The country's citizen, respect and acceptance towards cultural differences among citizens of China. Critics argue that assimilation destroys ethnic diversity , language diversity , and cultural diversity . The historian James A. Millward has claimed that the People's Republic of China has used the concept of sinicization as a means to obscure Han settler colonialism . In China there are 292 non-Mandarin languages spoken by native peoples of

10062-672: The defeat of the Wuhuan at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain in 207. Others migrated west to live around the Hexi Corridor , with a branch of the Murong even subjugating the Qiang people of Qinghai and founding the Tuyuhun . At the height of the Jin princely civil wars , the Inspector of You province , Wang Jun allied himself with the local Xianbei and Wuhuan tribes, most notably

10191-693: The definition of fellow Chinese he governed. As such, Sayyid Ajall would be the one to introduce Confucian education , rituals , and traditions into Yunnan, including Chinese social structures, funeral rituals , and marriage customs . He would go on to construct numerous Confucian temples throughout his reign. Confucian rituals were taught to students in newly founded schools by Sichuanese scholars. The natives of Yunnan were instructed by Sayyid Ajall in such Confucian ceremonies as weddings, matchmaking, funerals, ancestor worship, and kowtow. The native leaders had their "barbarian" clothing replaced by clothing given to them by Sayyid Ajall as well. The governor

10320-464: The destruction of religious architecture and costumes, the attempt to blend religious traditions with traditions perceived as Chinese as well as the promotion of "ethnic unity". The assimilation policy is a type of Chinese nationalism aimed at strengthening the Chinese national identity ( Zhonghua minzu ) among the population. Proponents believe it will help to develop shared values, pride in being

10449-656: The development of agriculture, most hunter-gatherers were eventually either displaced or converted to farming or pastoralist groups. Only a few contemporary societies, such as the Pygmies , the Hadza people , and some uncontacted tribes in the Amazon rainforest , are classified as hunter-gatherers; some of these societies supplement, sometimes extensively, their foraging activity with farming or animal husbandry. Pastoral nomads are nomads moving between pastures. Nomadic pastoralism

10578-558: The eighth and ninth centuries in the Tang dynasty , Chinese male soldiers moved into Guizhou ( formerly romanized as Kweichow) and married native non-Chinese women, their descendants being known as Lao-han-jen (original Chinese), in contrast to new Chinese people who colonized Guizhou at later times. They still spoke an archaic dialect as of 1929. Many immigrants to Guizhou were descended from these soldiers in garrisons who married non-Chinese women. The Mongol -led Yuan dynasty appointed

10707-425: The fissures of Dryobalanops aromaticus); several types of rotan of cane ( Calamus rotan and other species); poison for blowpipe darts (one source is ipoh or ipu : see Nieuwenhuis 1900a:137); the antlers of deer (the sambar, Cervus unicolor); rhinoceros horn (see Tillema 1939:142); pharmacologically valuable bezoar stones (concretions formed in the intestines and gallbladder of the gibbon, Seminopithecus, and in

10836-410: The frontier commanderies within the Great Wall . The Southern Xiongnu served the Han by helping them to guard the northern borders, even assisting in destroying the rival Northern Xiongnu . However, tension was evident between the two sides. Being economically dependant on the Han and with the Han court interfering in their politics, the Southern Xiongnu would frequently rebel on the frontiers. In 216,

10965-632: The integration of Muslims into Chinese society. Ma Fuxiang was a hardcore assimilationist and said that Hui should assimilate into Han. The Hui Muslim 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) governed the southern region of Xinjiang in 1934–1937. The administration that was set up was colonial in nature, importing Han cooks and baths, changing the Uyghur-language -only street names and signs to Chinese, as well as switching carpet patterns in state-owned carpet factories from Uyghur to Han. Strict surveillance and mass detentions of Uyghurs in

11094-583: The largest nomadic populations in the world, an estimated 1.5 million in a country of about 70 million. In Kazakhstan where the major agricultural activity was nomadic herding, forced collectivization under Joseph Stalin 's rule met with massive resistance and major losses and confiscation of livestock. Livestock in Kazakhstan fell from 7 million cattle to 1.6 million and from 22 million sheep to 1.7 million. The resulting famine of 1931–1934 caused some 1.5 million deaths: this represents more than 40% of

11223-577: The late 19th and early 20th centuries. According to Lerner, they are rarely accredited as "a civilizing force". Allan Hill and Sara Randall observe that western authors have looked for "romance and mystery, as well as the repository of laudable characteristics believed lost in the West, such as independence, stoicism in the face of physical adversity, and a strong sense of loyalty to family and to tribe" in nomadic pastoralist societies. Hill and Randall observe that nomadic pastoralists are stereotypically seen by

11352-700: The latter were more specifically referred to as Ba-Di . The Fu clan that remained behind later founded the Former Qin dynasty , most notable for briefly unifying northern China under Fu Jiān . During the Qin collapse that followed the Battle of Fei River , the Di general, Lü Guang founded the Later Liang in Gansu . The Qiang were another western semi-nomadic people that resided in Qinghai and Gansu . Initially vassals of

11481-627: The local Di people. These people became known as the Ba-Di, with Ba referring to their ancestral homeland. The Li clan of Ba-Di ethnicity later moved back to Sichuan during Qi Wannian's rebellion, where they founded the Cheng-Han dynasty in 304. Later, the Ba chieftain, Gou Quzhi led the Ba and other tribes in Guanzhong against the Han-Zhao dynasty in 320. The Dingling were a nomadic people that originally lived south of Lake Baikal and were vassals of

11610-411: The local Han governors and officials, leading to frequent large-scale rebellions in the northwest that adversely affected the Han military and economy. The Qiang also fought as soldiers for the Han and later for the Cao Wei and Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. The Qiang continued to participate in rebellions in the northwest against the Western Jin dynasty , but it would not be until after

11739-713: The motherland and obey the state, as well as to embrace the state's directive to implement Chinese cultural integration within Catholicism. Churches in Hebei province and the Yibin Diocese of Sichuan province began holding training seminars immediately. Cardinal Parolin , the Vatican secretary of state, in a 2019 interview with the CCP-owned Global Times newspaper, claimed that sinicization

11868-526: The names that Manchus used were also very different from the meanings of Chinese names. The Manchus also gave numbers as personal names. Historical records report that as early as 1776, the Qianlong Emperor was shocked to see a high Manchu official, Guo'ermin , not understand what the emperor was telling him in Manchu, despite coming from the Manchu stronghold of Shengjing (now Shenyang ). By

11997-593: The native women. The rulers of the Qing dynasty were ethnic Manchus who adopted the norms of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The "orthodox" historical view emphasized the power of Han Chinese to "sinicize" their conquerors, although more recent research such as the New Qing History school revealed Manchu rulers were savvy in their manipulation of their subjects and from the 1630s through at least

12126-593: The natives call Buköt . Bukat is an ethnonym that encapsulates all the tribes in the region. These natives are historically self-sufficient but were also known to trade various goods. This is especially true for the clans who lived on the periphery of the territory. The products of their trade were varied and fascinating, including: "...resins (damar, Agathis dammara; jelutong bukit, Dyera costulata, gutta-percha, Palaquium spp.); wild honey and beeswax (important in trade but often unreported); aromatic resin from insence wood ( gaharu, Aquilaria microcarpa); camphor (found in

12255-519: The period from 8,500 to 6,500 BCE in the area of the southern Levant . There, during a period of increasing aridity, Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) cultures in the Sinai were replaced by a nomadic, pastoral pottery-using culture, which seems to have been a cultural fusion between them and a newly-arrived Mesolithic people from Egypt (the Harifian culture), adopting their nomadic hunting lifestyle to

12384-399: The population of nomadic pastoral tribes slowly decreased from over a quarter of Iran 's population. Tribal pastures were nationalized during the 1960s. The National Commission of UNESCO registered the population of Iran at 21 million in 1963, of whom two million (9.5%) were nomads. Although the nomadic population of Iran has dramatically decreased in the 20th century, Iran still has one of

12513-596: The prefix sino- , 'Chinese, relating to China') is the process by which non-Chinese societies or groups are acculturated or assimilated into Chinese culture , particularly the language, societal norms, culture, and ethnic identity of the Han Chinese —the largest ethnic group of China. Areas of influence include diet , writing , industry , education , language/lexicon , law , architectural style , politics , philosophy , religion , science and technology , value systems, and lifestyle . The term sinicization

12642-543: The principle of independence and self-governance, along with the promotion of sinicization. In March 2018, Archbishop Paul Gallagher , Secretary for Relations with States within the Holy See 's Secretariat of State , said that "two expressions or, more precisely, two principles stand out, which should interact with each other, namely "sinicization" and " inculturation ." I am convinced that an important intellectual and pastoral challenge arises in an almost natural way from

12771-528: The provincial inspector. The Jie and hu were thus scattered throughout Hebei and Shandong . Despite their seemingly small population, the Jie were thrusted into prominence by Shi Le, who founded the Later Zhao dynasty in 319 which dominated northern China for a majority of its existence before its demise in 351. Following Ran Min's culling order and the wars that followed the Later Zhao collapse,

12900-450: The purpose of seeking a new home in a new country, not for the purpose of subjecting it to their dominion as in the first case, but with the intention of taking absolute possession of it themselves and driving out or killing its original inhabitants. Primary historical sources for nomadic steppe-style warfare are found in many languages: Chinese, Persian, Polish, Russian, Classical Greek, Armenian, Latin and Arabic. These sources concern both

13029-524: The raising of stock. This lifestyle quickly developed into what Jaris Yurins has called the circum- Arabian nomadic pastoral techno-complex and is possibly associated with the appearance of Semitic languages in the region of the Ancient Near East . The rapid spread of such nomadic pastoralism was typical of such later developments as of the Yamnaya culture of the horse and cattle nomads of

13158-543: The region. There are also a number of immigrant languages, such as Khmer , Portuguese , and English. Before sinicization, non-Chinese indigenous peoples of southern China , collectively termed by the Chinese as Baiyue ( Chinese : 百越 ; lit. 'Hundreds of Yue Peoples' ), inhabited the coastline of China from as far north as the Yangtze River to as far south as the Gulf of Tonkin . As early as

13287-524: The religious and cultural level." In 2015, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping first raised the issue of "sinicization of Islam". In 2018, a confidential directive was issued ordering local officials to "prevent Islam from interfering with secular life and the state's functions". Yang Faming, leader of the Islamic Association of China , said in a 2018 speech that "We must allow traditional Chinese culture to permeate Islam and jointly guard

13416-400: The renaming of Japanese-named streets with mainland geographical names, the use of Mandarin Chinese in schools and punishments for using other regional Chinese languages, or " dialects " (such as Hakka and Hokkien ), and teaching students to revere traditional ethics, develop pan-Chinese nationalism, and view Taiwan from the perspective of China. Other reasons for the policy were to combat

13545-693: The results of the break-up of the Soviet Union and the subsequent political independence and economic collapse of its Central Asian republics has been the resurgence of pastoral nomadism. Taking the Kyrgyz people as a representative example, nomadism was the centre of their economy before Russian colonization at the turn of the 20th century, when they were settled into agricultural villages. The population became increasingly urbanized after World War II, but some people still take their herds of horses and cows to high pastures ( jailoo ) every summer, continuing

13674-454: The settled populace in Africa and Middle East as "aimless wanderers, immoral, promiscuous and disease-ridden" peoples. According to Hill and Randall, both of these perceptions "misrepresent the reality". Peripatetic minorities are mobile populations moving among settled populations offering a craft or trade . Each existing community is primarily endogamous, and subsists traditionally on

13803-542: The sinicization of Christianity [and] ensure Christianity takes root in the soil of Chinese culture, ethnicity, and society... To advance the sinicization of Christianity, churches will need guidance and support from government agencies in charge of religious affairs." In 2019, TSPM chairman Xu Xiaohong made a pledge to eliminate any Western "imprint" from Chinese faith saying "[We] must recognise that Chinese churches are surnamed 'China', not 'the West'" and "No matter how much effort or time it takes, our resolution in upholding

13932-947: The sinicization of most of the Baiyue populations that remained in southern China, be they in the Yangtze Valley or in coastal areas from the mouth of the Yangtze to the Gulf of Tonkin. The remnants of these peoples who were not fully sinicized are now recognized officially as the ethnic minorities of the People's Republic of China . Tuoba Wei of northern China was a sinicized empire of Mongolic-Xianbei origin. Historical Shatuo Turks founded three sinicized dynasties in northern China. Descendants of Buddhist Uyghurs (see also Yugurs , Kingdom of Qocho and Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom ) who migrated to Taoyuan County, Hunan , have assimilated into

14061-570: The south, Liu Bei . The Di in the northwest continued to rebel during the Western Jin dynasty . Between 296 and 299, Qi Wannian , a Di chieftain, led the various non-Han groups in rebellion, devastating the Guanzhong region and displacing many of the population. The Di that fled south into the Hanzhong and Sichuan basins founded the Chouchi and Cheng-Han regimes, although the Li clan that ruled

14190-506: The spiritual homeland of the Chinese people." He encouraged Chinese characteristics to be present in religious ceremony, culture, and architecture. In 2018, over one million Chinese government workers began forcibly living in the homes of Uyghur Muslim families to monitor and assess resistance to assimilation, and to watch for frowned-upon religious or cultural practices. These government workers were trained to call themselves "relatives" and have been described in Chinese state media as being

14319-527: The steppes of East Asia, the Xiongnu empire was once a powerful adversary to the Han dynasty, but by the 1st century AD, their power had greatly declined due to defeats to the Han, internal power struggles and natural disasters. In 50 AD, a few years after the empire was split into two, the Southern Xiongnu branch became a vassal to the Han. The court of the chanyu was moved to Xihe Commandery in Bing province while their people were resettled across

14448-555: The term Han ( 漢人 ) to refer to the Vietnamese people, and the name Trung Quốc (中國, the same Chinese characters as for 'China') to refer to Vietnam. Likewise, the lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu had referred to Vietnamese as Han people in 1712 when differentiating between Vietnamese and Chams. Chinese clothing was also adopted by the Vietnamese people. Variations of them are still being used today. Hui Muslim General Ma Fuxiang created an assimilationist group and encouraged

14577-566: The total Kazakh population at that time. In the 1950s as well as the 1960s, large numbers of Bedouin throughout the Middle East started to leave the traditional, nomadic life to settle in the cities of the Middle East, especially as home ranges have shrunk and population levels have grown. Government policies in Egypt and Israel , oil production in Libya and the Persian Gulf , as well as

14706-433: The true steppe nomads ( Mongols , Huns , Magyars and Scythians ) and also the semi-settled people like Turks , Crimean Tatars and Russians , who retained or, in some cases, adopted the nomadic form of warfare. Hunter-gatherers (also known as foragers) move from campsite to campsite, following game and wild fruits and vegetables . Hunting and gathering describes early peoples' subsistence living style. Following

14835-459: The twentieth century, the population of nomadic pastoral tribes slowly decreased, reaching an estimated 30–40 million nomads in the world as of 1995 . Nomadic hunting and gathering—following seasonally available wild plants and game—is by far the oldest human subsistence method. Pastoralists raise herds of domesticated livestock, driving or accompanying them in patterns that normally avoid depleting pastures beyond their ability to recover. Nomadism

14964-455: The unification of all of China proper by Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty . During this period, the process of sinicization accelerated among the non-Han arrivals in the north and among the indigenous people in the south. This process was also accompanied by the increasing popularity of Buddhism ( introduced into China in the first century ) and Daoism in both northern and southern China . During

15093-548: The warlord Cao Cao abolished the chanyu office and divided the Southern Xiongnu into Five Divisions around Taiyuan Commandery . From this point onwards, the Xiongnu declined as a coherent identity, as the Five Divisions became dominated by the Chuge branch, while those excluded mixed with tribes from other ethnicities and were vaguely referred to as " hu " and other terms for the non-Chinese. The "barbarian" tribes of Bing province underwent varying degrees of sinicization ; many among

15222-516: The wars of Alexander the Great, and those of the Romans, and those which two hostile powers carry on against each other. These wars are dangerous but never go so far as to drive all its inhabitants out of a province, because the conqueror is satisfied with the submission of the people... The other kind of war is when an entire people, constrained by famine or war, leave their country with their families for

15351-584: The western provinces of Gansu , Shaanxi and Sichuan . In 111 BC, the Han dynasty expanded westwards and established Wudu Commandery where the Di mainly resided, causing them to spread out in northern and western China. The Di people became Han subjects, and relations between the two were mostly stable until the fall of Han, when the Di tribes began to rebel. In 219, the warlord Cao Cao had 50,000 Di people relocated from Wudu commandery to Tianshui and Fufeng commanderies to deter them from allying with his rival to

15480-469: The wild asses that are abundant in the environs, classifying the latter as horse due to their cloven hooves. Some families do not eat until after the morning milking, while others may have a light meal with butter tea and tsampa . In the afternoon, after the morning milking, the families gather and share a communal meal of tea, tsampa and sometimes yogurt . During winter months the meal is more substantial and includes meat. Herders will eat before leaving

15609-702: The women peddled these as well as other items of household and personal use; they also worked as moneylenders to rural women. Peddling and the sale of various goods was also practiced by men and women of various groups, such as the Jalali, the Pikraj, the Shadibaz, the Noristani, and the Vangawala. The latter and the Pikraj also worked as animal dealers. Some men among the Shadibaz and the Vangawala entertained as monkey or bear handlers and snake charmers; men and women among

15738-487: The wounds of porcupines, Hestrix crassispinus); birds' nests, the edible nests of swifts ( Collocalia spp.); the heads and feathers of two species of hornbills ( Buceros rhinoceros, Rhinoplax vigil) ; and various hides (clouded leopards, bears, and other animals)." These nomadic tribes also commonly hunted boar with poison blow darts for their own needs. Figurative use of the term: Sinicization Sinicization , sinofication , sinification , or sinonization (from

15867-501: Was a form of 'inculturation', which is a Catholic missionary term that refers to adopting local culture to proclaim the gospel. He cited Matteo Ricci as an example and pointed out that the Chinese leadership had promised not to undermine the doctrine and nature of each religion. He stated in the interview: "These two terms, "inculturation" and "sinicization," refer to each other without confusion and without opposition: in some ways, they can be complementary and can open avenues for dialogue on

15996-487: Was a period in the history of China that lasted from 386 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Though an age of civil war and political chaos, it was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spread of Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism . The period saw large-scale migration of Han Chinese to the lands south of the Yangtze . The period came to an end with

16125-595: Was heavily populated by Muslims during the Yuan dynasty, with Rashid naming a city with all Muslim inhabitants as the "great city of Yachi." It has been suggested that Yachi was Dali City ( Ta-li ), which had many Hui people. Sayyid Ajall's son Nasir al-Din became Governor of Yunnan in 1279 after his death. Historian Jacqueline Armijo-Hussein has written on Sayyid Ajall's confucianization and sinicization policies in various papers, including in her dissertation "Sayyid 'Ajall Shams al-Din: A Muslim from Central Asia, serving

16254-615: Was home to the Bandun Man , who were also known as the Cong people (賨人) as their taxes were collected by the Han dynasty in the form of a money called cong (賨). Many of the Cong moved north to Hanzhong to become followers of the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice , but after Cao Cao conquered the region in 215, they were resettled further north to Lüeyang Commandery , where they mingled with

16383-749: Was inconsistent and error-ridden. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Manchu royal family stopped using Manchu names. The Niohuru family of the Manchu changed their family name to Lang , which sounded like "wolf" in Chinese, since wolf in Manchu was Niohuru; thus forming a translation. Although the Manchus replaced their Manchu names with Chinese personal names, the Manchu bannermen followed their traditional practice in typically used their first/personal name to address themselves and not their last name, while Han Chinese bannermen used their last name and first in normal Chinese style. Usage of surnames

16512-575: Was not traditional to the Manchu while it was to the Han Chinese. The Vietnamese Nguyễn emperor Minh Mạng sinicized ethnic minorities such as Khmers , Chams and Montagnards , claimed the legacy of Confucianism and China's Han dynasty for Vietnam. Directing his policies at the Khmers and hill tribes , Minh Mang declared that "We must hope that their barbarian habits will be subconsciously dissipated, and that they will daily become more infected by Han [Sino-Vietnamese] customs." Moreover, he would use

16641-566: Was praised and described as making "the orangutans and butcherbirds become unicorns and phoenixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps" by He Hongzuo , the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies. Sayyid Ajall would also be the first to bring Islam to the area, and thus the widespread presence of Islam in Yunnan is credited to his work. Both Marco Polo and Rashid al-Din Vatvat recorded that Yunnan

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