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66-536: The GFWC was founded by Jane Cunningham Croly , a leading New York journalist. In 1868 she helped found the Sorosis club for professional women. It was the model for the nationwide GFWC in 1890. In 1889, Croly organized a conference in New York that brought together delegates from 61 women's clubs . The women formed a permanent organization in 1890 with Charlotte Emerson Brown as its first president. In 1901 it

132-621: A black club. She refused on principle and was excluded from the proceedings. These events became known as "The Ruffin Incident" and were widely covered in newspapers around the country, most of whom supported Ruffin. In a time when women's rights were limited, the state federation chapters held grassroots efforts to make sure the woman's voice was heard. Through monthly group meetings to annual charter meetings, women of influential status within their communities could have their feelings heard. They were able to meet with state officials in order to have

198-518: A level of attention to ostracized populations which was not all that common in American society up to that point. It is also important to recognize that the verdict amongst historians pertaining to Collier and Japanese Americans is undecided and requires further academic scholarship. Anthropologists criticized Collier for not recognizing the diversity of Native American lifestyles. Hauptman argues that his emphasis on Northern Pueblo arts and crafts and

264-820: A national magazine; his article describing the socialist municipal government in Milwaukee, Wisconsin was published in Harper's Weekly . Collier moved to California in October 1919. In 1920, Collier was introduced to the Pueblo tribes by the artist Mabel Dodge , at the Taos Pueblo in Taos, New Mexico ; for much of that year he studied their history and current life. By the time Collier left Taos in 1921 he believed that Native Americans and their culture were threatened by

330-563: A place for themselves in an emerging state welfare bureaucracy, best illustrated perhaps by clubwoman Julia Lathrop's leadership in the US Children's Bureau. As part of this tradition of maternal activism, the Progressive-era General Federation supported a range of causes from the pure food and drug administration to public health care for mothers and children to a ban on child labor, each of which looked to

396-582: A say in community events. Until the right to vote was granted, these women's clubs were the best outlet for women to be heard and taken seriously. Women's clubs spread very rapidly after 1890, taking up some of the slack left by the decline of the WCTU and the temperance movement. Local clubs at first were mostly reading groups focused on literature, but increasingly became civic improvement organizations of middle-class women meeting in each other's homes weekly. The clubs avoided controversial issues that would divide

462-534: A sense of community and responsibility. He graduated from Columbia in 1906. From 1907 to 1919, he worked as secretary of the People's Institute , where he developed programs for immigrant neighborhoods, emphasizing pride in their traditions, sponsoring lectures and pageants, and political awareness. Collier centered his career on trying to realize the power of social institutions to make and modify personalities. In 1908, Collier made his first significant contribution to

528-649: A sociologist and writer, was an American social reformer and Native American advocate. He served as Commissioner for the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the President Franklin D. Roosevelt administration, from 1933 to 1945. He was chiefly responsible for the "Indian New Deal", especially the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 , through which he intended to reverse a long-standing policy of cultural assimilation of Native Americans . During

594-473: A survey of county organizations which was recognized by the National Federation of Women's Clubs. For the first time in the history of federated clubs, the accomplishments and the organization of these bodies were set forth. The membership peaked at 850,000 in 16,000 clubs in 1955, and has declined to about 70,000 in the 21st century as middle-class women moved into the public mainstream. During

660-485: A usable structure for Indian politics. Philp argues these failures gave momentum to the return to the previous policy of termination that took place after Collier resigned in 1945. In surveying the scholarly literature, Schwartz concludes that there is: A near consensus among historians of the Indian New Deal that Collier temporarily rescued Indian communities from federal abuses and helped Indian people survive

726-599: The Dawes Act , Indian General Allotment Act of 1887 . It had been directed at Indigenous assimilation by allotting Indian reservation land into individual household parcels of private property. Some communal lands were retained, but the US government declared other lands "surplus" to Indian needs and sold them privately, much reducing reservation holdings. Collier was outraged at the Americanization programs imposed by

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792-861: The Gila River Reservation , where Japanese American incarcerees were held during WWII. He saw this as an opportunity to extend his sociological research of the Native American population onto another minority group, justifying that he could help maintain the social structures present within the Japanese American community. His oversight of the Poston camp was carried out alongside the War Relocation Authority under director Milton S. Eisenhower , although he enjoyed seemingly unimpeded jurisdiction for much of

858-654: The New York Herald , David G. Croly . They were married on St. Valentine's Day February 14, 1856. They had three daughters, Minnie, Viola and Alice, and one son, Herbert David. Herbert Croly went on to a career in journalism, becoming editor of The New Republic magazine. She later told interviewers that thanks to her husband, her career in journalism advanced. He hired her at New York World , and her career progressed from then on. While most women were expected to abandon their career after marrying, Jennie June continued to work, and did so after having children. She

924-505: The BIA and provided it with major funding increases. In 1932 a Department of the Interior press release described Collier as a "fanatical Indian enthusiast with good intentions, but so charged with personal bias and the desire to get a victim every so often, that he does much more harm than good ... his statements cannot be depended upon to be either fair, factual or complete." Thus, Collier

990-559: The Black Hills Indian Treaty Council Seneca journalist Alice Lee Jemison said: "The Wheeler-Howard Act provides only one form of government for the Indian and that is communal or cooperative form of living. John Collier said he was going to give the Indian self-government. If he was going to give us self-government he would let us set up a form of government we wanted to live under. He would give us

1056-506: The Cold War era, the GFWC promoted the theme that American women had a unique ability to preserve world peace while strengthening the nation internally through local, national, and international community activism. The remaining 70,000 members are older now, and have less influence in national affairs. The affiliated clubs in every state and more than a dozen countries work locally "to support

1122-618: The Depression but also damaged Indian communities by imposing his own social and political ideas on them. Some of Collier's interests lived on in his sons (by his first wife Lucy): Charles (b. 1909) got engaged in the preservation of Los Luceros in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico , Donald became a prominent anthropologist, and John Jr. (1913–1992), a documentary photographer, significantly contributed to fields like applied and visual anthropology . Collier's efforts to lift

1188-592: The GFWC met in Milwaukee, and Josephine Ruffin , a black journalist, tried to attend as a representative of three Boston organizations – the New Era Club, the New England Woman's Club and the New England Woman's Press Club. Southern women led by president Rebecca Douglas Lowe, a Georgia native, told Ruffin that she could be seated as an honorary representative of the two white clubs but would not seat

1254-442: The Indian New Deal, the influence of Collier's efforts was felt in their process of acquiring autonomy in the last decades of the 20th century. Although remaining relatively obscure, his administration of a Japanese American incarceration center is representative of Collier's affinity for marginalized populations. That is not to say that he was an inherent good for the incarcerees at Poston, nor Native Americans, but that he exhibited

1320-527: The Museum of Northern Arizona (MNA) and became advocates and consumers for authentic Native American arts and crafts. Even more important, in western states, GFWC affiliates cooperated with Collier when he served (1933–45) as the New Deal's Commissioner for Indian affairs in his campaign to reverse federal policies designed to assimilate Indians into the national culture. In May 1925 Edith Brake West conducted

1386-536: The Progressive era, female activists used traditional constructions of womanhood, which imagined all women as mothers and homemakers, to justify their entrance into community affairs: as "municipal housekeepers," they would clean up politics, cities, and see after the health and wellbeing of their neighbors. Donning the mantle of motherhood, female activists methodically investigated their community's needs and used their "maternal" expertise to lobby, create, and secure

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1452-602: The United States when Jane was twelve. The family first lived in Poughkeepsie, New York , and later in Southbridge, Massachusetts . Jane first became interested in journalism while a student; she started by editing the school newspaper. Later, she edited and published the newspaper for her brother's church. By 1855, she had moved to New York to seek journalism work. Some sources say it was there she first used

1518-803: The Wheeler–Howard Act, this legislation reversed fifty years of assimilation policies by emphasizing Indian self-determination and a return of communal Indian land, which was in direct contrast with the objectives of the Indian General Allotment Act of 1887 . Collier was also responsible for getting the Johnson–O'Malley Act passed in 1934, which allowed the Secretary of the Interior to sign contracts with state governments to subsidize public schooling, medical care, and other services for Indians who did not live on reservations. The act

1584-652: The agency until 1945. Collier also set up the Indian Division of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). The CCC provided jobs to Native American men (of all ages) in soil erosion control, reforestation, range development, and other public works projects and built infrastructure such as roads and schools on reservations. Education was a high priority for Collier, who focused on ending boarding schools and transitioning to community day schools and public schools. He wanted BIA schools to stress

1650-568: The arts, preserve natural resources, advance education, promote healthy lifestyles, encourage civic involvement, and work toward world peace and understanding". In 2009, GFWC members raised over $ 39 million on behalf of more than 110,000 projects, and volunteered more than 4.1 million hours in the communities where they live and work. The General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC), one of the oldest women's volunteer organizations, seeks to build global communities where people unite in diversity and dedicate their service to changing lives. GFWC celebrates

1716-411: The arts. She later recalled this time as challenging since few newspapers wanted to hire a woman, and if they did, it was only in the topics of "women's interests". There was great resistance from male editors about hiring a woman to cover news or do serious reporting outside of what was considered women's sphere. As a result of her journalism career, she met her husband, fellow journalist and editor for

1782-581: The betterment of her sex. She called for more efficiency in women's dress and ridiculed bloomers as bizarre. She insisted that women's finest work was to be "the caretakers, the homemakers, the educators of children". Croly sympathized with the women's suffrage movement but was not active in it. She strongly supported equality and equal rights, giving special emphasis to new careers for middle-class women such as secretary, bookkeeper, nursing and department store clerk, in addition to traditional roles of teaching. Schlesinger argues that "Croly's lasting contribution to

1848-486: The country the clubs supported the local Carnegie public library, as well as traveling libraries for rural areas. They promoted state legislation to fund and support libraries, especially to form library extension programs. GFWC affiliates worked with the American Library Association, state library associations, and state library commissions and gave critical support to library education programs at

1914-579: The dances as immoral and pagan. He formed the American Indian Defense Association in 1923 to fight back through legal aid and to lobby for Indian rights. He failed to secure positive legislation to guarantee Indian religious freedom, but his efforts did force the Bureau to curb its program of cultural assimilation and to end its religious persecutions. Collier believed that the general allotments of Indian reservation land

1980-608: The director of the National Indian Institute and as a sociology professor at the College of the City of New York. He wrote several books, including a memoir published in 1963. Collier lived in Taos, New Mexico with his second wife Grace, until his death in 1968 at age 84. Having described the American society as "physically, religiously, socially, and aesthetically shattered, dismembered, directionless", Collier

2046-565: The encroachment of the dominant white culture and policies directed at their assimilation. Collier's encounter with the Taos Pueblo made a lasting impression on him. Collier was brought into the forefront of the debate by the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC), when it appointed him the research agent for its Indian Welfare Committee in 1922. The GFWC took a leadership role in opposing assimilation policies, supporting

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2112-467: The end of the war." An additional justification that he used contended that with his leadership, the Poston camp could help protect the Japanese American community. Harking back to his broader position as the director of the BIA , Collier wanted to uphold Japanese culture as well as "[protect] them from civilian racism, and prepare [them] to reintegrate into U.S. society after the war." Colliers independence

2178-399: The engagement of people of all backgrounds and believes in fostering an inclusive, equitable climate, and culture where community members can thrive. (Adopted on June 9, 2023) Jane Cunningham Croly Jane Cunningham Croly ( née Cunningham ; December 19, 1829 – December 23, 1901) was a British-born American author and journalist, better known by her pseudonym, Jennie June . She

2244-429: The failures of federal Indian policies and how they had contributed to severe problems with Native American education, health, and poverty. Collier's efforts, including the publication of the report, raised the visibility of Native American issues within the federal government. The Great Depression brought a harsher economic environment for most Native Americans. The administration of President Herbert Hoover reorganized

2310-576: The federal Office of Indian Affairs, which was the name of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) before 1947, because they suppressed key elements in Indian culture, many of which had deep religious roots. The BIA was supported by numerous Protestant organizations, such as the YWCA Indian Department, as well as the Indian Rights Association. Descended from the pioneers who had suffered from Indian raids, they denounced

2376-485: The grandeur of cooperative living to the American public. He did this by facilitating communities that modeled alternative forms of social organization with the intention of offering a substantive critique of American society which he had grown disillusioned with. A second intention of his work was to provide the U.S. government with information about people of Japanese descent that could be implemented in their assumed occupation of East Asian "dependencies it might control at

2442-408: The importance of preserving Indian culture. He emphasized the need to develop vocational training that would lead to good jobs. Collier's thought he could not only preserve Indian culture but hold it up as a model for the larger society. Historian T. H. Watkins comments that this was "rather a lot to ask of a people struggling merely to live on the fringe of civilization that had overwhelmed them; it

2508-476: The incarceration period. At Gila River, however, the War Department denied him jurisdiction. They did this citing that the camp would be built at the departments expense, not the BIA's, even in the face of his repeated petitioning for administration rights. Envisioning Poston as a place where the internees could "utterly give themselves to the community", Collier wanted to demonstrate the efficiency and

2574-570: The membership, especially religion and the prohibition issue. In the south and east, suffrage was also highly divisive, while there was little resistance to it among clubwomen in the west. In the midwest, clubwomen first avoided the suffrage issue out of caution, but after 1900 increasingly came to support it. Historian Paige Meltzer puts the GFWC in the context of the Progressive Movement , arguing that its policies: built on Progressive-era strategies of municipal housekeeping. During

2640-456: The possibility of Japanese Americans' permanent dependence on government aid, influencing his thoughts on resettlement. Because of the ideological differences and pressure from Myers to implement a uniform policy to all relocation camps, Collier relinquished control over the Poston to the WRA in 1943, effectively ending his involvement with Japanese American incarceration. Collier remained active as

2706-563: The press that she envisioned the club, (whose name is a Greek botanical term for a kind of tree that yields various kinds of fruits and flowers) as a salon where women could gather and exchange ideas, enjoy literature, and discuss the arts. She later organized its successor, the General Federation of Women's Clubs ) in 1890; she also founded the New York Woman's Press Club in 1889 and became its first president. Early meetings were held in her home. In her later years, Jennie June Croly

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2772-501: The progress of American women was her insistence that sex be submerged in competent performance". She told American women that financial independence and economic equality was as or more important than the right to vote. She called the first congresses of women in 1856 and 1869, organized Sorosis in 1869; it was an organization that advocated for greater acceptance and more professional opportunities for women. It did not concern itself with politics or women's suffrage. Jennie June told

2838-450: The pseudonym "Jennie June". Other sources say that "Jennie June" was a childhood nickname, given to her by a family friend when Jennie was twelve years old. After unsuccessfully applying to several newspapers, she was hired by Noah's Sunday Times (often erroneously reported as The New York Times ) edited by Mordecai Manuel Noah . At Noah's , she wrote a regular women's column, focusing on such traditional subjects as fashion, cooking and

2904-405: The return of Indian lands, and promoting more religious and economic independence. Collier rejected the contemporary policies of forced assimilation and Americanization. He worked for the acceptance of cultural pluralism to enable Native American tribes to preserve their own cultures. Collier believed Indigenous survival was based on their retention of their land bases. He lobbied for repeal of

2970-575: The right to continue to live under our old tribal customs if we wanted to." According to historian Brian Dippie, "(Collier) became an object of 'burning hatred' among the very people whose problems so preoccupied him." World War II speeded up the integration of Indians into the military and the urban labor force. The War Department in 1940 rejected Collier's suggestion for segregated all-Indian units. Indians were drafted into regular units, where they were treated on an equal basis with whites. In 1943, Collier married anthropologist Laura Maud Thompson , who

3036-657: The second World War, in part due to his position in the BIA, Collier also became involved with the incarceration of Japanese Americans at the Poston War Relocation Center and desired greater involvement at the Gila River War Relocation Center . Collier was instrumental in ending the loss of reservations lands held by Indians, and in enabling many tribal nations to re-institute self-government and preserve their traditional culture. Some Indian tribes rejected what they thought

3102-507: The state to help implement their vision of social justice. Kansas was a representative state, as the women's clubs joined with local chapters of the WCTU and other organizations to deal with social issues. The clubs continued to feature discussions of current literature, culture, and civic events, but they also broadened to include public schools, local parks, sanitation, prostitution, and protection of children. Paula Watson has shown that across

3168-458: The uniformity of his approach to all tribes are partly explained by his belief that his tenure as Commissioner would be short, meaning that packaging large, lengthy legislative reforms seemed politically necessary. Historians have mixed reactions to Collier's achievements. Many praise his energy and his initiative. Philp, although favorable on some points, concludes that the Indian New Deal was unable to stimulate economic progress nor did it provide

3234-545: The universities. Many clubs were especially concerned with uplifting the neglected status of American Indians. They brought John Collier into the forefront of the debate when they appointed him the research agent for the Indian Welfare Committee in 1922. The GFWC took a leadership role in opposing assimilation policies, supporting the return of Indian lands, and promoting more religious and economic independence. For example, southwestern clubs help support

3300-619: The well-being of Native Americans and was associated with the American Indian Defense Association, serving as executive secretary until 1933. His work led Congress to commission a study in 1926–1927 of the overall condition of Native Americans in the United States. The results were called the Meriam Report . Published in 1928 as The Problem of Indian Administration , the Meriam Report revealed

3366-495: Was a complete failure that led to the increasing loss of Native American land. He emerged as a federal Indian policy reformer in 1922, and strongly criticized the BIA policies and implementation of the Dawes Act. Prior to Collier, criticism of the BIA had been directed at corrupt and incompetent officials rather than the policies. For the next decade, Collier fought against legislation and policies that he thought were detrimental to

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3432-564: Was a pioneer author and editor of women's columns in leading newspapers and magazines in New York. She founded the Sorosis club for women in New York in 1868 and in 1889 expanded it nationwide to the General Federation of Women's Clubs . She also founded the Woman's Press Club of New York City . Jane Cunningham was born in England , the daughter of a Unitarian minister, Reverend Joseph Cunningham, and his wife Jane Scott. The family emigrated to

3498-452: Was criticised from both sides in the challenge he faced to reconcile the two Progressive ideals of "social justice and managerial efficiency". President Franklin D. Roosevelt took the advice of his new Interior Secretary Harold L. Ickes to appoint Collier as Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1933. Ickes and Collier had previously been quite hostile to each other, but now came to terms and Ickes supported Collier's policies. Collier ran

3564-599: Was effective only in Minnesota. Collier's decision to impose the Navajo Livestock Reduction program resulted in the Navajo losing half their livestock. The Indian Rights Association denounced Collier as a 'dictator' and accused him of a "near reign of terror" on the Navajo reservation. The American Indian Federation fought to remove Collier from office from 1934 to 1940. In a 1938 speech to

3630-551: Was even more to ask acceptance of such notions from a Congress that had demonstrated little faith in the belief that white civilization had anything much to learn from the Indians." Collier introduced what became known as the Indian New Deal with Congress' passage of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 . It was one of the most influential and lasting pieces of legislation relating to federal Indian policy. Also known as

3696-492: Was granted a charter by Congress. Dietz proclaimed, "We look for unity, but unity in diversity " and that became the GFWC motto. Southern white women played a central role in the early years. Local women's clubs initially joined the General Federation directly but later came into membership through state federations that began forming in 1892. The GFWC also counts international clubs among its members. In 1900,

3762-544: Was landmark legislation authorizing tribal self-rule under federal supervision, putting an end to land allotment and generally promoting measures to enhance tribes and encouraging education. Collier was highly regarded by most Indian tribes, although he was vilified by others. He antagonized Navajo people , and some Iroquois , including the Seneca people . For the Oklahoma Indian population, largely exempted from

3828-455: Was later criticized for his romantic views about the moral superiority of traditional society as opposed to modernity. Philp says that after his experience at the Taos Pueblo, Collier "made a lifelong commitment to preserve tribal community life because it offered a cultural alternative to modernity....His romantic stereotyping of Indians often did not fit the reality of contemporary tribal life." The Indian New Deal, Collier's chief realization,

3894-432: Was often referred to in the press as the "Mother of Women's Clubs", a term that was also mentioned when newspapers reported on how she became ill in the summer of 1898. She suffered a serious fall and broke her hip; her close friend Ellen Demorest , for whose fashion magazine she once worked, also became ill around that same time, suffering a stroke. It seems that she never entirely recovered and, in 1900 announced that she

3960-722: Was retiring from newspaper and club work. She made a trip back to England, to see the country of her birth after so many years away and, after returning to New York, she died of heart failure, on December 23, 1901, at the age of 72. In 1994, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Gilman, D. C. ; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Croly, Jane Cunningham". New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead. John Collier (sociologist) John Collier (May 4, 1884 – May 8, 1968),

4026-455: Was short lived, however, as Eisenhower, who had tolerated his Collier's practices at the Poston camp, announced his departure from the WRA in June of 1942. Seeing this as an opportunity to expand his influence over incarceration, Collier began a campaign to acquire (i.e. take) the vacancy, citing his prior experience with Native Americans and oversight of Poston as qualifying factors. Ultimately, he

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4092-509: Was sixteen. He was educated at Columbia University and at the Collège de France in Paris. At Columbia, Collier began to develop a social philosophy that would shape his later work on behalf of American Indians . He was concerned with the adverse effects of the industrial age on mankind. He thought society was becoming too individualistic and argued that American culture needed to reestablish

4158-562: Was the editor of Demorest's Magazine from 1860 to 1887. This magazine was devoted to women's fashions, and Jennie became known as an expert in the subject, widely quoted in other publications. She was later the editor of the Cycle Magazine (which she founded) and also the Home-Maker Magazine . Her columns were often syndicated on women's pages throughout the United States. Croly was a pioneer feminist, dedicated to

4224-489: Was unsuccessful in this endeavor losing out to the candidate Milton recommended, proving to be a point of contention. As time went on, Collier began to notice a divide growing between his ideological vision for camp life at Poston and that of new WRA director Dillon S. Myer . Collier had attempted to foster traditional culture and community within the camps. This was in direct contrast with Myers' goal of promoting assimilation and individualism. Additionally, Myer had emphasized

4290-468: Was unwarranted outside interference with their own political systems that the new approach had brought them. John Collier was born in 1884 and grew up in Atlanta, Georgia , where his father Charles A. Collier was a prominent banker, businessman, civic leader, and mayor of Atlanta (1897–1899). He had a tragic family life: his mother died of pneumonia and his father died, possibly a suicide, before Collier

4356-693: Was working as the Coordinator of the Indian Education, Personality and Administration Project. Serving as Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Collier had experience in overseeing a minority population segregated by the federal government. Using this experience, he petitioned the Roosevelt administration to establish the Poston War Relocation Center on the Colorado River Reservation and Gila River War Relocation Center on

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