Misplaced Pages

#672327

117-697: The criteria for the Good Food Awards varies by industry, however basic rules says that entries must be made without genetically modified ingredients, using good animal husbandry, "without the use of artificial ingredients, hormones, synthetic pesticides, herbicides, fertilizer," and crafted in the USA. There are currently seventeen categories in which awards are given: beer , charcuterie , cheese , chocolate , cider , coffee , confections , elixirs , fish , grains , honey , oils , pantry , pickles , preserves , snacks , and spirits . Additionally, many of

234-630: A genetically modified organism in the process. However, some broad definitions of genetic engineering include selective breeding . Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering, are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them. Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism. Plants, animals or microorganisms that have been changed through genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs. If genetic material from another species

351-473: A molecular mass of 5808 Da . The molecular formula of human insulin is C 257 H 383 N 65 O 77 S 6 . It is a combination of two peptide chains ( dimer ) named an A-chain and a B-chain, which are linked together by two disulfide bonds . The A-chain is composed of 21 amino acids, while the B-chain consists of 30 residues. The linking (interchain) disulfide bonds are formed at cysteine residues between

468-484: A promoter and terminator region, which initiate and end transcription . A selectable marker gene is added, which in most cases confers antibiotic resistance , so researchers can easily determine which cells have been successfully transformed. The gene can also be modified at this stage for better expression or effectiveness. These manipulations are carried out using recombinant DNA techniques, such as restriction digests , ligations and molecular cloning. There are

585-408: A 110 amino acid-long protein called "preproinsulin". Preproinsulin is translated directly into the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), where its signal peptide is removed by signal peptidase to form "proinsulin". As the proinsulin folds , opposite ends of the protein, called the "A-chain" and the "B-chain", are fused together with three disulfide bonds . Folded proinsulin then transits through

702-724: A basic health system . Insulin may have originated more than a billion years ago. The molecular origins of insulin go at least as far back as the simplest unicellular eukaryotes . Apart from animals, insulin-like proteins are also known to exist in fungi and protists . Insulin is produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets in most vertebrates and by the Brockmann body in some teleost fish . Cone snails : Conus geographus and Conus tulipa , venomous sea snails that hunt small fish, use modified forms of insulin in their venom cocktails. The insulin toxin, closer in structure to fishes' than to snails' native insulin, slows down

819-425: A biotech company, Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS) applied for U.S. government authorisation to perform field tests with the ice-minus strain of Pseudomonas syringae to protect crops from frost, but environmental groups and protestors delayed the field tests for four years with legal challenges. In 1987, the ice-minus strain of P. syringae became the first genetically modified organism (GMO) to be released into

936-542: A gene coding for a useful protein, such as an enzyme, so that they will overexpress the desired protein. Mass quantities of the protein can then be manufactured by growing the transformed organism in bioreactor equipment using industrial fermentation , and then purifying the protein. Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, insect cells or mammalian cells can also be used. These techniques are used to produce medicines such as insulin , human growth hormone , and vaccines , supplements such as tryptophan , aid in

1053-456: A gene is isolated it can be stored inside the bacteria providing an unlimited supply for research. Organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes. This could be the effect on the phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with. These experiments generally involve loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression. Organisms can have their cells transformed with

1170-598: A genetically modified virus has been used in a research laboratory as a scaffold for assembling a more environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery . Bacteria have also been engineered to function as sensors by expressing a fluorescent protein under certain environmental conditions. One of the best-known and controversial applications of genetic engineering is the creation and use of genetically modified crops or genetically modified livestock to produce genetically modified food . Crops have been developed to increase production, increase tolerance to abiotic stresses , alter

1287-417: A glucose load (75 or 100 g of glucose), followed by a slow drop over the next 100 minutes, to remain above 120 mg/100 mL after two hours after the start of the test. In a normal person the blood glucose level is corrected (and may even be slightly over-corrected) by the end of the test. An insulin spike is a 'first response' to blood glucose increase, this response is individual and dose specific although it

SECTION 10

#1732771707673

1404-464: A number of techniques used to insert genetic material into the host genome. Some bacteria can naturally take up foreign DNA . This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. thermal or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA . DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection , where it can be injected through

1521-448: A transcription factor for MafA in an unknown manner and MafA is transported out of the cell. MafA is then translocated back into the nucleus where it binds the C1 element of the insulin promoter. These transcription factors work synergistically and in a complex arrangement. Increased blood glucose can after a while destroy the binding capacities of these proteins, and therefore reduce

1638-413: A virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, epidermolysis bullosa , in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness. Germline gene therapy would result in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community. In 2015, CRISPR was used to edit

1755-589: A wide range of plants, animals and microorganisms. Bacteria , the first organisms to be genetically modified, can have plasmid DNA inserted containing new genes that code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates . Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance , virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible vaccines . Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants. Genetically modified animals have been used for research, model animals and

1872-524: A year later the company produced a human protein ( somatostatin ) in E. coli . Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978. In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court in the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented. The insulin produced by bacteria was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982. In 1983,

1989-416: Is strongly conserved and varies only slightly between species. Bovine insulin differs from human in only three amino acid residues, and porcine insulin in one. Even insulin from some species of fish is similar enough to human to be clinically effective in humans. Insulin in some invertebrates is quite similar in sequence to human insulin, and has similar physiological effects. The strong homology seen in

2106-399: Is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets encoded in humans by the insulin ( INS) gene . It is the main anabolic hormone of the body. It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates , fats , and protein by promoting the absorption of glucose from the blood into cells of the liver , fat , and skeletal muscles . In these tissues the absorbed glucose

2223-441: Is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic . If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic . If genetic engineering is used to remove genetic material from the target organism the resulting organism is termed a knockout organism. In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within

2340-546: Is also regulated by glucose: high glucose promotes insulin production while low glucose levels lead to lower production. Insulin enhances glucose uptake and metabolism in the cells, thereby reducing blood sugar. Their neighboring alpha cells , by taking their cues from the beta cells, secrete glucagon into the blood in the opposite manner: increased secretion when blood glucose is low, and decreased secretion when glucose concentrations are high. Glucagon increases blood glucose by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in

2457-413: Is an accepted version of this page Genetic engineering , also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation , is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology . It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms . New DNA

SECTION 20

#1732771707673

2574-486: Is an important tool for natural scientists , with the creation of transgenic organisms one of the most important tools for analysis of gene function. Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be inserted into bacteria for storage and modification, creating genetically modified bacteria in the process. Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal , multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely. Once

2691-486: Is as follows: This is the primary mechanism for release of insulin. Other substances known to stimulate insulin release include the amino acids arginine and leucine, parasympathetic release of acetylcholine (acting via the phospholipase C pathway), sulfonylurea , cholecystokinin (CCK, also via phospholipase C), and the gastrointestinally derived incretins , such as glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP). Release of insulin

2808-699: Is characterized by increased glucagon secretion which is unaffected by, and unresponsive to the concentration of blood glucose. But insulin is still secreted into the blood in response to the blood glucose. As a result, glucose accumulates in the blood. The human insulin protein is composed of 51 amino acids , and has a molecular mass of 5808 Da . It is a hetero dimer of an A-chain and a B-chain, which are linked together by disulfide bonds . Insulin's structure varies slightly between species of animals. Insulin from non-human animal sources differs somewhat in effectiveness (in carbohydrate metabolism effects) from human insulin because of these variations. Porcine insulin

2925-404: Is converted into either glycogen , via glycogenesis , or fats ( triglycerides ), via lipogenesis ; in the liver, glucose is converted into both. Glucose production and secretion by the liver are strongly inhibited by high concentrations of insulin in the blood. Circulating insulin also affects the synthesis of proteins in a wide variety of tissues. It is thus an anabolic hormone, promoting

3042-504: Is especially close to the human version, and was widely used to treat type 1 diabetics before human insulin could be produced in large quantities by recombinant DNA technologies. Insulin was the first peptide hormone discovered. Frederick Banting and Charles Best , working in the laboratory of John Macleod at the University of Toronto , were the first to isolate insulin from dog pancreas in 1921. Frederick Sanger sequenced

3159-492: Is far more stable than the monomer, which is desirable for practical reasons; however, the monomer is a much faster-reacting drug because diffusion rate is inversely related to particle size. A fast-reacting drug means insulin injections do not have to precede mealtimes by hours, which in turn gives people with diabetes more flexibility in their daily schedules. Insulin can aggregate and form fibrillar interdigitated beta-sheets . This can cause injection amyloidosis , and prevents

3276-399: Is inhibition due to dominance of the α-adrenergic receptors. When the glucose level comes down to the usual physiologic value, insulin release from the β-cells slows or stops. If the blood glucose level drops lower than this, especially to dangerously low levels, release of hyperglycemic hormones (most prominently glucagon from islet of Langerhans alpha cells) forces release of glucose into

3393-415: Is known as a homodimer. Insulin binds to the α-subunits of the homodimer, which faces the extracellular side of the cells. The β subunits have tyrosine kinase enzyme activity which is triggered by the insulin binding. This activity provokes the autophosphorylation of the β subunits and subsequently the phosphorylation of proteins inside the cell known as insulin receptor substrates (IRS). The phosphorylation of

3510-453: Is located in the nuclear periphery as a result of interaction with HDAC1 and 2 , which results in downregulation of insulin secretion. An increase in blood glucose levels causes phosphorylation of PDX1 , which leads it to undergo nuclear translocation and bind the A3 element within the insulin promoter. Upon translocation it interacts with coactivators HAT p300 and SETD7 . PDX1 affects

3627-460: Is missing an intron ( Ins1 ). Transcription of the insulin gene increases in response to elevated blood glucose. This is primarily controlled by transcription factors that bind enhancer sequences in the ~400 base pairs before the gene's transcription start site. The major transcription factors influencing insulin secretion are PDX1 , NeuroD1 , and MafA . During a low-glucose state, PDX1 (pancreatic and duodenal homeobox protein 1)

Good Food Awards - Misplaced Pages Continue

3744-422: Is not necessary. Selectable markers are used to easily differentiate transformed from untransformed cells. These markers are usually present in the transgenic organism, although a number of strategies have been developed that can remove the selectable marker from the mature transgenic plant. Further testing using PCR, Southern hybridization , and DNA sequencing is conducted to confirm that an organism contains

3861-456: Is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus . As well as inserting genes ,

3978-533: Is packaged inside mature granules waiting for metabolic signals (such as leucine, arginine, glucose and mannose) and vagal nerve stimulation to be exocytosed from the cell into the circulation. Insulin and its related proteins have been shown to be produced inside the brain, and reduced levels of these proteins are linked to Alzheimer's disease. Insulin release is stimulated also by beta-2 receptor stimulation and inhibited by alpha-1 receptor stimulation. In addition, cortisol, glucagon and growth hormone antagonize

4095-704: Is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases. As well as producing hormones, vaccines and other drugs, genetic engineering has the potential to cure genetic diseases through gene therapy . Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are used in industrial genetic engineering. Additionally mRNA vaccines are made through genetic engineering to treat viruses such as COVID-19 . The same techniques that are used to produce drugs can also have industrial applications such as producing enzymes for laundry detergent, cheeses and other products. The rise of commercialised genetically modified crops has provided economic benefit to farmers in many different countries, but has also been

4212-520: Is separated by using restriction enzymes to cut the DNA into fragments or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify up the gene segment. These segments can then be extracted through gel electrophoresis . If the chosen gene or the donor organism's genome has been well studied it may already be accessible from a genetic library . If the DNA sequence is known, but no copies of the gene are available, it can also be artificially synthesised . Once isolated

4329-494: Is strongly inhibited by norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which leads to increased blood glucose levels during stress. It appears that release of catecholamines by the sympathetic nervous system has conflicting influences on insulin release by beta cells, because insulin release is inhibited by α 2 -adrenergic receptors and stimulated by β 2 -adrenergic receptors. The net effect of norepinephrine from sympathetic nerves and epinephrine from adrenal glands on insulin release

4446-401: Is the genetic engineering of humans , generally by replacing defective genes with effective ones. Clinical research using somatic gene therapy has been conducted with several diseases, including X-linked SCID , chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and Parkinson's disease . In 2012, Alipogene tiparvovec became the first gene therapy treatment to be approved for clinical use. In 2015

4563-418: Is the presence of zinc atoms (Zn ) on the axis of symmetry, which are surrounded by three water molecules and three histidine residues at position B10. The hexamer is an inactive form with long-term stability, which serves as a way to keep the highly reactive insulin protected, yet readily available. The hexamer-monomer conversion is one of the central aspects of insulin formulations for injection. The hexamer

4680-2525: Is voluntary, while in Europe all food (including processed food ) or feed which contains greater than 0.9% of approved GMOs must be labelled. Insulin 1A7F , 1AI0 , 1AIY , 1B9E , 1BEN , 1EV3 , 1EV6 , 1EVR , 1FU2 , 1FUB , 1G7A , 1G7B , 1GUJ , 1HIQ , 1HIS , 1HIT , 1HLS , 1HTV , 1HUI , 1IOG , 1IOH , 1J73 , 1JCA , 1JCO , 1K3M , 1KMF , 1LKQ , 1LPH , 1MHI , 1MHJ , 1MSO , 1OS3 , 1OS4 , 1Q4V , 1QIY , 1QIZ , 1QJ0 , 1RWE , 1SF1 , 1T1K , 1T1P , 1T1Q , 1TRZ , 1TYL , 1TYM , 1UZ9 , 1VKT , 1W8P , 1XDA , 1XGL , 1XW7 , 1ZEG , 1ZEH , 1ZNJ , 2AIY , 2C8Q , 2C8R , 2CEU , 2H67 , 2HH4 , 2HHO , 2HIU , 2JMN , 2JUM , 2JUU , 2JUV , 2JV1 , 2JZQ , 2K91 , 2K9R , 2KJJ , 2KJU , 2KQQ , 2KXK , 2L1Y , 2L1Z , 2LGB , 2M1D , 2M1E , 2M2M , 2M2N , 2M2O , 2M2P , 2OLY , 2OLZ , 2OM0 , 2OM1 , 2OMG , 2OMH , 2OMI , 2QIU , 2R34 , 2R35 , 2R36 , 2RN5 , 2VJZ , 2VK0 , 2W44 , 2WBY , 2WC0 , 2WRU , 2WRV , 2WRW , 2WRX , 2WS0 , 2WS1 , 2WS4 , 2WS6 , 2WS7 , 3AIY , 3BXQ , 3E7Y , 3E7Z , 3EXX , 3FQ9 , 3I3Z , 3I40 , 3ILG , 3INC , 3IR0 , 3Q6E , 3ROV , 3TT8 , 3U4N , 3UTQ , 3UTS , 3UTT , 3V19 , 3V1G , 3W11 , 3W12 , 3W13 , 3W7Y , 3W7Z , 3W80 , 3ZI3 , 3ZQR , 3ZS2 , 3ZU1 , 4AIY , 4AJX , 4AJZ , 4AK0 , 4AKJ , 4EFX , 4EWW , 4EWX , 4EWZ , 4EX0 , 4EX1 , 4EXX , 4EY1 , 4EY9 , 4EYD , 4EYN , 4EYP , 4F0N , 4F0O , 4F1A , 4F1B , 4F1C , 4F1D , 4F1F , 4F1G , 4F4T , 4F4V , 4F51 , 4F8F , 4FG3 , 4FKA , 4GBC , 4GBI , 4GBK , 4GBL , 4GBN , 4IUZ , 5AIY , 2LWZ , 3JSD , 3KQ6 , 3P2X , 3P33 , 1JK8 , 2MLI , 2MPG , 2MPI , 2MVC , 2MVD , 4CXL , 4CXN , 4CY7 , 4NIB , 4OGA , 4P65 , 4Q5Z , 4RXW , 4UNE , 4UNG , 4UNH , 4XC4 , 4WDI , 4Z76 , 4Z77 , 4Z78 , 2N2W , 5CO6 , 5ENA , 4Y19 , 5BQQ , 5BOQ , 2N2V , 5CNY , 5CO9 , 5EN9 , 4Y1A , 2N2X , 5BPO , 5CO2 , 5BTS , 5HYJ , 5C0D ,%%s 1EFE , 1SJT , 1SJU , 2KQP ,%%s 1T0C ,%%s 2G54 , 2G56 , 3HYD , 2OMQ 3630 16334 ENSG00000254647 ENSMUSG00000000215 P01308 P01326 NM_000207 NM_001185097 NM_001185098 NM_001291897 NM_001185083 NM_001185084 NM_008387 NP_001172026.1 NP_001172027.1 NP_001278826.1 NP_000198 NP_000198 NP_000198 NP_000198 NP_001172012 NP_001172013 NP_032413 Insulin ( / ˈ ɪ n . sj ʊ . l ɪ n / , from Latin insula , 'island')

4797-578: The American Association for the Advancement of Science say that absent scientific evidence of harm even voluntary labeling is misleading and will falsely alarm consumers. Labeling of GMO products in the marketplace is required in 64 countries. Labeling can be mandatory up to a threshold GM content level (which varies between countries) or voluntary. In Canada and the US labeling of GM food

Good Food Awards - Misplaced Pages Continue

4914-513: The CRISPR/Cas9 system, a technique which can be used to easily and specifically alter the genome of almost any organism. Creating a GMO is a multi-step process. Genetic engineers must first choose what gene they wish to insert into the organism. This is driven by what the aim is for the resultant organism and is built on earlier research. Genetic screens can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to identify

5031-563: The Golgi apparatus and is packaged into specialized secretory vesicles . In the granule, proinsulin is cleaved by proprotein convertase 1/3 and proprotein convertase 2 , removing the middle part of the protein, called the " C-peptide ". Finally, carboxypeptidase E removes two pairs of amino acids from the protein's ends, resulting in active insulin – the insulin A- and B- chains, now connected with two disulfide bonds. The resulting mature insulin

5148-457: The histone modifications through acetylation and deacetylation as well as methylation . It is also said to suppress glucagon . NeuroD1 , also known as β2, regulates insulin exocytosis in pancreatic β cells by directly inducing the expression of genes involved in exocytosis. It is localized in the cytosol , but in response to high glucose it becomes glycosylated by OGT and/or phosphorylated by ERK , which causes translocation to

5265-579: The host organism or into a cell that is then fused or hybridised with the host. This relies on recombinant nucleic acid techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-injection , macro-injection or micro-encapsulation . Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional breeding, in vitro fertilisation , induction of polyploidy , mutagenesis and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or

5382-434: The infectious sequences . Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases. Genetically modified mice are the most common genetically engineered animal model. They have been used to study and model cancer (the oncomouse ), obesity, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging and Parkinson disease. Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models. Gene therapy

5499-501: The DNA of non-viable human embryos , leading scientists of major world academies to call for a moratorium on inheritable human genome edits. There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior. The distinction between cure and enhancement can also be difficult to establish. In November 2018, He Jiankui announced that he had edited

5616-452: The FDA approved a drug produced in goat milk. Genetic engineering has potential applications in conservation and natural area management. Gene transfer through viral vectors has been proposed as a means of controlling invasive species as well as vaccinating threatened fauna from disease. Transgenic trees have been suggested as a way to confer resistance to pathogens in wild populations. With

5733-533: The IRS activates a signal transduction cascade that leads to the activation of other kinases as well as transcription factors that mediate the intracellular effects of insulin. The cascade that leads to the insertion of GLUT4 glucose transporters into the cell membranes of muscle and fat cells, and to the synthesis of glycogen in liver and muscle tissue, as well as the conversion of glucose into triglycerides in liver, adipose, and lactating mammary gland tissue, operates via

5850-622: The USDA, FDA and EPA. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety , an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of GMOs, was adopted on 29 January 2000. One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol, and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. Some countries allow

5967-586: The United States and Europe . Genetic engineering : Process of inserting new genetic information into existing cells in order to modify a specific organism for the purpose of changing its characteristics. Note : Adapted from ref. Genetic engineering is a process that alters the genetic structure of an organism by either removing or introducing DNA , or modifying existing genetic material in situ. Unlike traditional animal and plant breeding , which involves doing multiple crosses and then selecting for

SECTION 50

#1732771707673

6084-478: The United States of America and Canada genetic modification can also be used to refer to more conventional breeding methods. Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through selective breeding , or artificial selection as contrasted with natural selection . More recently, mutation breeding has used exposure to chemicals or radiation to produce a high frequency of random mutations, for selective breeding purposes. Genetic engineering as

6201-404: The United States. One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled. The European Commission says that mandatory labeling and traceability are needed to allow for informed choice, avoid potential false advertising and facilitate the withdrawal of products if adverse effects on health or the environment are discovered. The American Medical Association and

6318-404: The actions of insulin during times of stress. Insulin also inhibits fatty acid release by hormone-sensitive lipase in adipose tissue. Contrary to an initial belief that hormones would be generally small chemical molecules, as the first peptide hormone known of its structure, insulin was found to be quite large. A single protein (monomer) of human insulin is composed of 51 amino acids , and has

6435-487: The activation, by IRS-1, of phosphoinositol 3 kinase ( PI3K ). This enzyme converts a phospholipid in the cell membrane by the name of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), into phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate (PIP3), which, in turn, activates protein kinase B (PKB). Activated PKB facilitates the fusion of GLUT4 containing endosomes with the cell membrane, resulting in an increase in GLUT4 transporters in

6552-459: The acute thermoregulatory and glucoregulatory response to food intake, suggesting that central nervous insulin contributes to the co-ordination of a wide variety of homeostatic or regulatory processes in the human body. Insulin also has stimulatory effects on gonadotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus , thus favoring fertility . Once an insulin molecule has docked onto the receptor and effected its action, it may be released back into

6669-462: The amino acid structure in 1951, which made insulin the first protein to be fully sequenced. The crystal structure of insulin in the solid state was determined by Dorothy Hodgkin in 1969. Insulin is also the first protein to be chemically synthesised and produced by DNA recombinant technology . It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines , the most important medications needed in

6786-403: The amount of insulin secreted, causing diabetes . The decreased binding activities can be mediated by glucose induced oxidative stress and antioxidants are said to prevent the decreased insulin secretion in glucotoxic pancreatic β cells . Stress signalling molecules and reactive oxygen species inhibits the insulin gene by interfering with the cofactors binding the transcription factors and

6903-518: The approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of GMOs. The development of a regulatory framework began in 1975, at Asilomar , California. The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology. As the technology improved the US established a committee at the Office of Science and Technology , which assigned regulatory approval of GM food to

7020-480: The best candidates. The development of microarrays , transcriptomics and genome sequencing has made it much easier to find suitable genes. Luck also plays its part; the Roundup Ready gene was discovered after scientists noticed a bacterium thriving in the presence of the herbicide. The next step is to isolate the candidate gene. The cell containing the gene is opened and the DNA is purified. The gene

7137-415: The blood from the liver glycogen stores, supplemented by gluconeogenesis if the glycogen stores become depleted. By increasing blood glucose, the hyperglycemic hormones prevent or correct life-threatening hypoglycemia. Evidence of impaired first-phase insulin release can be seen in the glucose tolerance test , demonstrated by a substantially elevated blood glucose level at 30 minutes after the ingestion of

SECTION 60

#1732771707673

7254-517: The blood. In type 2 diabetes , the destruction of beta cells is less pronounced than in type 1, and is not due to an autoimmune process. Instead, there is an accumulation of amyloid in the pancreatic islets, which likely disrupts their anatomy and physiology. The pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes is not well understood but reduced population of islet beta-cells, reduced secretory function of islet beta-cells that survive, and peripheral tissue insulin resistance are known to be involved. Type 2 diabetes

7371-450: The categories have subcategories. Up to three entries are allowed per producer in all categories except for coffee. Up to two entries are allowed per coffee producer, each from a different country of origin. Producers must wait one year to re-enter a Good Food Award winning product "to pave the way for new products and entry-level producers." There is a non-refundable entry fee for each submission, to cover storage, sorting and transport to

7488-408: The cell membrane permeable to plasmid DNA. As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be regenerated from that single cell. In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture . In animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells . Bacteria consist of a single cell and reproduce clonally so regeneration

7605-774: The cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus , or through the use of viral vectors . Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors . In plants the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium -mediated transformation , taking advantage of the Agrobacterium s T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells. Other methods include biolistics , where particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into young plant cells, and electroporation , which involves using an electric shock to make

7722-443: The composition of the food, or to produce novel products. The first crops to be released commercially on a large scale provided protection from insect pests or tolerance to herbicides . Fungal and virus resistant crops have also been developed or are in development. This makes the insect and weed management of crops easier and can indirectly increase crop yield. GM crops that directly improve yield by accelerating growth or making

7839-616: The concept of substantial equivalence . The European Union by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world. All GMOs, along with irradiated food , are considered "new food" and subject to extensive, case-by-case, science-based food evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority . The criteria for authorisation fall in four broad categories: "safety", "freedom of choice", "labelling", and "traceability". The level of regulation in other countries that cultivate GMOs lie in between Europe and

7956-417: The conversion of small molecules in the blood into large molecules in the cells. Low insulin in the blood has the opposite effect, promoting widespread catabolism , especially of reserve body fat . Beta cells are sensitive to blood sugar levels so that they secrete insulin into the blood in response to high level of glucose, and inhibit secretion of insulin when glucose levels are low. Insulin production

8073-413: The defective gene with a functioning one. It is an important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be studied. Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them. Crops have been developed that aid food security by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance to environmental stresses. The DNA can be introduced directly into

8190-578: The direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. The term "genetic engineering" was coined by the Russian-born geneticist Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky in his 1934 paper "The Experimental Production of Mutations", published in the British journal Biological Reviews. Jack Williamson used the term in his science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951 – one year before DNA's role in heredity

8307-573: The earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-produce human insulin in bacteria. This application has now been applied to human growth hormones , follicle stimulating hormones (for treating infertility), human albumin , monoclonal antibodies , antihemophilic factors , vaccines and many other drugs. Mouse hybridomas , cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies , have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies. Genetically engineered viruses are being developed that can still confer immunity, but lack

8424-565: The environment when a strawberry field and a potato field in California were sprayed with it. Both test fields were attacked by activist groups the night before the tests occurred: "The world's first trial site attracted the world's first field trasher". The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides . The People's Republic of China

8541-429: The enzymes controlling the rate of glycolysis leading to the synthesis of fats via malonyl-CoA in the tissues that can generate triglycerides , and also the enzymes that control the rate of gluconeogenesis in the liver. The overall effect of these final enzyme dephosphorylations is that, in the tissues that can carry out these reactions, glycogen and fat synthesis from glucose are stimulated, and glucose production by

8658-456: The extracellular environment, or it may be degraded by the cell. The two primary sites for insulin clearance are the liver and the kidney. It is broken down by the enzyme, protein-disulfide reductase (glutathione) , which breaks the disulphide bonds between the A and B chains. The liver clears most insulin during first-pass transit, whereas the kidney clears most of the insulin in systemic circulation. Degradation normally involves endocytosis of

8775-471: The first synthetic genome and inserted it into an empty bacterial cell. The resulting bacterium, named Mycoplasma laboratorium , could replicate and produce proteins. Four years later this was taken a step further when a bacterium was developed that replicated a plasmid containing a unique base pair , creating the first organism engineered to use an expanded genetic alphabet. In 2012, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier collaborated to develop

8892-494: The first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974. The first company to focus on genetic engineering, Genentech , was founded in 1976 and started the production of human proteins. Genetically engineered human insulin was produced in 1978 and insulin-producing bacteria were commercialised in 1982. Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato. The Flavr Savr

9009-430: The first phase of insulin exocytosis, most of the granules predispose for exocytosis are released after the calcium internalization. This pool is known as Readily Releasable Pool (RRP). The RRP granules represent 0.3-0.7% of the total insulin-containing granule population, and they are found immediately adjacent to the plasma membrane. During the second phase of exocytosis, insulin granules require mobilization of granules to

9126-490: The food supply and intellectual property rights have also been raised as potential issues. These concerns have led to the development of a regulatory framework, which started in 1975. It has led to an international treaty, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety , that was adopted in 2000. Individual countries have developed their own regulatory systems regarding GMOs, with the most marked differences occurring between

9243-464: The gene is ligated into a plasmid that is then inserted into a bacterium. The plasmid is replicated when the bacteria divide, ensuring unlimited copies of the gene are available. The RK2 plasmid is notable for its ability to replicate in a wide variety of single-celled organisms , which makes it suitable as a genetic engineering tool. Before the gene is inserted into the target organism it must be combined with other genetic elements. These include

9360-404: The genome of pigs to induce the growth of human organs, with the aim of increasing the success of pig to human organ transplantation . Scientists are creating "gene drives", changing the genomes of mosquitoes to make them immune to malaria, and then looking to spread the genetically altered mosquitoes throughout the mosquito population in the hopes of eliminating the disease. Genetic engineering

9477-465: The genome, and use the cell's endogenous mechanisms to repair the induced break by the natural processes of homologous recombination and nonhomologous end-joining . There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases , zinc finger nucleases , transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR ). TALEN and CRISPR are

9594-470: The genomes of two human embryos, to attempt to disable the CCR5 gene, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells. The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature. Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries. Scientists that do this type of research will often let embryos grow for a few days without allowing it to develop into a baby. Researchers are altering

9711-408: The global human metabolism level include: The actions of insulin (indirect and direct) on cells include: Insulin also influences other body functions, such as vascular compliance and cognition . Once insulin enters the human brain, it enhances learning and memory and benefits verbal memory in particular. Enhancing brain insulin signaling by means of intranasal insulin administration also enhances

9828-511: The host genome or targeted to a specific location. The technique of gene targeting uses homologous recombination to make desired changes to a specific endogenous gene. This tends to occur at a relatively low frequency in plants and animals and generally requires the use of selectable markers . The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through genome editing . Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create specific double-stranded breaks at desired locations in

9945-454: The import of GM food with authorisation, but either do not allow its cultivation (Russia, Norway, Israel) or have provisions for cultivation even though no GM products are yet produced (Japan, South Korea). Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research. Some of the most marked differences occur between the US and Europe. The US policy focuses on the product (not the process), only looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses

10062-678: The increasing risks of maladaptation in organisms as a result of climate change and other perturbations, facilitated adaptation through gene tweaking could be one solution to reducing extinction risks. Applications of genetic engineering in conservation are thus far mostly theoretical and have yet to be put into practice. Genetic engineering is also being used to create microbial art . Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and white photographs. Novelty items such as lavender-colored carnations , blue roses , and glowing fish , have also been produced through genetic engineering. The regulation of genetic engineering concerns

10179-518: The insulin sequence of diverse species suggests that it has been conserved across much of animal evolutionary history. The C-peptide of proinsulin , however, differs much more among species; it is also a hormone, but a secondary one. Insulin is produced and stored in the body as a hexamer (a unit of six insulin molecules), while the active form is the monomer. The hexamer is about 36000 Da in size. The six molecules are linked together as three dimeric units to form symmetrical molecule. An important feature

10296-428: The liver in extracting insulin from the blood. This oscillation is important to consider when administering insulin-stimulating medication, since it is the oscillating blood concentration of insulin release, which should, ideally, be achieved, not a constant high concentration. This may be achieved by delivering insulin rhythmically to the portal vein , by light activated delivery, or by islet cell transplantation to

10413-413: The liver through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis are inhibited. The breakdown of triglycerides by adipose tissue into free fatty acids and glycerol is also inhibited. After the intracellular signal that resulted from the binding of insulin to its receptor has been produced, termination of signaling is then needed. As mentioned below in the section on degradation, endocytosis and degradation of

10530-465: The liver. The blood insulin level can be measured in international units , such as μIU/mL or in molar concentration , such as pmol/L, where 1 μIU/mL equals 6.945 pmol/L. A typical blood level between meals is 8–11 μIU/mL (57–79 pmol/L). The effects of insulin are initiated by its binding to a receptor, the insulin receptor (IR) , present in the cell membrane. The receptor molecule contains an α- and β subunits. Two molecules are joined to form what

10647-464: The liver. The secretion of insulin and glucagon into the blood in response to the blood glucose concentration is the primary mechanism of glucose homeostasis . Decreased or absent insulin activity results in diabetes , a condition of high blood sugar level ( hyperglycaemia ). There are two types of the disease. In type 1 diabetes , the beta cells are destroyed by an autoimmune reaction so that insulin can no longer be synthesized or be secreted into

10764-434: The monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus . In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an Escherichia coli bacterium. A year later Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal These achievements led to concerns in

10881-498: The new gene. These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy number of the inserted gene. The presence of the gene does not guarantee it will be expressed at appropriate levels in the target tissue so methods that look for and measure the gene products (RNA and protein) are also used. These include northern hybridisation , quantitative RT-PCR , Western blot , immunofluorescence , ELISA and phenotypic analysis. The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within

10998-471: The nucleus. In the nucleus β2 heterodimerizes with E47 , binds to the E1 element of the insulin promoter and recruits co-activator p300 which acetylates β2. It is able to interact with other transcription factors as well in activation of the insulin gene. MafA is degraded by proteasomes upon low blood glucose levels. Increased levels of glucose make an unknown protein glycosylated . This protein works as

11115-399: The organism with the desired phenotype , genetic engineering takes the gene directly from one organism and delivers it to the other. This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different domains ) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added. Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe genetic disorders in humans by replacing

11232-558: The other Good Food Awards categories must also meet the sustainability standards of those categories. Entrants who score well in the Blind Tasting are then asked to provide more information on sourcing and their sustainability and social responsibility practices to verify they meet the Good Food Awards standards details listed in the entry form. Entrants are disqualified if they do not meet the standards or any statements made are found to be false. Genetically modified This

11349-564: The plant more hardy (by improving salt, cold or drought tolerance) are also under development. In 2016 Salmon have been genetically modified with growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster. GMOs have been developed that modify the quality of produce by increasing the nutritional value or providing more industrially useful qualities or quantities. The Amflora potato produces a more industrially useful blend of starches. Soybeans and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils. The first commercialised GM food

11466-613: The plasma membrane and a previous preparation to undergo their release. Thus, the second phase of insulin release is governed by the rate at which granules get ready for release. This pool is known as a Reserve Pool (RP). The RP is released slower than the RRP (RRP: 18 granules/min; RP: 6 granules/min). Reduced first-phase insulin release may be the earliest detectable beta cell defect predicting onset of type 2 diabetes . First-phase release and insulin sensitivity are independent predictors of diabetes. The description of first phase release

11583-402: The plasma membrane. PKB also phosphorylates glycogen synthase kinase (GSK), thereby inactivating this enzyme. This means that its substrate, glycogen synthase (GS), cannot be phosphorylated, and remains dephosphorylated, and therefore active. The active enzyme, glycogen synthase (GS), catalyzes the rate limiting step in the synthesis of glycogen from glucose. Similar dephosphorylations affect

11700-497: The positions A7-B7 and A20-B19. There is an additional (intrachain) disulfide bond within the A-chain between cysteine residues at positions A6 and A11. The A-chain exhibits two α-helical regions at A1-A8 and A12-A19 which are antiparallel; while the B chain has a central α -helix (covering residues B9-B19) flanked by the disulfide bond on either sides and two β-sheets (covering B7-B10 and B20-B23). The amino acid sequence of insulin

11817-538: The prey fishes by lowering their blood glucose levels. Insulin is produced exclusively in the beta cells of the pancreatic islets in mammals, and the Brockmann body in some fish. Human insulin is produced from the INS gene , located on chromosome 11. Rodents have two functional insulin genes; one is the homolog of most mammalian genes ( Ins2 ), and the other is a retroposed copy that includes promoter sequence but that

11934-439: The process can be used to remove, or " knock out ", genes. The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome . An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be genetically modified (GM) and the resulting entity is a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMO was a bacterium generated by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. Rudolf Jaenisch created

12051-430: The production of agricultural or pharmaceutical products. The genetically modified animals include animals with genes knocked out , increased susceptibility to disease , hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their milk. Genetic engineering has many applications to medicine that include the manufacturing of drugs, creation of model animals that mimic human conditions and gene therapy . One of

12168-570: The production of food ( chymosin in cheese making) and fuels. Other applications with genetically engineered bacteria could involve making them perform tasks outside their natural cycle, such as making biofuels , cleaning up oil spills, carbon and other toxic waste and detecting arsenic in drinking water. Certain genetically modified microbes can also be used in biomining and bioremediation , due to their ability to extract heavy metals from their environment and incorporate them into compounds that are more easily recoverable. In materials science ,

12285-461: The receptor bound to insulin is a main mechanism to end signaling. In addition, the signaling pathway is also terminated by dephosphorylation of the tyrosine residues in the various signaling pathways by tyrosine phosphatases. Serine/Threonine kinases are also known to reduce the activity of insulin. The structure of the insulin– insulin receptor complex has been determined using the techniques of X-ray crystallography . The actions of insulin on

12402-500: The scientific community about potential risks from genetic engineering, which were first discussed in depth at the Asilomar Conference in 1975. One of the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe. In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and

12519-434: The source of most of the controversy surrounding the technology. This has been present since its early use; the first field trials were destroyed by anti-GM activists. Although there is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, critics consider GM food safety a leading concern. Gene flow , impact on non-target organisms, control of

12636-496: The storage of insulin for long periods. Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans release insulin in two phases. The first-phase release is rapidly triggered in response to increased blood glucose levels, and lasts about 10 minutes. The second phase is a sustained, slow release of newly formed vesicles triggered independently of sugar, peaking in 2 to 3 hours. The two phases of the insulin release suggest that insulin granules are present in diverse stated populations or "pools". During

12753-495: The tasting venue. Shipping and product costs for entries must be covered by the entrant. Products must be made in a licensed kitchen, or as required by state and local regulations, and be ready for sale. If produced by a copacker (or for Fish, a cannery or processor), the product must be made from the entrant’s own recipe, with strict sourcing guidelines set by the entrant and with regular quality control measures set in place. Ingredients that are part of an entry which fall into one of

12870-463: The transcription factors itself. Several regulatory sequences in the promoter region of the human insulin gene bind to transcription factors . In general, the A-boxes bind to Pdx1 factors, E-boxes bind to NeuroD , C-boxes bind to MafA , and cAMP response elements to CREB . There are also silencers that inhibit transcription. Insulin is synthesized as an inactive precursor molecule,

12987-412: The two most commonly used and each has its own advantages. TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient. In addition to enhancing gene targeting, engineered nucleases can be used to introduce mutations at endogenous genes that generate a gene knockout . Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on

13104-490: Was a tomato that had delayed ripening, increasing its shelf life . Plants and animals have been engineered to produce materials they do not normally make. Pharming uses crops and animals as bioreactors to produce vaccines, drug intermediates, or the drugs themselves; the useful product is purified from the harvest and then used in the standard pharmaceutical production process. Cows and goats have been engineered to express drugs and other proteins in their milk, and in 2009

13221-456: Was always previously assumed to be food type specific only. Even during digestion, in general, one or two hours following a meal, insulin release from the pancreas is not continuous, but oscillates with a period of 3–6 minutes, changing from generating a blood insulin concentration more than about 800 p mol /l to less than 100 pmol/L (in rats). This is thought to avoid downregulation of insulin receptors in target cells, and to assist

13338-507: Was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency , after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US. In 2009 11 transgenic crops were grown commercially in 25 countries, the largest of which by area grown were the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay and South Africa. In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute created

13455-482: Was confirmed by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase , and two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the DNA molecule has a double-helix structure – though the general concept of direct genetic manipulation was explored in rudimentary form in Stanley G. Weinbaum 's 1936 science fiction story Proteus Island . In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining DNA from

13572-739: Was engineered to have a longer shelf life, but most current GM crops are modified to increase resistance to insects and herbicides. GloFish , the first GMO designed as a pet, was sold in the United States in December 2003. In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold. Genetic engineering has been applied in numerous fields including research, medicine, industrial biotechnology and agriculture. In research, GMOs are used to study gene function and expression through loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression experiments. By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it

13689-534: Was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the first genetically modified food , the Flavr Savr , a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil , making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe. In 1995, Bt potato

#672327