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86-544: Golden Kingdom is a 2015 Burmese-language drama film directed by Brian Perkins. The film tells the story of four young Buddhist monks and their life in a Buddhist monastery . The film is set and filmed entirely on location in Myanmar . Golden Kingdom is the first international feature film produced in Myanmar since its recent reopening . Nestled in the mountains of Myanmar, sits a Buddhist monastery inhabited by Sayadaw,

172-546: A Bhikṣu may take additional vows not related to ordination, including the Bodhisattva vows , samaya vows and others, which are also open to laypersons in most instances. The special dress of ordained people, referred to in English as robes , comes from the idea of wearing a simple durable form of protection for the body from weather and climate. In each tradition, there is uniformity in the color and style of dress. Color

258-514: A Buddha's pure land or buddha field ( buddhakṣetra ), where they can strive towards Buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, liberation into a buddha-field can be obtained by faith , meditation, or sometimes even by the repetition of Buddha's name . Faith-based devotional practices focused on rebirth in pure lands are common in East Asia Pure Land Buddhism . The influential Mahāyāna concept of

344-544: A Buddha. This wish to help others by entering the Mahāyāna path is called bodhicitta and someone who engages in this path to complete buddhahood is a bodhisattva . High level bodhisattvas (with eons of practice) are seen as extremely powerful supramundane beings. They are objects of devotion and prayer throughout the Mahāyāna world. Popular bodhisattvas which are revered across Mahāyāna include Avalokiteshvara , Manjushri , Tara and Maitreya . Bodhisattvas could reach

430-456: A bhikkhu or bhikkhuni "fully ordained monastic" (Sanskrit: bhikṣu, bhikṣuṇī , Wylie : dge long (ma) ). Monastics take their vows for life but can renounce them and return to non-monastic life and even take the vows again later. A person can take them up to three times or seven times in one life, depending on the particular practices of each school of discipline; after that, the sangha should not accept them again. In this way, Buddhism keeps

516-718: A chronology for the Shaiva tantric literature and argues that both traditions developed side by side, drawing on each other as well as on local Indian tribal religion. Whatever the case, this new tantric form of Mahāyāna Buddhism became extremely influential in India, especially in Kashmir and in the lands of the Pala Empire . It eventually also spread north into Central Asia , the Tibetan plateau and to East Asia. Vajrayāna remains

602-520: A minority among Buddhist communities in Nepal , Malaysia , Indonesia and regions with Asian diaspora communities. As of 2010, the Mahāyāna tradition was the largest major tradition of Buddhism , with 53% of Buddhists belonging to East Asian Mahāyāna and 6% to Vajrayāna , compared to 36% to Theravada . According to Jan Nattier , the term Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") was originally an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayāna (" Bodhisattva Vehicle"),

688-401: A minority in India, Indian Mahāyāna was an intellectually vibrant movement, which developed various schools of thought during what Jan Westerhoff has been called "The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy" (from the beginning of the first millennium CE up to the 7th century). Some major Mahāyāna traditions are Prajñāpāramitā , Mādhyamaka , Yogācāra , Buddha-nature ( Tathāgatagarbha ), and

774-485: A new sect or order. A few of these texts often emphasize ascetic practices, forest dwelling, and deep states of meditative concentration ( samadhi ). Indian Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination lineage from the early schools of Buddhism, and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to one of the early Buddhist schools. Membership in these nikāyas , or monastic orders, continues today, with

860-639: A novitiate (śrāmaṇera or sāmanera) in a rite known as the "going forth" (Pali: pabbajja ). Sāmaneras are subject to the Ten Precepts . From there full ordination (Pali: upasampada ) may take place. Bhikkhus are subject to a much longer set of rules known as the Pātimokkha (Theravada) or Prātimokṣa (Mahayana and Vajrayana ). In the Mahayana monasticism is part of the system of "vows of individual liberation". These vows are taken by monks and nuns from

946-429: A number of loosely connected book worshiping groups of monastics, who studied, memorized, copied and revered particular Mahāyāna sūtras. Schopen thinks they were inspired by cult shrines where Mahāyāna sutras were kept. Schopen also argued that these groups mostly rejected stupa worship, or worshiping holy relics. David Drewes has recently argued against all of the major theories outlined above. He points out that there

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1032-532: A particularly important place for the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Mahāyāna spread from China to Korea , Vietnam , and Taiwan , which (along with Korea) would later spread it to Japan . Mahāyāna also spread from India to Myanmar , and then Sumatra and Malaysia . Mahāyāna spread from Sumatra to other Indonesian islands , including Java and Borneo , the Philippines , Cambodia , and eventually, Indonesian Mahāyāna traditions made it to China. By

1118-405: A pure land, and enthusiastically recommends the cult of the book, yet seems to know nothing of emptiness theory, the ten bhumis , or the trikaya , while another (the P'u-sa pen-yeh ching ) propounds the ten bhumis and focuses exclusively on the path of the bodhisattva, but never discusses the paramitas . A Madhyamika treatise ( Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamika-karikas ) may enthusiastically deploy

1204-529: A result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism . Sanderson argues that Vajrayāna works like the Samvara and Guhyasamaja texts show direct borrowing from Shaiva tantric literature . However, other scholars such as Ronald M. Davidson question the idea that Indian tantrism developed in Shaivism first and that it was then adopted into Buddhism. Davidson points to the difficulties of establishing

1290-470: A significant turning point in the development of a Mahāyāna tradition. The earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the Lotus Sūtra , often use the term Mahāyāna as a synonym for Bodhisattvayāna , but the term Hīnayāna is comparatively rare in the earliest sources. The presumed dichotomy between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in relation to one another in

1376-596: A simple and meditative life and attain nirvana . A person under the age of 20 cannot be ordained as a bhikkhu or bhikkhuni but can be ordained as a śrāmaṇera or śrāmaṇērī . Bhikkhu literally means " beggar " or "one who lives by alms ". The historical Buddha, Prince Siddhartha , having abandoned a life of pleasure and status, lived as an alms mendicant as part of his śramaṇa lifestyle. Those of his more serious students who renounced their lives as householders and came to study full-time under his supervision also adopted this lifestyle. These full-time student members of

1462-462: A single unified movement, but scattered groups based on different practices and sutras. One reason for this view is that Mahāyāna sources are extremely diverse, advocating many different, often conflicting doctrines and positions, as Jan Nattier writes: Thus we find one scripture (the Aksobhya -vyuha ) that advocates both srávaka and bodhisattva practices, propounds the possibility of rebirth in

1548-474: A specific school or sect, Mahāyāna is a "family term" or a religious tendency, which is united by "a vision of the ultimate goal of attaining full Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings (the 'bodhisattva ideal') and also (or eventually) a belief that Buddhas are still around and can be contacted (hence the possibility of an ongoing revelation)." Buddhas and bodhisattvas (beings on their way to Buddhahood) are central elements of Mahāyāna. Mahāyāna has

1634-584: A vastly expanded cosmology and theology , with various Buddhas and powerful bodhisattvas residing in different worlds and buddha-fields ( buddha kshetra ). Buddhas unique to Mahāyāna include the Buddhas Amitābha ("Infinite Light"), Akṣobhya ("the Imperturbable"), Bhaiṣajyaguru ("Medicine guru") and Vairocana ("the Illuminator"). In Mahāyāna, a Buddha is seen as a being that has achieved

1720-666: A women's march to Vesāli. and Buddha requested her to accept the Eight Garudhammas . So, Gotami agreed to accept the Eight Garudhammas and was accorded the status of the first bhikkhuni. Subsequent women had to undergo full ordination to become nuns. Theravada monasticism is organized around the guidelines found within a division of the Pāli Canon called the Vinaya Pitaka . Laypeople undergo ordination as

1806-591: Is a calque of maha (great 大 ) yana (vehicle 乘 ). There is also the transliteration 摩诃衍那 . The term appeared in some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, including Emperor Ling of Han 's translation of the Lotus Sutra. It also appears in the Chinese Āgamas , though scholars like Yin Shun argue that this is a later addition. Some Chinese scholars also argue that the meaning of the term in these earlier texts

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1892-470: Is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts , philosophies , and practices developed in ancient India ( c.  1st century BCE onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being Theravāda and Vajrayāna . Mahāyāna accepts the main scriptures and teachings of early Buddhism but also recognizes various doctrines and texts that are not accepted by Theravada Buddhism as original. These include

1978-404: Is different from later ideas of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The origins of Mahāyāna are still not completely understood and there are numerous competing theories. The earliest Western views of Mahāyāna assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called " Hīnayāna " schools. Some of the major theories about the origins of Mahāyāna include the following: The lay origins theory

2064-420: Is disagreement among scholars regarding this issue as well on the general relationship between Buddhism and Theism. The idea that Buddhas remain accessible is extremely influential in Mahāyāna and also allows for the possibility of having a reciprocal relationship with a Buddha through prayer, visions, devotion and revelations. Through the use of various practices, a Mahāyāna devotee can aspire to be reborn in

2150-465: Is donated to them. The robes of Tibetan novices and monks differ in various aspects, especially in the application of "holes" in the dress of monks. Some monks tear their robes into pieces and then mend these pieces together again. Upāsakas cannot wear the "chö-göö", a yellow tissue worn during teachings by both novices and full monks. In observance of the Kathina Puja , a special Kathina robe

2236-493: Is made in 24 hours from donations by lay supporters of a temple. The robe is donated to the temple or monastery and the resident monks then select from their own number a single monk to receive this special robe. In English literature before the mid-20th century, Buddhist monks, particularly from East Asia and French Indochina, were often referred to by the term bonze . This term is derived from Portuguese and French from Japanese bonsō  'priest, monk'. It

2322-673: Is mostly dominated by various branches of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Paul Williams has noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to the study of the Mahāyāna sūtras. Beginning during the Gupta (c. 3rd century CE–575 CE) period a new movement began to develop which drew on previous Mahāyāna doctrine as well as new Pan-Indian tantric ideas. This came to be known by various names such as Vajrayāna (Tibetan: rdo rje theg pa ), Mantrayāna, and Esoteric Buddhism or "Secret Mantra" ( Guhyamantra ). This new movement continued into

2408-507: Is no actual evidence for the existence of book shrines, that the practice of sutra veneration was pan-Buddhist and not distinctly Mahāyāna. Furthermore, Drewes argues that "Mahāyāna sutras advocate mnemic/oral/aural practices more frequently than they do written ones." Regarding the forest hypothesis, he points out that only a few Mahāyāna sutras directly advocate forest dwelling, while the others either do not mention it or see it as unhelpful, promoting easier practices such as "merely listening to

2494-506: Is often chosen due to the wider availability of certain pigments in a given geographical region. In Tibet and the Himalayan regions (Kashmir, Nepal and Bhutan), red is the preferred pigment used in the dyeing of robes. In Myanmar, reddish brown; In India, Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, various shades of yellow, ochre and orange prevail. In China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, gray or black is common. Monks often make their own robes from cloth that

2580-414: Is rare in modern literature. Buddhist monks were once called talapoy or talapoin from French talapoin , itself from Portuguese talapão , ultimately from Mon tala pōi  'our lord'. The Talapoys cannot be engaged in any of the temporal concerns of life; they must not trade or do any kind of manual labour, for the sake of a reward; they are not allowed to insult

2666-501: Is seen as being the superior spiritual path by Mahāyānists, over and above the paths of those who seek arhatship or "solitary buddhahood" for their own sake ( Śrāvakayāna and Pratyekabuddhayāna ). Mahāyāna Buddhists generally hold that pursuing only the personal release from suffering i.e. nirvāṇa is a smaller or inferior aspiration (called " hinayana "), because it lacks the wish and resolve to liberate all other sentient beings from saṃsāra (the round of rebirth ) by becoming

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2752-688: The Dharmaguptaka nikāya being used in East Asia, and the Mūlasarvāstivāda nikāya being used in Tibetan Buddhism . Therefore, Mahāyāna was never a separate monastic sect outside of the early schools. Paul Harrison clarifies that while monastic Mahāyānists belonged to a nikāya, not all members of a nikāya were Mahāyānists. From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in

2838-483: The Dharmaguptaka ). Because of such evidence, scholars like Paul Harrison and Paul Williams argue that the movement was not sectarian and was possibly pan-buddhist. There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for aspiring bodhisattvas. The "forest hypothesis" meanwhile states that Mahāyāna arose mainly among "hard-core ascetics , members of

2924-664: The East Asian Madhymaka (by Kumārajīva ) and East Asian Yogacara (especially by Xuanzang ). Later, new developments in Chinese Mahāyāna led to new Chinese Buddhist traditions like Tiantai , Huayen , Pure Land and Chan Buddhism ( Zen ). These traditions would then spread to Korea , Vietnam and Japan . Forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism which are mainly based on the doctrines of Indian Mahāyāna sutras are still popular in East Asian Buddhism , which

3010-660: The Madhyamaka theory of emptiness ( śūnyatā ), the Vijñānavāda ("the doctrine of consciousness" also called "mind-only"), and the Buddha-nature teaching. While initially a small movement in India, Mahāyāna eventually grew to become an influential force in Indian Buddhism . Large scholastic centers associated with Mahāyāna such as Nalanda and Vikramashila thrived between the 7th and 12th centuries. In

3096-509: The Mahāsāṃghika tradition. This is defended by scholars such as Hendrik Kern , A.K. Warder and Paul Williams who argue that at least some Mahāyāna elements developed among Mahāsāṃghika communities (from the 1st century BCE onwards), possibly in the area along the Kṛṣṇa River in the Āndhra region of southern India. The Mahāsāṃghika doctrine of the supramundane ( lokottara ) nature of

3182-459: The Mahāyāna sūtras and their emphasis on the bodhisattva path and Prajñāpāramitā . Vajrayāna or Mantra traditions are a subset of Mahāyāna which makes use of numerous tantric methods Vajrayānists consider to help achieve Buddhahood . Mahāyāna also refers to the path of the bodhisattva striving to become a fully awakened Buddha for the benefit of all sentient beings, and is thus also called

3268-702: The Pala era (8th century–12th century CE), during which it grew to dominate Indian Buddhism. Possibly led by groups of wandering tantric yogis named mahasiddhas , this movement developed new tantric spiritual practices and also promoted new texts called the Buddhist Tantras . Philosophically, Vajrayāna Buddhist thought remained grounded in the Mahāyāna Buddhist ideas of Madhyamaka, Yogacara and Buddha-nature. Tantric Buddhism generally deals with new forms of meditation and ritual which often makes use of

3354-771: The earlier Buddhist texts . Broadly speaking, Mahāyāna Buddhists accept the classic Buddhist doctrines found in early Buddhism (i.e. the Nikāya and Āgamas ), such as the Middle Way , Dependent origination , the Four Noble Truths , the Noble Eightfold Path , the Three Jewels , the Three marks of existence and the bodhipakṣadharmas (aids to awakening). Mahāyāna Buddhism further accepts some of

3440-558: The sangha became the community of ordained monastics who wandered from town to city throughout the year, living off alms and stopping in one place only for the Vassa , the rainy months of the monsoon season. In the Dhammapada commentary of Buddhaghoṣa , a bhikkhu is defined as "the person who sees danger (in samsara or cycle of rebirth)" (Pāli: Bhayaṃ ikkhatīti: bhikkhu ). Therefore, he seeks ordination to obtain release from

3526-547: The school of Dignaga and Dharmakirti as the last and most recent. Major early figures include Nagarjuna , Āryadeva , Aśvaghoṣa , Asanga , Vasubandhu , and Dignaga . Mahāyāna Buddhists seem to have been active in the Kushan Empire (30–375 CE), a period that saw great missionary and literary activities by Buddhists. This is supported by the works of the historian Taranatha . The Mahāyāna movement (or movements) remained quite small until it experienced much growth in

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3612-469: The "Bodhisattva Vehicle" ( Bodhisattvayāna ). Mahāyāna Buddhism generally sees the goal of becoming a Buddha through the bodhisattva path as being available to all and sees the state of the arhat as incomplete. Mahāyāna also includes numerous Buddhas and bodhisattvas that are not found in Theravada (such as Amitābha and Vairocana ). Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy also promotes unique theories, such as

3698-702: The Buddha is sometimes seen as a precursor to Mahāyāna views of the Buddha. Some scholars also see Mahāyāna figures like Nāgārjuna , Dignaga , Candrakīrti , Āryadeva , and Bhavaviveka as having ties to the Mahāsāṃghika tradition of Āndhra. However, other scholars have also pointed to different regions as being important, such as Gandhara and northwest India. The Mahāsāṃghika origins theory has also slowly been shown to be problematic by scholarship that revealed how certain Mahāyāna sutras show traces of having developed among other nikāyas or monastic orders (such as

3784-554: The Buddhism practiced in China , Indonesia , Vietnam , Korea , Tibet , Mongolia and Japan is Mahāyāna Buddhism. Mahāyāna can be described as a loosely bound collection of many teachings and practices (some of which are seemingly contradictory). Mahāyāna constitutes an inclusive and broad set of traditions characterized by plurality and the adoption of a vast number of new sutras , ideas and philosophical treatises in addition to

3870-618: The Mahāyāna." Evidence of the name "Mahāyāna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahāyāna writings transmitted from Central Asia to China at that time. Based on archeological evidence, Gregory Schopen argues that Indian Mahāyāna remained "an extremely limited minority movement – if it remained at all – that attracted absolutely no documented public or popular support for at least two more centuries." Likewise, Joseph Walser speaks of Mahāyāna's "virtual invisibility in

3956-642: The abbot of the monastery, and four young monks; Koyin Witazara, Koyin Wezananda, Koyin Thiridema and Koyin Awadadema. One day, Sayadaw learns that he must travel away on personal matters and leave the monastery for a while and leave the four young monks alone to fend for themselves. Before he leaves, he puts Koyin Witazara, the eldest of the group, in charge. With Sayadaw gone, the four struggle to put food on

4042-404: The archaeological record until the fifth century". Schopen also sees this movement as being in tension with other Buddhists, "struggling for recognition and acceptance". Their "embattled mentality" may have led to certain elements found in Mahāyāna texts like Lotus sutra , such as a concern with preserving texts. Schopen, Harrison and Nattier also argue that these communities were probably not

4128-524: The beginning of the common era . Jan Nattier has noted that some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra use the term "Mahāyāna", yet there is no doctrinal difference between Mahāyāna in this context and the early schools . Instead, Nattier writes that in the earliest sources, "Mahāyāna" referred to the rigorous emulation of Gautama Buddha 's path to Buddhahood. Some important evidence for early Mahāyāna Buddhism comes from

4214-666: The course of its history, Mahāyāna Buddhism spread from South Asia to East Asia , Southeast Asia and the Himalayan regions . Various Mahāyāna traditions are the predominant forms of Buddhism found in China , Korea , Japan , Taiwan , Singapore , Vietnam , Philippines , and Malaysia . Since Vajrayāna is a tantric form of Mahāyāna, Mahāyāna Buddhism is also dominant in Tibet , Mongolia , Bhutan , and other Himalayan regions. It has also been traditionally present elsewhere in Asia as

4300-501: The cycle of rebirth. The Dhammapada states: [266–267] He is not a monk just because he lives on others' alms. Not by adopting outward form does one become a true monk. Whoever here (in the Dispensation) lives a holy life, transcending both merit and demerit, and walks with understanding in this world — he is truly called a monk. Buddha accepted female bhikkhunis after his step-mother Mahapajapati Gotami organized

4386-746: The dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet , in surrounding regions like Bhutan and in Mongolia . Esoteric elements are also an important part of East Asian Buddhism where it is referred to by various terms. These include: Zhēnyán ( Chinese : 真言, literally "true word", referring to mantra), Mìjiao (Chinese: 密教; Esoteric Teaching), Mìzōng (密宗; "Esoteric Tradition") or Tángmì (唐密; "Tang (Dynasty) Esoterica") in Chinese and Shingon , Tomitsu, Mikkyo , and Taimitsu in Japanese. Few things can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism in general other than that

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4472-636: The earth by digging it. Having no tie, which unites their interests with those of the people, they are ready, at all times, with spiritual arms, to enforce obedience to the will of the sovereign. The talapoin is a monkey named after Buddhist monks just as the capuchin monkey is named after the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin (who also are the origin of the word cappuccino ). Mahayana Mahāyāna ( / ˌ m ɑː h ə ˈ j ɑː n ə / MAH -hə- YAH -nə ; Sanskrit : महायान , pronounced [mɐɦaːˈjaːnɐ] , lit.   ' Great Vehicle ' )

4558-415: The fifth century . Very few manuscripts have been found before the fifth century (the exceptions are from Bamiyan ). According to Walser, "the fifth and sixth centuries appear to have been a watershed for the production of Mahāyāna manuscripts." Likewise it is only in the 4th and 5th centuries CE that epigraphic evidence shows some kind of popular support for Mahāyāna, including some possible royal support at

4644-447: The fifth century, Mahāyāna Buddhism and its institutions slowly grew in influence. Some of the most influential institutions became massive monastic university complexes such as Nalanda (established by the 5th-century CE Gupta emperor, Kumaragupta I ) and Vikramashila (established under Dharmapala c. 783 to 820) which were centers of various branches of scholarship, including Mahāyāna philosophy. The Nalanda complex eventually became

4730-409: The five upāsaka and upāsikā vows ( Wylie : dge snyan (ma) , "approaching virtue"). The next step is to enter the pabbajja or monastic way of life (Skt: pravrajyā , Wylie : rab byung ), which includes wearing monk's or nun's robes. After that, one can become a samanera or samaneri "novice" (Skt. śrāmaṇera , śrāmaṇeri , Wylie : dge tshul, dge tshul ma ). The final step is to take all the vows of

4816-647: The forest dwelling ( aranyavasin ) wing of the Buddhist Order", who were attempting to imitate the Buddha's forest living. This has been defended by Paul Harrison, Jan Nattier and Reginald Ray . This theory is based on certain sutras like the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra and the Mahāyāna Rāṣṭrapālapaṛiprcchā which promote ascetic practice in the wilderness as a superior and elite path. These texts criticize monks who live in cities and denigrate

4902-599: The forest life. Jan Nattier's study of the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra, A few good men (2003) argues that this sutra represents the earliest form of Mahāyāna, which presents the bodhisattva path as a 'supremely difficult enterprise' of elite monastic forest asceticism. Boucher's study on the Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā-sūtra (2008) is another recent work on this subject. The cult of the book theory , defended by Gregory Schopen , states that Mahāyāna arose among

4988-459: The fourth century, Chinese monks like Faxian (c. 337–422 CE) had also begun to travel to India (now dominated by the Guptas ) to bring back Buddhist teachings, especially Mahāyāna works. These figures also wrote about their experiences in India and their work remains invaluable for understanding Indian Buddhism. In some cases Indian Mahāyāna traditions were directly transplanted, as with the case of

5074-454: The highest kind of awakening due to his superior compassion and wish to help all beings. An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of a Buddha, which differs from non-Mahāyāna understandings. Mahāyāna texts not only often depict numerous Buddhas besides Sakyamuni , but see them as transcendental or supramundane ( lokuttara ) beings with great powers and huge lifetimes. The White Lotus Sutra famously describes

5160-487: The ideas found in Buddhist Abhidharma thought. However, Mahāyāna also adds numerous Mahāyāna texts and doctrines, which are seen as definitive and in some cases superior teachings. D.T. Suzuki described the broad range and doctrinal liberality of Mahāyāna as "a vast ocean where all kinds of living beings are allowed to thrive in a most generous manner, almost verging on a chaos". Paul Williams refers to

5246-517: The importance of dharmabhanakas (preachers, reciters of these sutras) in the early Mahāyāna sutras. This figure is widely praised as someone who should be respected, obeyed ('as a slave serves his lord'), and donated to, and it is thus possible these people were the primary agents of the Mahāyāna movement. Early Mahayana came directly from " early Buddhist schools " and was a successor to them. The earliest textual evidence of "Mahāyāna" comes from sūtras ("discourses", scriptures) originating around

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5332-573: The kingdom of Shan shan as well as in Bamiyan and Mathura . Still, even after the 5th century, the epigraphic evidence which uses the term Mahāyāna is still quite small and is notably mainly monastic, not lay. By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian (337–422 CE), Xuanzang (602–664), Yijing (635–713 CE) were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together. After

5418-565: The largest and most influential Buddhist center in India for centuries. Even so, as noted by Paul Williams, "it seems that fewer than 50 percent of the monks encountered by Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang; c. 600–664) on his visit to India actually were Mahāyānists." Over time Indian Mahāyāna texts and philosophy reached Central Asia and China through trade routes like the Silk Road , later spreading throughout East Asia . Over time, Central Asian Buddhism became heavily influenced by Mahāyāna and it

5504-502: The lifespan of the Buddha as immeasurable and states that he actually achieved Buddhahood countless of eons ( kalpas ) ago and has been teaching the Dharma through his numerous avatars for an unimaginable period of time. Furthermore, Buddhas are active in the world, constantly devising ways to teach and help all sentient beings. According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for

5590-475: The main impulse behind Mahāyāna as the vision which sees the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for sake of other beings as being the supreme religious motivation. This is the way that Atisha defines Mahāyāna in his Bodhipathapradipa . As such, according to Williams, "Mahāyāna is not as such an institutional identity. Rather, it is inner motivation and vision, and this inner vision can be found in anyone regardless of their institutional position." Thus, instead of

5676-570: The major themes of the 250 precepts: celibacy, non-harming, no intoxicants, vegetarian eating and reducing labor for gain. After twelve years, monastics would then use the Vinaya precepts as a provisional or supplemental, guideline to conduct themselves by when serving in non-monastic communities. Tendai monastics followed this practice. During Japan's Meiji Restoration during the 1870s, the government abolished celibacy and vegetarianism for Buddhist monastics in an effort to secularise them and promote

5762-842: The newly created State Shinto . Japanese Buddhists won the right to proselytize inside cities, ending a five-hundred year ban on clergy members entering cities. Currently, priests (lay religious leaders) in Japan choose to observe vows as appropriate to their family situation. Celibacy and other forms of abstaining are generally "at will" for varying periods of time. After the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 , when Japan annexed Korea, Korean Buddhism underwent many changes. Jōdo Shinshū and Nichiren schools began sending missionaries to Korea under Japanese rule and new sects formed there such as Won Buddhism . The Temple Ordinance of 1911 ( Korean :  사찰령 ; Hanja :  寺刹令 ) changed

5848-422: The ordinary sangha, in order to develop personal ethical discipline. In Mahayana and Vajrayana, the term "sangha" is, in principle, often understood to refer particularly to the aryasangha ( Wylie : mchog kyi tshogs ), the "community of the noble ones who have reached the first bhūmi ". These, however, need not be monks and nuns. The vows of individual liberation are taken in four steps. A lay person may take

5934-464: The personal nirvana of the arhats , but they reject this goal and remain in saṃsāra to help others out of compassion. According to eighth-century Mahāyāna philosopher Haribhadra , the term "bodhisattva" can technically refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards bodhi (awakening) and hence the technical term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a mahāsattva (great being) bodhisattva . According to Paul Williams,

6020-566: The practice of celibacy varies. The two sects of Korean Seon divided in 1970 over this issue; the Jogye Order is fully celibate while the Taego Order has both celibate monastics and non-celibate Japanese-style priests. In Tibet , the upāsaka, pravrajyā and bhikṣu ordinations are usually taken at ages six, fourteen and twenty-one or older, respectively. Tibetan Vajrayana often calls ordained monks lama . In Mahayana traditions,

6106-429: The rhetoric of emptiness without ever mentioning the bodhisattva path, while a Yogacara treatise ( Vasubandhu's Madhyanta-vibhaga-bhasya ) may delve into the particulars of the trikaya doctrine while eschewing the doctrine of ekayana . We must be prepared, in other words, to encounter a multiplicity of Mahayanas flourishing even in India, not to mention those that developed in East Asia and Tibet. In spite of being

6192-509: The same era. Among the earliest and most important references to Mahāyāna are those that occur in the Lotus Sūtra (Skt. Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra ) dating between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. Seishi Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlier Gandhāri Prakrit version of the Lotus Sūtra was not the term mahāyāna but the Prakrit word mahājāna in

6278-468: The same monasteries side by side. It is also possible that, formally, Mahāyāna would have been understood as a group of monks or nuns within a larger monastery taking a vow together (known as a " kriyākarma ") to memorize and study a Mahāyāna text or texts. The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahāyāna formulation and a mention of the Buddha Amitābha (an important Mahāyāna figure)

6364-500: The sense of mahājñāna (great knowing). At a later stage when the early Prakrit word was converted into Sanskrit, this mahājāna , being phonetically ambivalent, may have been converted into mahāyāna , possibly because of what may have been a double meaning in the famous Parable of the Burning House , which talks of three vehicles or carts (Skt: yāna ). In Chinese , Mahāyāna is called 大乘 ( dàshèng, or dàchéng ), which

6450-628: The sutra, or thinking of particular Buddhas, that they claim can enable one to be reborn in special, luxurious ' pure lands ' where one will be able to make easy and rapid progress on the bodhisattva path and attain Buddhahood after as little as one lifetime." Drewes states that the evidence merely shows that "Mahāyāna was primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahāyāna sutras , that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures." Drewes points out

6536-482: The table while confronting their fears and internal demons. The film was filmed on location in Myanmar. Three of the four young monks depicted in the film are real-life apprentice monks while U Zawtica who play Sayadaw is also himself a real-life Buddhist sayadaw . Buddhist monks The lives of all Buddhist monastics are governed by a set of rules called the prātimokṣa or pātimokkha . Their lifestyles are shaped to support their spiritual practice: to live

6622-459: The texts translated by the Indoscythian monk Lokakṣema in the 2nd century CE, who came to China from the kingdom of Gandhāra . These are some of the earliest known Mahāyāna texts. Study of these texts by Paul Harrison and others show that they strongly promote monasticism (contra the lay origin theory), acknowledge the legitimacy of arhatship , and do not show any attempt to establish

6708-514: The three bodies ( trikāya ) of a Buddha developed to make sense of the transcendental nature of the Buddha. This doctrine holds that the "bodies of magical transformation" ( nirmāṇakāyas ) and the "enjoyment bodies" ( saṃbhogakāya ) are emanations from the ultimate Buddha body, the Dharmakaya , which is none other than the ultimate reality itself, i.e. emptiness or Thusness . The Mahāyāna bodhisattva path ( mārga ) or vehicle ( yāna )

6794-574: The traditional system whereby temples were run as a collective enterprise by the Sangha, replacing this system with Japanese-style management practices in which temple abbots appointed by the Governor-General of Korea were given private ownership of temple property and given the rights of inheritance to such property. More importantly, monks from pro-Japanese factions began to adopt Japanese practices, by marrying and having children. In Korea,

6880-438: The vehicle of a bodhisattva seeking buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. The term Mahāyāna (which had earlier been used simply as an epithet for Buddhism itself) was therefore adopted at an early date as a synonym for the path and the teachings of the bodhisattvas. Since it was simply an honorary term for Bodhisattvayāna , the adoption of the term Mahāyāna and its application to Bodhisattvayāna did not represent

6966-475: The visualization of Buddhist deities (including Buddhas, bodhisattvas, dakinis , and fierce deities ) and the use of mantras. Most of these practices are esoteric and require ritual initiation or introduction by a tantric master ( vajracarya ) or guru . The source and early origins of Vajrayāna remain a subject of debate among scholars. Some scholars like Alexis Sanderson argue that Vajrayāna derives its tantric content from Shaivism and that it developed as

7052-534: The vows "clean". It is possible to keep them or to leave this lifestyle, but it is considered extremely negative to break these vows. In 9th century Japan, the monk Saichō believed the 250 precepts were for the Śrāvakayāna and that ordination should use the Mahayana precepts of the Brahmajala Sutra . He stipulated that monastics remain on Mount Hiei for twelve years of isolated training and follow

7138-625: The world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares". Buddha Sakyamuni 's life and death on earth are then usually understood docetically as a "mere appearance", his death is a show, while in actuality he remains out of compassion to help all sentient beings. Similarly, Guang Xing describes the Buddha in Mahāyāna as an omnipotent and almighty divinity "endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities". Mahayana Buddhologies have often been compared to various types of theism (including pantheism ) by different scholars, though there

7224-561: Was a major source for Chinese Buddhism. Mahāyāna works have also been found in Gandhāra , indicating the importance of this region for the spread of Mahāyāna. Central Asian Mahāyāna scholars were very important in the Silk Road Transmission of Buddhism . They include translators like Lokakṣema (c. 167–186), Dharmarakṣa (c. 265–313), Kumārajīva (c. 401), and Dharmakṣema (385–433). The site of Dunhuang seems to have been

7310-565: Was first proposed by Jean Przyluski and then defended by Étienne Lamotte and Akira Hirakawa. This view states that laypersons were particularly important in the development of Mahāyāna and is partly based on some texts like the Vimalakirti Sūtra , which praise lay figures at the expense of monastics. This theory is no longer widely accepted since numerous early Mahāyāna works promote monasticism and asceticism. The Mahāsāṃghika origin theory , which argues that Mahāyāna developed within

7396-791: Was found in the Indian subcontinent in Mathura , and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the Brāhmī inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of King Huviṣka , ... for the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha." There is also some evidence that the Kushan Emperor Huviṣka himself was a follower of Mahāyāna. A Sanskrit manuscript fragment in the Schøyen Collection describes Huviṣka as having "set forth in

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