133-531: Governor-general (plural governors-general ), or governor general (plural governors general ), is the title of an office-holder. In the context of governors-general and former British colonies, governors-general are appointed as viceroy to represent the monarch of a personal union in any sovereign state over which the monarch does not normally reign in person (non-UK Commonwealth realm ). Governors-general have also previously been appointed in respect of major colonial states or other territories held by either
266-607: A constitutional convention , which "has always been treated in practice as though it were a binding requirement". The convention was then adopted by every country that subsequently gained its independence from Britain and became a Commonwealth realm. During the abdication crisis in 1936, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin consulted the Commonwealth prime ministers at the request of King Edward VIII . The King wanted to marry Wallis Simpson , whom Baldwin and other British politicians considered unacceptable as Queen, as she
399-661: A governor-general . From 1910 to 1945, Japanese-administered Korea had a governor-general . From 1905 to 1910, Japan had a resident-general in Korea . From 1610 to 1942 the Dutch appointed a gouverneur-generaal ("governor-general") to govern the Netherlands East Indies , now Indonesia . Between the capitulation of the Dutch East Indies in 1942 and the formal end of colonial rule over Indonesia by
532-562: A personal representative , a de facto viceroy to rule on their behalf (as does their co-ruler, the Bishop of Urgell ). The French position of "adjunct département director, delegate for the sea and coast of the Atlantic Pyrenees and Landes " carries the title of "viceroy of Pheasant Island ". Pheasant Island is a French-Spanish condominium on the river Bidasoa . In Italian viceré : The highest colonial representatives in
665-644: A secular republic in 1950 and Pakistan as an Islamic republic in 1956. Alongside the Commander-in-Chief, India , the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. As the representative of the emperors and empress of India , who were also the kings and queens of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ,
798-698: A consequence of the statute's adoption, the Parliament of Canada gained the ability to abolish appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council . Criminal appeals were abolished in 1933, while civil appeals continued until 1949. The passage of the Statute of Westminster meant that changes in British legislation governing the succession to the throne no longer automatically applied to Canada. The Irish Free State never formally adopted
931-496: A constitutional crisis), the governor-general usually acts in accordance with constitutional convention and upon the advice of the national prime minister (who is head of the nation's government). The governors-general are still the local representatives of the sovereign and perform the same duties as they carried out historically, though their role is for the most part ceremonial (or partly ceremonial). Rare and controversial exceptions occurred in 1926, when Canadian governor general
1064-405: A few). It should be remembered that while governors-general do not normally take drastic action, he or she still has a responsibility to ensure that the constitution is respected and followed at all times. In many ways, the governor-general acts as an umpire/mediator (who must remain independent/non-partisan and objective) in the political scene. In some realms, the monarch could in principle overrule
1197-601: A government covering the area and possessions in East Africa, Arabian Peninsula and Persian Gulf , overseeing up to Cambay (Gujarat); a second one ruling the possessions in India (Hindustan) and Ceylon ; and a third one from Malacca to the Far East. However, Governor Afonso de Albuquerque (1509–1515) centralized the post into a plenipotentiary office, which it remained after his tenure. The typical duration in office
1330-414: A governor-general, as governors-general are representatives of the monarch rather than holding power in their own right, but this has not happened in recent times. In Australia, the present king is generally assumed to be the head of state, since the governor-general and the state governors are defined as his "representatives". However, since the governor-general performs almost all national regal functions,
1463-603: A governor-general. In Brazil , after a few governors, from 1578 until its promotion in 1763 to a viceroyalty (though various members of the nobility since 1640 had assumed, without sovereign authority, the title of Viceroy). The equivalent term in French is gouverneur général , used in the following colonies: Furthermore, in Napoleonic Europe successive French governors-general were appointed by Napoleon I in: From 1895 to 1945, Japanese-administered Taiwan had
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#17327659386501596-583: A monarchy or republic, such as Japan in Korea and Taiwan and France in Indochina . In modern usage, in the context of governors-general and former British colonies, the term governor-general originated in those British colonies that became self-governing within the British Empire . Before World War I, the title was used only in federated colonies in which its constituents had had governors prior to federating, namely Canada , Australia , and
1729-458: A single governor: Thereafter it had lieutenants-general and viceroys: Next were a series of viceroys (resident in France) from 8 October 1611 to 1672. Later there were governors and governors-general. The president of France retains, ex officio , the title of Co-Prince in the neighboring microstate of Andorra (a post previously occupied by the king of France) and continues to send
1862-493: A whole only with Australia's request and consent. Nonetheless, under section 9 of the statute, on matters not within Commonwealth power Britain could still legislate with effect in all or any of the Australian states, without the agreement of the Commonwealth although only to the extent of "the constitutional practice existing before the commencement" of the statute. However, this capacity had never been used. In particular, it
1995-898: Is a status of co-equality with Britain within the British Commonwealth. The second Article of the Constitution of the Free State", he added, "declares that 'All powers of Government and all authority, legislative, executive and judicial, in Ireland are derived from the people of Ireland' ". Motions of approval of the Report of the Commonwealth Conference had been passed by the Dáil and Seanad in May 1931 and
2128-842: Is an essential consequence of the equality of status existing among the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations that the Governor General of a Dominion is the representative of the Crown, holding in all essential respects the same position in relation to the administration of public affairs in the Dominion as is held by His Majesty the King in Great Britain, and that he is not the representative or agent of His Majesty's Government in Great Britain or of any Department of that Government." These concepts were entrenched in legislation with
2261-526: Is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice- , meaning "in the place of" and the Anglo-Norman roy ( Old French roi , roy ), meaning "king". This denotes the position as one who acts on behalf of a king or monarch. A viceroy's territory may be called a viceroyalty , though this term
2394-399: Is not always applied. The adjective form is viceregal , less often viceroyal . The term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy suo jure , although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term. Vicereine is more commonly used to indicate a viceroy's wife, known as the viceregal consort . The term has occasionally been applied to the governors-general of
2527-447: Is sometimes translated to English as viceroy. In 1830, emperor Minh Mạng abolished the post in order to increase the imperial direct ruling power in all over Vietnam. During the Han , Ming and Qing dynasties, there existed positions of viceroys having control over various provinces (e.g., Liangguang = Guangdong and Guangxi , Huguang = Hubei and Hunan ). In Siam before 1885,
2660-540: Is usually called Government House. The governor-general of the Irish Free State resided in the then Viceregal Lodge in Phoenix Park , Dublin , but the government of Éamon de Valera sought to downgrade the office and the last governor-general, Domhnall Ua Buachalla , did not reside there. The office was abolished there in 1936. In most Commonwealth realms, the flag of the governor-general has been
2793-488: The audiencias ( tribunal with the authority to judge), and the captaincies general (military districts), which in most cases became the bases for the independent countries of modern Hispanic America . These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, a corregidor (sometimes alcalde mayor ) or by a cabildo or town council. Audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts,
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#17327659386502926-716: The Albanian Kingdom (today Albania ). As viceré of Albania of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy were the Marchese Francesco Jacomoni di San Savino and after his departure General Alberto Pariani . Ban Borić was the first ruler and viceroy of Bosnia, appointed by Géza II of Hungary by 1154. His war affairs are documented as he fought several notable battles. He also maintained ties with knights Templar and donated lands in Bosnia and Slavonia to their order. His own biological brother Dominic
3059-660: The Australian House of Representatives : "The Governor-General is the viceroy of the Queen of Australia". The Australia Act 1986 also provide that all royal powers in Australia, except the actual appointment of the governor-general and the governors, are exercisable by the viceregal representatives. The noun viceroy is rarely used, but the adjective viceregal is standard usage. Namestnik (Russian: наме́стник , Russian pronunciation: [nɐˈmʲesʲnʲɪk] )
3192-627: The Balfour Declaration of 1926 . The main effect was the removal of the ability of the British parliament to legislate for the Dominions, part of which also required the repeal of the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865 in its application to the Dominions. King George V expressed his desire that the laws of royal succession be exempt from the statute's provisions, but it was determined that this would be contrary to
3325-590: The Balfour declaration that dominions were equal in status to one another and to the United Kingdom. Further conferences in 1929 and 1930 worked out a substantive framework to implement this declaration. This became the Statute of Westminster 1931. The Statute of Westminster gave effect to certain political resolutions passed by the Imperial Conferences of 1926 and 1930 ; in particular,
3458-659: The Canadian constitution —were excluded from the application of the statute because of disagreements between the Canadian provinces and the federal government over how the British North America Acts could be otherwise amended. These disagreements were resolved only in time for the passage of the Canada Act 1982 , thus completing the patriation of the Canadian constitution to Canada. At that time,
3591-534: The Commonwealth realms , who are viceregal representatives of the monarch. The position of a viceroy is by royal appointment rather than a noble rank. An individual viceroy often also held a separate noble title, such as Bernardo de Gálvez, 1st Viscount of Galveston , who was also Viceroy of New Spain . The title was originally used by the Crown of Aragon , where, beginning in the 14th century, it referred to
3724-557: The Constitution (Amendment No. 27) Act 1936 , passed on 11 December 1936. The following day, the External Relations Act provided for the king to carry out certain diplomatic functions, if authorised by law; the same act also brought Edward VIII's Instrument of Abdication into effect for the purposes of Irish law (s. 3(2)). A new Constitution of Ireland , with a president, was approved by Irish voters in 1937, with
3857-620: The Crown of Castile . With the Spanish colonization of the Americas , the institution of viceroys was adapted to govern the highly populated and wealthy regions of the north overseas: New Spain (Mexico and Philippines) and the south overseas: Peru and South America. The viceroys of these two areas had oversight over the other provinces, with most of the North American, Central American, Caribbean and East Indian areas supervised by
3990-767: The East India Company to the British Crown , the Governor-General as representing the Crown became known as the Viceroy. The designation Viceroy , although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament . Although the Proclamation of 1858 announcing the assumption of the government of India by the Crown referred to Lord Canning as "first viceroy and governor-general", none of
4123-574: The Free State election of 1932 on a platform of republicanising the Free State from within. Upon taking office, de Valera began removing the monarchical elements of the Constitution, beginning with the Oath of Allegiance . De Valera initially considered invoking the Statute of Westminster in making these changes, but John J. Hearne advised him not to. Abolishing the Oath of Allegiance in effect abrogated
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4256-575: The Imperial Conference , and subsequent issuing of the Balfour Declaration in 1926, the role and responsibilities of the governor-general began to shift, reflecting the increased independence of the Dominions (which were in 1952 renamed realms ; a term which includes the UK itself). As the sovereign came to be regarded as monarch of each territory independently, and, as such, advised only by
4389-691: The Indian Army . Under the terms of the Government of India Act 1919 , viceroys shared some limited aspects of their authority with the Central Legislative Assembly , one of the first steps in the establishment of Indian home rule . This process was accelerated by the Government of India Act 1935 and ultimately led to the independence of India and Pakistan as dominions in 1947. Both countries finally severed complete ties with Britain when they became republics – India as
4522-500: The Second World War ; the adoption was backdated to 3 September 1939, the date that Britain and Australia joined the war. Adopting section 2 of the statute clarified that the Parliament of Australia was able to legislate inconsistently with British legislation, adopting section 3 clarified that it could legislate with extraterritorial effect. Adopting section 4 clarified that Britain could legislate with effect on Australia as
4655-654: The Spanish East Indies had a governor-general , which was under the Viceroy of New Spain based in Mexico . After the successful Mexican War of Independence in 1821, the governor-general reported directly to Spain . From 1899 to 1935 under initial military rule then Insular Government , the Philippines was administered by a series of governors-general , first military and then civilian, appointed by
4788-748: The Sublime Porte rather than hereditary privilege. Pashas and beylerbeys were appointed to govern provinces called eyalets , until the promulgation of the Vilayet Law in 1867 ended the eyalet system, replacing it with more centrally-controlled vilayets . the beylerbey of the Rumelia Eyalet was the only provincial governor entitled to a seat in the Imperial Council , but only when a matter fell within his jurisdiction. The post of Tổng Trấn ( governor of all military provinces )
4921-454: The Union of South Africa . In these cases, the Crown's representative in the federated Dominion was given the superior title of governor-general . The first exception to this rule was New Zealand, which was granted Dominion status in 1907, but it was not until 28 June 1917 that Arthur Foljambe, 2nd Earl of Liverpool , was appointed the first governor-general of New Zealand . Since the 1950s,
5054-639: The United States in the late 18th century, whereafter British attention turned towards Australia and Asia. British policy with regards to the colonies began to be rationalized and streamlined in the 19th century. Responsible government , wherein colonial governments were held accountable to legislatures just as the British cabinet was responsible to the British Parliament, was granted to colonies beginning with Nova Scotia in 1848. Confusion existed as to what extent British legislation applied to
5187-427: The colonial secretary on the exercise of some of his functions and duties, such as the use or withholding of royal assent from legislation; history shows many examples of governors-general using their prerogative and executive powers. The monarch or imperial government could overrule any governor-general, though this could often be cumbersome, due to the remoteness of the territories from London. The governor-general
5320-536: The federal government of the United States . The equivalent word in Portuguese is governador-geral . This title was only used for the governors of the major colonies, indicating that they had, under their authority, several subordinate governors. In most of the colonies, lower titles, mainly governador (governor) or formerly captain-major ( capitão-mor ), prevailed The Balkan Wars of 1912–13 led to
5453-445: The minister of the interior . Until the 1920s, governors-general were British subjects, appointed on the advice of the British government, who acted as agents of the British government in each Dominion, as well as being representatives of the monarch. As such they notionally held the prerogative powers of the monarch, and also held the executive power of the country to which they were assigned. The governor-general could be instructed by
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5586-536: The "federation" of Italian East Africa (six provinces, each under a governor; together Ethiopia , Eritrea and Somaliland ) were no longer styled high commissioner , but viceroy and governor-general from 5 May 1936, when Italian forces occupied the Ethiopian Empire (today Ethiopia ), until 27 November 1941, when the last Italian administrator surrendered to the Allies. On 7 April 1939, Italy invaded
5719-678: The 18th century, Croatian bans eventually become chief government officials in Croatia. They were at the head of Ban's Government, effectively the first prime ministers of Croatia. The last ban held his position until 1941 and the collapse of Yugoslavia in World War II. An equivalent office, called the Exarch , was created in the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire towards the end of the sixth century for governors of important areas too far from
5852-599: The 18th century, when the new Bourbon dynasty established two additional viceroyalties to promote economic growth and new settlements on South America. New viceroyalties were created for New Granada in 1717 (capital, Bogotá ) and the Río de la Plata in 1776 (capital, Buenos Aires ). The viceroyalties of the Spanish Americas and the Spanish East Indies were subdivided into smaller, autonomous units,
5985-407: The 1921 treaty. Generally, the British thought that this was morally objectionable but legally permitted by the Statute of Westminster. Robert Lyon Moore , a Southern Unionist from County Donegal , challenged the legality of the abolition in the Irish Free State's courts and then appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London. However, the Free State had also abolished
6118-492: The 20th century. Dominions did not possess full sovereignty on an equal footing with the United Kingdom. The parliament of Canada passed a law barring appeals from its Supreme Court to the imperial Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1888, but in 1925 a judgement of the Privy Council determined that this law was invalid . Combined with the King–Byng affair the following year, this bred resentment in Canada and led to its insistence on full sovereignty. The leadership of
6251-514: The Australian states . This statute limited the legislative authority of the British parliament over Canada, effectively giving the country legal autonomy as a self-governing Dominion, though the British parliament retained the power to amend Canada's constitution at the request of Canada. That authority remained in effect until the Constitution Act, 1982 , which transferred it to Canada, the final step to achieving full sovereignty. The British North America Acts —the written elements (in 1931) of
6384-476: The British Parliament before it could become part of Canada's laws and affect the line of succession in Canada. The text of the British act states that Canada requested and consented (the only Dominion to formally do both ) to the act applying in Canada under the Statute of Westminster, while Australia, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa simply assented. In February 1937, the South African Parliament formally gave its assent by passing His Majesty King Edward
6517-410: The Commonwealth in the late 1920s, in 1929, the Australian prime minister James Scullin established the right of a Dominion prime minister to advise the monarch directly on the appointment of a governor-general, by insisting that his choice ( Isaac Isaacs , an Australian) prevail over the recommendation of the British government. The convention was gradually established throughout the Commonwealth that
6650-446: The Crown . Passed on 11 December 1931, the statute increased the sovereignty of the self-governing Dominions of the British Empire from the United Kingdom . It also bound them all to seek each other's approval for changes to monarchical titles and the common line of succession. The statute was effective either immediately or upon ratification. It thus became a statutory embodiment of the principles of equality and common allegiance to
6783-531: The Crown set out in the Balfour Declaration of 1926 . As the statute removed nearly all of the British parliament's authority to legislate for the Dominions, it was a crucial step in the development of the Dominions as separate, independent, and sovereign states. Its modified versions are now domestic law in Australia and Canada ; it has been repealed in New Zealand and implicitly in former Dominions that are no longer Commonwealth realms . England, and Britain after 1707 , had colonies outside of Europe since
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#17327659386506916-407: The Dutch in 1949, no governor-general was appointed. While in the Caribbean, various other titles were used, Curaçao had three governors-general between 1816 and 1820: The Philippines from the 16th through the 20th century had a series of governors-general during the Spanish and American colonial periods, as well as the brief Japanese occupation during World War II . Beginning 21 November 1564,
7049-454: The Eighth's Abdication Act, 1937 , which declared that Edward VIII had abdicated on 10 December 1936; that he and his descendants, if any, would have no right of succession to the throne; and that the Royal Marriages Act 1772 would not apply to him or his descendants, if any. The move was largely done for symbolic purposes, in an attempt by Prime Minister J. B. M. Hertzog to assert South Africa's independence from Britain. In Canada,
7182-439: The Executive Council would not amend the legislation unilaterally. The other Dominions backed Cosgrave and, when an amendment to similar effect was proposed at Westminster by John Gretton , parliament duly voted it down. When the statute became law in the UK, Patrick McGilligan , the Free State Minister for External Affairs , stated: "It is a solemn declaration by the British people through their representatives in Parliament that
7315-410: The Free State's Vice-President of the Executive Council , declared that "Ireland secured by that 'surrender' [the Treaty] a constitutional status equal to that of Canada. 'Canada,' said the late Mr. Bonar Law ,' is by the full admission of British statesmen equal in status to Great Britain and as free as Great Britain'. The constitutional status of Ireland, therefore, as determined by the Treaty of 1921,
7448-409: The Governor-General-in-Council. The viceroys reported directly to the secretary of state for India in London and were advised by the Council of India . They were largely unencumbered in the exercise of their authority and were among the most powerful men on earth in the Victorian and Edwardian eras, ruling over an entire subcontinent with a large military force at their disposal in the form of
7581-593: The Greek acquisition of the so-called "New Lands" ( Epirus , Macedonia , Crete and the islands of the eastern Aegean), almost doubling the country's territory. Instead of fully incorporating these new lands into Greece by dividing them into prefectures , the Ottoman administrative system continued in existence for a while, and Law ΔΡΛΔ΄ of 1913 established five governorates-general (Γενικαὶ Διοικήσεις, sing. Γενική Διοίκησις): Epirus, Macedonia, Crete, Aegean and Samos – Ikaria . The governors-general had wide-ranging authority in their territories, and were almost autonomous of
7714-401: The Imperial Parliament to extend to that colony. This had the dual effect of granting colonies autonomy within their borders while subordinating them to the British Parliament otherwise. Most of the remaining colonies in North America – everything north of the United States with the exception of Newfoundland – were merged into a federal polity known as "Canada" in
7847-411: The Irish Free State becoming simply "Ireland", or, in the Irish language , Éire . The head of state of Ireland remained unclear until 1949 , when Ireland unambiguously became a republic outside the Commonwealth of Nations by enacting The Republic of Ireland Act 1948 . In some countries where the Statute of Westminster forms a part of the constitution, the anniversary of the date of the passage of
7980-413: The Irish Free State, meanwhile, was dominated by those who had fought a war of independence against Britain and who had agreed to dominion status as a compromise; they took a maximalist view of the autonomy they had secured in the Anglo-Irish Treaty and pushed for recognition of their state's sovereignty, which would have implications for the other dominions as well. The 1926 Imperial Conference led to
8113-474: The New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. Captaincies general were primarily military districts set up in areas with a risk of foreign or Indian attack, but the captains general were usually given political powers over the provinces under their command. Because the long distances to the viceregal capital would hamper effective communication, both audiencias and captains general were authorized to communicate directly with
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#17327659386508246-437: The Parliament of the United Kingdom also repealed ss 4 and 7(1) of the Statute of Westminster as applied to Canada. The Statute of Westminster, as amended, remains a part of the constitution of Canada by virtue of section 52(2)( b ) of and the schedule to the Constitution Act, 1982. The Newfoundland Terms of Union expressly provide for the application of the Statute of Westminster to the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. As
8379-422: The Spanish governors of Sardinia and Corsica . After the unification, at the end of the 15th century, later kings of Spain came to appoint numerous viceroys to rule over various parts of the increasingly vast Spanish Empire in Europe, the Americas, and overseas elsewhere. In Europe, until the 18th century, the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys of Aragon , Valencia , Catalonia , Navarre , Portugal during
8512-440: The Statute of Westminster, especially because of financial troubles and corruption there. By request of the Dominion's government, the United Kingdom established the Commission of Government in 1934, resuming direct rule of Newfoundland. That arrangement remained until Newfoundland became a province of Canada in 1949 following referendums on the issue in 1948 . The Statute of Westminster became applicable to Newfoundland when it
8645-440: The Statute of Westminster, its Executive Council (cabinet) taking the view that the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 had already ended Westminster's right to legislate for the Irish Free State. The Free State's constitution gave the Oireachtas "sole and exclusive power of making laws". Hence, even before 1931, the Irish Free State did not arrest deserters from the British Army and Royal Air Force on its territory, even though
8778-487: The UK believed post-1922 British laws gave the Free State's Garda Síochána the power to do so. The UK's Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922 said, however, " [n]othing in the [Free State] Constitution shall be construed as prejudicing the power of [the British] Parliament to make laws affecting the Irish Free State in any case where, in accordance with constitutional practice, Parliament would make laws affecting other self-governing Dominions". In 1924, Kevin O'Higgins ,
8911-452: The United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand over matters of change to the monarchy, though the Statute of Westminster is not part of their laws. Ireland and South Africa are now republics and Newfoundland is now part of Canada as a province. Australia adopted sections 2 to 6 of the Statute of Westminster with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 , in order to clarify the validity of certain Australian legislation relating to
9044-406: The Viscount Byng of Vimy refused Prime Minister Mackenzie King's request for a dissolution of parliament; in 1953 and 1954 when the governor-general of Pakistan, Ghulam Mohammad , staged a constitutional coup against the prime minister and then the Constituent Assembly; and in 1975, when the governor-general of Australia, Sir John Kerr , dismissed the prime minister , Gough Whitlam (to name
9177-402: The application of the law to their respective jurisdictions. Section 10 of the statute provided that sections 2 to 6 would apply in the other three Dominions—Australia, New Zealand , and Newfoundland – only after the respective parliament of that Dominion had legislated to adopt them. Since 1931, over a dozen new Commonwealth realms have been created, all of which now hold the same powers as
9310-536: The brief period known as the Iberian Union, Sardinia , Sicily , and Naples . With the ascension of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by new captaincies general . At the end of War of the Spanish Succession , the Spanish monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions. These Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new rulers for some time; Naples until 1734, Sicily until 1816 and Sardinia until 1848. The Americas were incorporated into
9443-593: The clergy, philanthropists, or figures from the news media to the office. Traditionally, the governor-general's official attire was a unique uniform, but this practice has been abandoned except on occasions when it is appropriate to be worn (and in some countries abandoned altogether). In South Africa, the governor-general of the Union of South Africa nominated by the Afrikaner Nationalist government chose not to wear uniform on any occasion. Most governors-general continue to wear appropriate medals on their clothing when required. The governor-general's official residence
9576-578: The colonies; in South Australia , justice Benjamin Boothby caused a nuisance by striking down several local laws as contrary ("repugnant") to the legislation in Britain. Westminster rectified this situation by passing the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865 , which allowed the colonies to pass legislation different from that in Britain provided that it was not repugnant to any law expressly passed by
9709-499: The contemporary countries of South Africa and Nigeria as the customary representatives of their respective principals in the various areas that are under their immediate control. The viceroy in the Magadha Empire was called Uparaja (lit. vice king). The Mughal Empire had a system of administration which involved both official governors appointed from the capital, and local feudal lords ( zamindars ). Subahdars were
9842-600: The crown through the Council of the Indies . The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the intendant , which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues. See also: From 1505 to 1896 Portuguese India – including, until 1752, all Portuguese possessions in the Indian Ocean, from southern Africa to Southeast Asia and Australasia –
9975-546: The enactment of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, and governmental relations with the United Kingdom were placed in the hands of a British High Commissioner in each country. In other words, the political reality of a self-governing Dominion within the British Empire with a governor-general answerable to the sovereign became clear. British interference in the Dominion was not acceptable and independent country status
10108-455: The enactment thereof. It also provides in section 2(1): No law and no provision of any law made after the commencement of this Act by the Parliament of a Dominion shall be void or inoperative on the ground that it is repugnant to the Law of England, or to the provisions of any existing or future Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom, or to any order, rule or regulation made under any such Act, and
10241-532: The end of the Iberian Union in 1640, the governors of Brazil that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy. Brazil became a permanent Viceroyalty in 1763, when the capital of the State of Brazil ( Estado do Brasil ) was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro . Following adoption of the Government of India Act 1858 , which transferred control of India from
10374-585: The federal Parliament passed the Succession to the Throne Act, 1937 , to assent to His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act and ratify the government's request and consent to it. In the Irish Free State , Prime Minister Éamon de Valera used the departure of Edward VIII as an opportunity to remove all explicit mention of the monarch from the Constitution of the Irish Free State , through
10507-470: The final form of the Statute of Westminster included the Irish Free State among the Dominions the British Parliament could not legislate for without the Dominion's request and consent. Originally, the UK government had wanted to exclude from the Statute of Westminster the legislation underpinning the 1921 treaty, from which the Free State's constitution had emerged. Executive Council President (Prime Minister) W. T. Cosgrave objected, although he promised that
10640-541: The first realms established with a patriated constitution, India and Pakistan , were established, was always law, and no government of any realm can advise the Monarch on any matter pertaining to another realm, including the appointment of a governor-general. The monarch appoints a governor-general (in Canada: governor general ) as a personal representative only on the advice of the prime minister of each realm; for example,
10773-486: The first three of which were then grouped anew into a new Governorate-General of Macedonia, albeit still subject to the Governorate-General of Northern Greece. This awkward arrangement lasted until 1950, when the administration of Macedonia was streamlined, the junior governorates abolished and only the Governorate-General of Northern Greece retained. Finally, in 1955, the Governorate-General of Northern Greece
10906-480: The flag was replaced in 2008 with the shield of the coat of arms of New Zealand surmounted by a crown on a blue field. Governors-general are accorded the style of His/Her Excellency . This style is also extended to their spouses, whether male or female. Until the 1920s, governors general were British, and appointed on the advice of the British Government. Following the changes to the structure of
11039-509: The former, and can be seen as equivalents of viceroys, governing the provinces ( subahs ) by appointment from the capital. Mansabdars were military governors who were also appointed to provincial government, but they were appointed for military rather than civilian government. The Khedive of Egypt, especially during the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha (1805–1848). This officer established an almost autonomous regime in Egypt, which officially still
11172-542: The government in Athens. Law 524 in 1914 abolished the governorates-general and divided the New Lands into regular prefectures, but in 1918 Law 1149 re-instated them as a superordinate administrative level above the prefectures, with Macedonia now divided in two governorates-general, those of Thessaloniki and Kozani – Florina . The governors-general of Thessaloniki, Crete and Epirus were also given ministerial rank. To these
11305-407: The governor-general acts as the monarch's representative, performing the ceremonial and constitutional functions of a head of state . The only other nation which currently uses the governor-general designation is Iran , which has no connection with any monarchy or the Commonwealth. In Iran, the provincial authority is headed by a governor general ( Persian : استاندار ostāndār ), who is appointed by
11438-554: The governor-general has occasionally been referred to as the head of state in political and media discussion. To a lesser extent, uncertainty has been expressed in Canada as to which officeholder—the monarch, the governor-general, or both—can be considered the head of state. A governor-general is usually a person with a distinguished record of public service, often a retired politician, judge or military commander; however, some countries have also appointed prominent academics, members of
11571-442: The governor-general is constitutionally the representative of the monarch in his or her state and may exercise the reserve powers of the monarch according to their own constitutional authority. The governor-general, however, is still appointed by the monarch and takes an oath of allegiance to the monarch in right of his or her own country. Executive authority is also vested in the monarch, though much of it can be exercisable only by
11704-636: The governor-general of New Zealand is appointed by the king of New Zealand on the advice of the New Zealand prime minister, the governor-general of Tuvalu is appointed by the king of Tuvalu on the advice of the Tuvaluan prime minister, and the governor-general of Jamaica is appointed by the king of Jamaica on the advice of the Jamaican prime minister. In Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands,
11837-425: The governor-general on behalf of the sovereign of the independent realm. Letters of credence or letters of recall are in some realms received or issued in the name of the monarch, but in others (such as Canada and Australia) are issued in the name of the governor-general alone. At diplomatic functions where the governor-general is present, the visiting diplomat or head of state toasts "The King" or "The Queen" of
11970-641: The governor-general with the power to assent or to withhold assent to laws, while Papua New Guinea has no requirement for royal assent at all, with laws entering into force when certified as having been passed in Parliament by the Speaker. Different realms have different constitutional arrangements governing who acts in place of the governor-general in the event of his or her death, resignation, or incapacity. The title has been used in many former British colonies or other territories, which became independent realms and then later became republics. Each of these realms had
12103-403: The governor-general would be a citizen of the country concerned, and would be appointed on the advice of the government of that country, with no input from the British government; governor general of Canada since 1952 and governor-general of New Zealand since 1967. Since 1931 as each former Dominion has patriated its constitution from the UK, the convention has become law, or, since 1947, when
12236-470: The imperial capital of Constantinople to receive regular instruction or reinforcement. The chosen governors of these provinces were empowered to act in place of the monarch (hence ex- "outside", arch "ruler") with more discretion and autonomy than was granted other categories of governor. This was an extraordinary break from the centralized traditions of the Roman Empire and was an early example of
12369-562: The last Viceroy of India, but continued on as the first governor-general of the Dominion of India . The lords lieutenant of Ireland were often referred to as viceroy after 1700 until 1922, even though the Kingdom of Ireland had been merged in 1801 into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . The term has occasionally been applied to the governors-general of the Commonwealth realms , for example Gough Whitlam in 1973 told
12502-623: The late 16th century. These early colonies were largely run by private companies rather than the Crown directly, but by the end of the century had ( except for India ) been subsumed under Crown control. Oversight of these colonies oscillated between relatively lax enforcement of laws and centralisation of power depending on the politics of the day, but the Parliament in Westminster always remained supreme. Most colonies in North America broke away from British rule and became independent as
12635-464: The late 1860s and early 1870s. Canada was termed a " dominion ", a term previously used in slightly different contexts in English history, and granted a broad array of powers between the federal government and the provincial governments. Australia was similarly deemed a dominion when it federated in 1901 , as were Newfoundland, New Zealand, South Africa, and the Irish Free State in the first decades of
12768-400: The law of each Dominion. For expediency and to avoid embarrassment, the British government had suggested the Dominion governments regard whoever is monarch of the UK to automatically be their monarch, but the Dominions rejected this. Prime Minister of Canada William Lyon Mackenzie King pointed out that the Statute of Westminster required Canada's request and consent to any legislation passed by
12901-480: The members of the Commonwealth in relation to one another that any alteration in the law touching the succession to the throne or the royal style and titles shall hereafter require the assent as well of the parliaments of all the Dominions as of the Parliament of the United Kingdom: Though a preamble is not considered to have the force of statute law, that of the Statute of Westminster has come to be
13034-412: The ministers of each country in regard to that country's national affairs (as opposed to a single British monarch ruling all the Dominions as a conglomerate and advised only by an imperial parliament), so too did the governor-general become a direct representative of the national monarch only, who no longer answered to the British government. The report resulting from the 1926 Imperial Conference stated: "It
13167-603: The monarch's commission, previously issued also under the Great Seal of Australia. The practice in Canada is to include in the governor general's proclamation of appointment, issued under the Great Seal of Canada , the monarch's commission naming the governor general as commander-in-chief of the Canadian Forces . Also dissimilar among the realms are the powers of governors-general. The Belizean constitution provides
13300-495: The next decade, however, in a see-saw of legislative measures that in turn gave and took away authority, they gradually lost most of their powers in favour of the prefectures and the central government in Athens. Following liberation from the Axis occupation , in 1945 the Governorate-General of Northern Greece was established, initially with subordinate governorates for West Macedonia , Central Macedonia , East Macedonia, and Thrace ,
13433-501: The powers inherent in the Treaty position are what we have proclaimed them to be for the last ten years." He went on to present the statute as largely the fruit of the Free State's efforts to secure for the other Dominions the same benefits it already enjoyed under the treaty. The Statute of Westminster had the effect of granting the Irish Free State internationally recognised independence. Éamon de Valera led Fianna Fáil to victory in
13566-399: The powers of the Parliament of a Dominion shall include the power to repeal or amend any such Act, order, rule or regulation in so far as the same is part of the law of the Dominion. The whole statute applied to the Dominion of Canada , the Irish Free State , and the Union of South Africa without the need for any acts of ratification; the governments of those countries gave their consent to
13699-400: The prime minister's advice is based on the result of a vote in the national parliament. The formalities for appointing governors-general are not the same in all realms. For example: When appointed, a governor-general of Australia issues a proclamation in his own name, countersigned by the head of government and under the Great Seal of Australia, formally announcing that he has been appointed by
13832-460: The principle of viceroyalty. As with many princely and administrative titles, viceroy is often used, generally unofficially, to render somewhat equivalent titles and offices in non-western cultures. In cultures all over the continent of Africa, the role of viceroy has been subsumed into a hereditary noble as opposed to strictly administrative position. In the Arabo-Berber north, for example,
13965-472: The principles of equality set out in the Balfour Declaration. Both Canada and the Irish Free State pushed for the ability to amend the succession laws themselves and section 2(2) (allowing a Dominion to amend or repeal laws of paramount force, such as the succession laws, insofar as they are part of the law of that Dominion) was included in the Statute of Westminster at Canada's insistence. After
14098-402: The relevant realm, not the governor-general, with any reference to the governor-general being subsidiary in later toasts if featuring at all, and will involve a toast to the governor-general by name, not office. (e.g., "Mrs. Smith", not "Her Excellency, the Governor-General". Sometimes a toast might be made using name and office, e.g., "Governor-General Smith".) Except in rare cases (for example,
14231-590: The right of appeal to the JCPC. In 1935, the JCPC ruled that both abolitions were valid under the Statute of Westminster. The Irish Free State, which in 1937 was renamed Ireland , left the Commonwealth in 1949 upon the coming into force of The Republic of Ireland Act 1948 . The Parliament of New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster by passing its Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 in November 1947. The New Zealand Constitution Amendment Act , passed
14364-504: The rules of succession to the Crown . The second paragraph of the preamble to the statute reads: And whereas it is meet and proper to set out by way of preamble to this act that, inasmuch as the Crown is the symbol of the free association of the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations , and as they are united by a common allegiance to the Crown, it would be in accord with the established constitutional position of all
14497-557: The same year, empowered the New Zealand Parliament to change the constitution, but did not remove the ability of the British Parliament to legislate regarding the New Zealand constitution. The remaining role of the British Parliament was removed by the New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 and the Statute of Westminster was repealed in its entirety. The Dominion of Newfoundland never adopted
14630-523: The standard pattern of a blue field with the royal crest (a lion standing on a crown) above a scroll with the name of the jurisdiction. In Canada , however, this was replaced with a crowned lion clasping a maple leaf. In the Solomon Islands , the scroll was replaced with a two-headed frigate bird motif, while in Fiji , the former governor general's flag featured a whale 's tooth. In New Zealand,
14763-476: The statute was passed, the British parliament could no longer make laws for the Dominions, other than with the request and consent of the government of that Dominion. The statute provides in section 4: No Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom passed after the commencement of this Act shall extend, or be deemed to extend, to a Dominion as part of the law of that Dominion, unless it is expressly declared in that Act that that Dominion has requested, and consented to,
14896-447: The title governor-general has been given to all representatives of the sovereign in independent non-UK Commonwealth realms . In these cases, the former office of colonial governor was altered (sometimes for the same incumbent) to become governor-general upon independence, as the nature of the office became an entirely independent constitutional representative of the monarch rather than a symbol of previous colonial rule. In these countries
15029-533: The title of Khalifa is often used by individuals who derive their authority to rule from someone else in much the same way as a viceroy would. Elsewhere, subordinate inkosis under the rule of a paramount chief like the King of the Zulu Nation of Southern Africa or subordinate baales in the realms of the reigning obas of West African Yorubaland continue to occupy statutorily recognized positions in
15162-685: The title of Khedive which was almost an equivalent to viceroy. Other titles, such as Sharif (as in the Sharifate of Mecca ), or Khan (as in the Crimean Khanate or the Khanate of Kazan ), denoted hereditary rulers of Ottoman vassal states, under the Sultan's titles of Caliph and Great Khan , respectively. Titles such as pasha , beylerbey , bey , and agha denote officials who were, at least nominally, appointed to their positions by
15295-460: The title was used for the heir-apparent or heir presumptive (Thai: กรมพระราชวังบวรสถานมงคล) The title was abolished and replaced with that of the Crown Prince of Siam . Statute of Westminster 1931 The Statute of Westminster 1931 is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that sets the basis for the relationship between the Dominions (now called Commonwealth realms ) and
15428-593: The viceroy in Mexico City and the South American ones by the viceroy in Lima , (with the exception of most of today's Venezuela , which was overseen by the high court, or Audiencia of Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola for most of the colonial period). These large administrative territories became known as viceroyalties (Spanish term: virreinatos ). There were only two New World viceroyalties until
15561-605: The viceroy served as the grand master of the two principal orders of chivalry of British India: the Order of the Star of India and the Order of the Indian Empire . During the office's history, the governors-general of India were based in two cities: Calcutta until 1911 and New Delhi afterwards. Additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of India, the viceroys spent the summer months at Simla . The two historic residences of
15694-827: The viceroys still stand: the Viceroy's House in New Delhi and Government House in Kolkata. They are used today as the official residences of the president of India and the governor of West Bengal , respectively. The portraits of the governors-general still hang in a room on the ground floor of the Presidential Palace, one of the last vestiges of both the viceroys and the British Raj. Notable governors-general of India include Warren Hastings , Lord Cornwallis , Lord Curzon , The Earl of Minto , Lord Chelmsford , and Lord Mountbatten . Lord Mountbatten served as
15827-425: The warrants appointing his successors referred to them as viceroys , and the title, which was frequently used in warrants dealing with precedence and in public notifications, was basically one of ceremony used in connection with the state and social functions of the sovereign's representative. The governor-general continued to be the sole representative of the Crown, and the government of India continued to be vested in
15960-601: Was a political post in the early period of the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty (1802–1830). From 1802, under the reign of emperor Gia Long , there were two Tổng Trấn who administered Vietnam's northern part named Bắc thành with administrative center in Hanoi and the southern part Gia Định thành with administrative center in Gia Định , while Nguyen emperors ruled only the central region Kinh Kỳ from capital Phú Xuân . Tổng Trấn
16093-720: Was added the Governorate-General of Thrace in 1920–22, comprising Western Thrace and Eastern Thrace (returned to Turkey in the Armistice of Mudanya in 1922). The extensive but hitherto legally rather undefined powers of the governors-general created friction and confusion with other government branches, until their remit was exactly delineated in 1925. The governorates-general, except for that of Thessaloniki, were abolished in 1928, but re-established in December 1929—for Crete, Epirus, Thrace, and Macedonia—and delegated practically all ministerial authorities for their respective areas. Over
16226-605: Was admitted to Canada. Although the Union of South Africa was not among the Dominions that needed to adopt the Statute of Westminster for it to take effect, two laws—the Status of the Union Act, 1934 , and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act of 1934—were passed to confirm South Africa's status as a fully sovereign state. The preamble to the Statute of Westminster sets out a guideline for changing
16359-409: Was also rejected by the Dominions. All of these negotiations occurred at a diplomatic level and never went to the Commonwealth parliaments. The enabling legislation that allowed for the actual abdication ( His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 ) did require the assent of each Dominion parliament to be passed and the request and consent of the Dominion governments so as to allow it to be part of
16492-419: Was also usually the commander-in-chief of the armed forces in his or her territory and, because of the governor-general's control of the military, the post was as much a military appointment as a civil one. The governors-general are entitled to wear a unique uniform, which is not generally worn today. If of the rank of major general, equivalent or above, they were entitled to wear that military uniform. Following
16625-422: Was an American divorcée. Baldwin was able to get the then-five Dominion prime ministers to agree with this and, thus, register their official disapproval at the King's planned marriage. The King later requested the Commonwealth prime ministers be consulted on a compromise plan, in which he would wed Simpson under a morganatic marriage , pursuant to which she would not become queen. Under Baldwin's pressure, this plan
16758-571: Was an official position in the history of the Russian Empire . It can be translated as "viceroy", "deputy", "lieutenant" (in the broadest sense of the word) or in place appointee . The term has two periods of usage, with different meanings. The Tsar Paul I 's 1799 formation of the Russian-American Company obviated viceroys in the colonization of the northwestern New World . New France , in present Canada, had
16891-450: Was clearly displayed. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand were clearly not controlled by the United Kingdom. The monarch of these countries ( Charles III ) is in law King of Canada , King of Australia , and King of New Zealand and only acts on the advice of the ministers in each country and is ostensibly in no way influenced by the British government. Today, therefore, in former British colonies that are now independent Commonwealth realms ,
17024-423: Was governed alternatively by either a viceroy (Portuguese vice-rei ) or governor and commission located in the capital of Goa . The government started seven years after the discovery of sea route to India by Vasco da Gama , in 1505, under the first viceroy, Francisco de Almeida (b.1450–d.1510). Initially, King Manuel I of Portugal tried to distribute power with three governors in different areas of jurisdiction:
17157-552: Was not used to implement the result of the 1933 Western Australian secession referendum , as it did not have the support of the Australian government. All British power to legislate with effect in Australia ended with the Australia Act 1986 , the British version of which says that it was passed with the request and consent of the Australian Parliament, which had obtained the concurrence of the parliaments of
17290-506: Was on record as a Knight Templar . Due to his vast powers over Bosnian politics and essential veto powers, the modern-day position of the high representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina has been compared to that of a viceroy. From the earliest medieval period in the Kingdom of Croatia , the position of viceroy was held by Ban of Croatia who acted as king's representative in Croatian lands and supreme commander of Croatian army. In
17423-726: Was transformed into the Ministry of Northern Greece , and all other governorates-general elsewhere in Greece were abolished. From 1636 to 1815, the king of Sweden typically appointed the governors-general of Sweden for the Swedish Dominions on the eastern side of the Baltic Sea and in northern Germany, but occasionally also for Scania . [REDACTED] Media related to Governors-General at Wikimedia Commons Viceroy A viceroy ( / ˈ v aɪ s r ɔɪ / )
17556-401: Was under Ottoman rule. Although Mehemet Ali/Muhammad Ali used different symbols to mark his independence from the Sublime Porte , he never openly declared himself independent. Adopting the title of viceroy was yet another way to walk the thin line between challenging the Sultan's power explicitly and respecting his jurisdiction. Muhammad Ali Pasha's grandson, Ismail Pasha , subsequently received
17689-443: Was usually three years, although powerful viceroys might extend their tenure; of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century, only six had longer mandates. During some periods of the Iberian Union , between 1580 and 1640, the king of Spain , who was also king of Portugal , appointed viceroys to govern Portugal itself , as the king had multiple realms throughout Europe and delegated his powers to various viceroys. After
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