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89-592: Gateway was created by the U.S. Congress in 1972 to preserve and protect scarce or unique natural, cultural, and recreational resources with relatively convenient access by a high percentage of the nation's population. It is owned by the federal government and managed by the National Park Service . Gateway is distinct from other national park units due to its lack of natural buffer zones and that it faces constant environmental changes driven by human activity. The lands and waters of Gateway represent some of

178-419: A barrier island does not receive enough sediment to grow, repeated washovers from storms will migrate the island towards the mainland. Wave-dominated barrier islands may eventually develop into mixed-energy barrier islands. Mixed-energy barrier islands are molded by both wave energy and tidal flux. The flow of a tidal prism moves sand. Sand accumulates at both the inshore and off shore sides of an inlet, forming

267-700: A barrier island typically contain coastal vegetation roots and marine bioturbation. The lagoon and tidal flat area is located behind the dune and backshore area. Here the water is still, which allows fine silts, sands, and mud to settle out. Lagoons can become host to an anaerobic environment. This will allow high amounts of organic-rich mud to form. Vegetation is also common. Barrier Islands can be observed on every continent on Earth, except Antarctica. They occur primarily in areas that are tectonically stable , such as "trailing edge coasts" facing (moving away from) ocean ridges formed by divergent boundaries of tectonic plates, and around smaller marine basins such as

356-666: A barrier island. Many have large numbers of barrier islands; Florida, for instance, had 29 (in 1997) in just 300 kilometres (190 mi) along the west (Gulf) coast of the Florida peninsula, plus about 20 others on the east coast and several barrier islands and spits along the panhandle coast. Padre Island , in Texas, is the world's longest barrier island; other well-known islands on the Gulf Coast include Galveston Island in Texas and Sanibel and Captiva Islands in Florida. Those on

445-506: A characteristic drumstick shape, with a wide portion at the northern end near the mouth of Phillipi Creek. Barrier islands are critically important in mitigating ocean swells and other storm events for the water systems on the mainland side of the barrier island, as well as protecting the coastline. This effectively creates a unique environment of relatively low energy, brackish water . Multiple wetland systems such as lagoons, estuaries, and/or marshes can result from such conditions depending on

534-425: A flood delta or shoal on the bay or lagoon side of the inlet (from sand carried in on a flood tide), and an ebb delta or shoal on the open water side (from sand carried out by an ebb tide). Large tidal prisms tend to produce large ebb shoals, which may rise enough to be exposed at low tide. Ebb shoals refract waves approaching the inlet, locally reversing the longshore current moving sand along the coast. This can modify

623-417: A historical baseline that read, "The goal of managing the national parks and monuments should be to preserve, or where necessary to recreate, the ecologic scene as viewed by the first European visitors." This baseline would guide ecological restoration in national parks until a climate change adaptation policy, "Resist-Adapt-Direct", was established in 2021. National Parks director Jonathan Jarvis charged

712-468: A magnificent park   ... A nation's Park, containing man and beast, in all the wild[ness] and freshness of their nature's beauty!" Yellowstone National Park was created as the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no state government to manage it (Wyoming was a U.S. territory at that time), so the federal government managed it directly through the army, including

801-537: A person or event, though unlike a National Historical Site, may or may not be placed at a specific historical location. Several national memorials are on the National Mall , such as the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial . National seashores and national lakeshores offer preservation of the national coast line, while supporting water–based recreation. Cape Hatteras National Seashore

890-544: A single island until a storm created a channel between them in 1896). North Stradbroke Island is the second largest sand island in the world and Moreton Island is the third largest. Fraser Island , another barrier island lying 200 km north of Moreton Bay on the same coastline, is the largest sand island in the world. Barrier islands are found most prominently on the United States' East and Gulf Coasts, where every state, from Maine to Florida (East Coast) and from Florida to Texas ( Gulf coast ), features at least part of

979-404: A small tidal range and a wave-dominated coast, there must be a relatively low gradient shelf. Otherwise, sand accumulation into a sandbar would not occur and instead would be dispersed throughout the shore. An ample sediment supply is also a requirement for barrier island formation. This often includes fluvial deposits and glacial deposits . The last major requirement for barrier island formation

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1068-507: A small to moderate tidal range. Coasts are classified into three groups based on tidal range : microtidal, 0–2 meter tidal range; mesotidal, 2–4 meter tidal range; and macrotidal, >4 meter tidal range. Barrier islands tend to form primarily along microtidal coasts, where they tend to be well developed and nearly continuous. They are less frequently formed in mesotidal coasts, where they are typically short with tidal inlets common. Barrier islands are very rare along macrotidal coasts. Along with

1157-537: A special resource study of a site to determine its national significance and suitability to be part of the National Park System. The NPS uses over 20 different titles for the park units it manages, including national park and national monument . National parks preserve nationally and globally significant scenic areas and nature reserves. National monuments preserve a single unique cultural or natural feature. Devils Tower National Monument

1246-592: A variety of factors to be considered in terms of the effects of the surrounding urban environment on the park ecosystem. Part of Gateway's mission is to preserve and restore the unique natural features of New York and New Jersey. These are some recent and ongoing restoration projects at Gateway: There are approximately 800 historic buildings, structures and sites that Gateway posses. It is challenging to maintain these historic buildings due to current conditions and resources numbers as well as funding. Many of these historic buildings were already in poor condition since Gateway

1335-676: Is New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve at 1,164,025 acres (4711 km ). The smallest is Benjamin Franklin National Memorial at less than 0.01 acres (40 m ). While there are laws generally covering all units of the National Park System, they are subject to management policies of individual pieces of authorizing legislation or, in the case of national monuments created under the Antiquities Act , Executive Order . For example, because of provisions within their enabling legislation, Congaree National Park

1424-521: Is Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve , Alaska. At 13,200,000 acres (53,000 km ), it is over 16 percent of the entire system. The smallest unit in the system is Thaddeus Kosciuszko National Memorial , Pennsylvania , at 0.02 acres (80 m ). In addition to administering its units and other properties, the NPS also provides technical and financial assistance to several affiliated areas authorized by Congress. The largest affiliated area

1513-414: Is a stable sea level. It is especially important for sea level to remain relatively unchanged during barrier island formation and growth. If sea level changes are too drastic, time will be insufficient for wave action to accumulate sand into a dune, which will eventually become a barrier island through aggradation . The formation of barrier islands requires a constant sea level so that waves can concentrate

1602-491: Is almost entirely a wilderness area devoid of development, yet Yosemite allows unique developments such as the Badger Pass Ski Area and the O'Shaughnessy Dam within its boundaries. Such irregularities would not be found in other parks unless specifically provided for with exceptions by the legislation that created them. Most NPS units have been established by an act of Congress, with the president confirming

1691-523: Is charged with preserving the ecological and historical integrity of the places entrusted to its management and with making them available for public use and enjoyment. Artist George Catlin , during an 1832 trip to the Dakotas, was perhaps the first to suggest the concept of a national park. Indian civilization, wildlife, and wilderness were all in danger, wrote Catlin, unless they could be preserved "by some great protecting policy of government   ... in

1780-428: Is coarser. The foreshore is the area on land between high and low tide. Like the upper shoreface, it is constantly affected by wave action. Cross-bedding and lamination are present and coarser sands are present because of the high energy present by the crashing of the waves. The sand is also very well sorted . The backshore is always above the highest water level point. The berm is also found here which marks

1869-432: Is essential to a National Park Service that is science-informed at all organizational levels and able to respond with contemporary strategies for resource management and ultimately park stewardship." The "Revisiting Leopold" report mentioned climate change three times and "climate refugia" once, but it did not prescribe or offer any management tactics that could help parks managers with the problems of climate change. Hence,

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1958-450: Is home to a variety of species of the main biological classes, including amphibians, birds, mammals, reptiles, crustaceans, and insects. The species inhabiting these areas have all been able to habituate to the built environments of New York City and New Jersey. The following species can be found throughout all of the different units of the recreation area: As the recreation area has locations throughout New York City and New Jersey, there are

2047-612: Is home to ocean beaches, Sandy Hook Bay, salt marshes, the historic Fort Hancock, and the Sandy Hook Lighthouse. At the northern end of the unit lies the Fort Hancock complex, with hiking trails that wind through dunes, ponds, and some of the most valuable bird habitats in New Jersey. The barrier peninsula forms the other side of the "gateway" to New York Harbor, and includes two park sites: The recreation area

2136-404: Is increasingly untenable, presenting practical and philosophical challenges for managers. As formerly familiar ecological conditions continue to change, bringing novelty, surprise, and uncertainty, natural resource managers require a new, shared approach to make conservation decisions.... The RAD (Resist-Accept-Direct) decision framework has emerged over the past decade as a simple tool that captures

2225-447: Is less than a critical value. The island did not narrow below these values because overwash was effective at transporting sediment over the barrier island, thereby keeping pace with the rate of ocean shoreline recession. Sections of the island with greater widths experienced washover deposits that did not reach the bayshore, and the island narrowed by ocean shoreline recession until it reached the critical width. The only process that widened

2314-432: Is located in the upper shoreface. The middle shoreface is strongly influenced by wave action because of its depth. Closer to shore the sand is medium-grained, with shell pieces common. Since wave action is heavier, bioturbation is not likely. The lower shoreface is constantly affected by wave action. This results in development of herringbone sedimentary structures because of the constant differing flow of waves. The sand

2403-523: Is located on the southeastern shore of Staten Island facing Lower New York Bay . It includes Hoffman and Swinburne Islands , both off limits to visitation and managed primarily for the benefit of avian species. The unit also includes the following three sites: As for Hoffman and Swinburne Islands, both are artificially constructed islands originally established in the late 19th century as quarantine centers for arriving immigrants at Ellis Island who were suspected to be carrying illnesses. Swinburne Island

2492-489: Is not a complicated site. National historical parks are larger areas with more complex subjects. Historic sites may also be protected in other unit types. National military parks , battlefield parks , battlefield sites , and battlefields preserve areas associated with military history. The different designations reflect the complexity of the event and the site. Many of the sites preserve important Revolutionary War battles and Civil War battlefields. Military parks are

2581-623: Is the smaller of the two, at 4 acres, whereas Hoffman Island is 11 acres. Both islands are no longer publicly accessible, and now serve primarily as nesting sites for a variety of bird species. Harbor seals have also been spotted on Hoffman and Swinburne Islands during the winter season. Sandy Hook Unit is in Monmouth County in northern New Jersey. The Sandy Hook Unit covers roughly 1,665 acres of land, including 7.5 miles of ocean beaches, sheltered bayside coves, and hundreds of acres of ecologically important barrier beach vegetation. The area

2670-847: The Banyak Islands (chiefly Tuangku and Bangkaru), Nias , the Batu Islands (notably Pini, Tanahmasa and Tanahbala), the Mentawai Islands (mainly Siberut , Sipura , North Pagai and South Pagai Islands) and Enggano Island . Barrier islands can be observed in the Baltic Sea from Poland to Lithuania as well as distinctly in the Wadden Islands , which stretch from the Netherlands to Denmark. Lido di Venezia and Pellestrina are notable barrier islands of

2759-581: The Lagoon of Venice which have for centuries protected the city of Venice in Italy. Chesil Beach on the south coast of England developed as a barrier beach. Barrier beaches are also found in the north of the Azov and Black seas . Water levels may be higher than the island during storm events. This situation can lead to overwash , which brings sand from the front of the island to the top and/or landward side of

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2848-472: The Mississippi River delta have been reworked by wave action, forming beach ridge complexes. Prolonged sinking of the marshes behind the barriers has converted these former vegetated wetlands to open-water areas. In a period of 125 years, from 1853 to 1978, two small semi-protected bays behind the barrier developed as the large water body of Lake Pelto, leading to Isles Dernieres 's detachment from

2937-716: The National Wilderness Preservation System , which consists of federally managed lands that are of a pristine condition, established by the Wilderness Act (Public Law 88-577) in 1964. The National Wilderness Preservation System originally created hundreds of wilderness zones within already protected federally administered property, consisting of over 9 million acres (36,000 km ). Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) began with Executive Order 13158 in May 2000, when official MPAs were established for

3026-544: The United States Department of the Interior . U.S. President Richard Nixon put his support behind a very similar proposal in 1970, with one significant change: instead of being designated a "seashore", the protected area would be a national park . In May of that year, the president started the process of getting Congressional approval for this move. The United States House of Representatives approved

3115-861: The 2021 report specific to the need for climate adaptation : "Resist-Accept-Direct (RAD): A Framework for the 21st-century Natural Resource Manager." This "Natural Resource Report" has ten authors. Among them are four associated with the National Park Service, three with the US Fish and Wildlife Service , and two with the US Geological Survey — all of which are government agencies within the US Department of Interior. The report's Executive Summary, points to "intensifying global change." "... The convention of using baseline conditions to define goals for today's resource management

3204-960: The East Coast include Miami Beach and Palm Beach in Florida; Hatteras Island in North Carolina; Assateague Island in Virginia and Maryland ; Absecon Island in New Jersey, where Atlantic City is located; and Jones Beach Island and Fire Island , both off Long Island in New York. No barrier islands are found on the Pacific Coast of the United States due to the rocky shore and short continental shelf, but barrier peninsulas can be found. Barrier islands can also be seen on Alaska 's Arctic coast. Barrier Islands can also be found in Maritime Canada, and other places along

3293-562: The Gulf coast of the Florida peninsula, including: the North and South Anclote Bars associated with Anclote Key , Three Rooker Island , Shell Key , and South Bunces Key . American geologist Grove Karl Gilbert first argued in 1885 that the barrier sediments came from longshore sources. He proposed that sediment moving in the breaker zone through agitation by waves in longshore drift would construct spits extending from headlands parallel to

3382-494: The Interior bureau or program. The NPS budget is divided into two primary areas, discretionary and mandatory spending. Within each of these areas, there are numerous specific purposes to which Congress directs the services activities. The NPS budget includes discretionary spending which is broken out into two portions: the direct operations of the National Parks and the special initiatives. Listed separately are

3471-626: The Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico . Areas with relatively small tides and ample sand supply favor barrier island formation . Moreton Bay , on the east coast of Australia and directly east of Brisbane , is sheltered from the Pacific Ocean by a chain of very large barrier islands. Running north to south they are Bribie Island , Moreton Island , North Stradbroke Island and South Stradbroke Island (the last two used to be

3560-669: The NPS, rather than the War Department , should manage historic American Civil War sites. President Roosevelt agreed and issued two executive orders to implement the reorganization. These two executive orders transferred to the NPS all of the War Department's historic sites as well as national monuments that the Department of Agriculture had managed and parks in and around Washington, D.C. that an independent federal office had previously operated. The popularity of

3649-472: The National Park Service, which have a wide variety of titles or designations. The system as a whole is considered to be a national treasure of the United States, and some of the more famous national parks and monuments are sometimes referred to as " crown jewels ". The system encompasses approximately 85.1 million acres (0.344 million km ), of which 2.6 million acres (0.011 million km ) remain in private ownership. The largest unit

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3738-497: The National Parks" was prepared by a five-member advisory board on Wildlife Management, appointed by United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall . This report came to be referred to in later years by its chairman and principal author, A. Starker Leopold . The Leopold Report was just fourteen pages in length, but it set forth ecosystem management recommendations that would guide parks policy until it

3827-623: The Park Service. New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery and unique natural features to making parks accessible to the public. Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas . A 1963 report titled "Wildlife Management in

3916-401: The action by signing the act into law. The exception, under the Antiquities Act , allows the president to designate and protect areas as national monuments by executive order. Regardless of the method used, all parks are to be of national importance. A potential park should meet all four of the following standards: Before creation of a new unit, Congress typically directs the NPS to conduct

4005-702: The agency on August 25, 1916, through the National Park Service Organic Act . Its headquarters is in Washington, D.C. , within the main headquarters of the Department of the Interior. The NPS employs about 20,000 people in 431 units covering over 85 million acres (0.34 million km ) in all 50 states , the District of Columbia, and US territories . In 2019, the service had more than 279,000 volunteers. The agency

4094-399: The barrier beyond the critical width was breaching, formation of a partially subaerial flood shoal, and subsequent inlet closure. Critical barrier width can be defined as the smallest cross-shore dimension that minimizes net loss of sediment from the barrier island over the defined project lifetime. The magnitude of critical width is related to sources and sinks of sand in the system, such as

4183-401: The barrier has a large impact on the height and evolution of the island. Chains of barrier islands can be found along approximately 13-15% of the world's coastlines. They display different settings, suggesting that they can form and be maintained in a variety of environments. Numerous theories have been given to explain their formation. A human-made offshore structure constructed parallel to

4272-412: The boundary between the foreshore and backshore. Wind is the important factor here, not water. During strong storms high waves and wind can deliver and erode sediment from the backshore. Coastal dunes , created by wind, are typical of a barrier island. They are located at the top of the backshore. The dunes will display characteristics of typical aeolian wind-blown dunes. The difference is that dunes on

4361-509: The coast. A good example is found at Miramichi Bay , New Brunswick , where Portage Island as well as Fox Island and Hay Island protect the inner bay from storms in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence . Mexico's Gulf of Mexico coast has numerous barrier islands and barrier peninsulas. Barrier islands are more prevalent in the north of both of New Zealand's main islands. Notable barrier islands in New Zealand include Matakana Island , which guards

4450-529: The coast. The subsequent breaching of spits by storm waves would form barrier islands. William John McGee reasoned in 1890 that the East and Gulf coasts of the United States were undergoing submergence, as evidenced by the many drowned river valleys that occur along these coasts, including Raritan , Delaware and Chesapeake bays. He believed that during submergence, coastal ridges were separated from

4539-538: The concession-run campgrounds (1.42 million). In 2019, the NPS had an annual budget of $ 4.085 billion and an estimated $ 12 billion maintenance backlog. On August 4, 2020, the Great American Outdoors Act was signed into law reducing the $ 12 billion maintenance backlog by $ 9.5 billion over a 5-year period beginning in FY 2021. As of 2022, the NPS had the largest budget allocation of any Department of

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4628-899: The creation of Gateway National Recreation Area in September 1972, and most of the land was transferred to the National Park Service (NPS) for inclusion in Gateway National Recreation Area. In the same vote, the House denied the state's provision to create a housing development at Floyd Bennett Field , which was to be part of the Gateway Area. Gateway National Recreation Area was officially created on October 27, 1972, along with Golden Gate National Recreation Area in San Francisco . Gateway included over 26,000 acres (11,000 ha) of land. This excluded some of

4717-544: The ebb shoal into swash bars, which migrate into the end of the island up current from the inlet, adding to the barrier's width near the inlet (creating a "drumstick" barrier island). This process captures sand that is carried by the longshore current, preventing it from reaching the downcurrent side of the inlet, starving that island. Many of the Sea Islands in the U.S. state of Georgia are relatively wide compared to their shore-parallel length. Siesta Key, Florida has

4806-513: The enjoyment of future generations". Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3, 1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933. The act gave the president the authority to transfer national monuments from one governmental department to another. Later that summer, new president Franklin D. Roosevelt made use of this power after NPS Deputy Director Horace M. Albright suggested that

4895-655: The entire decision space for responding to ecosystems facing the potential for rapid, irreversible ecological change." Here, the iconic species of Joshua Tree National Park is a leading example. The three RAD options are: The "Resist-Accept-Direct" Framework is first described in a July 2020 paper published in Fisheries Eighteen researchers from federal and state agencies and universities collaborated in this effort, which included short case studies of where and how this framework has already been applied. The National Park System includes all properties managed by

4984-585: The entrance to Tauranga Harbour , and Rabbit Island , at the southern end of Tasman Bay . See also Nelson Harbour's Boulder Bank , below. The Vypin Island in the Southwest coast of India in Kerala is 27 km long. It is also one of the most densely populated islands in the world. The Indonesian Barrier Islands lie off the western coast of Sumatra . From north to south along this coast they include Simeulue ,

5073-405: The famed African American Buffalo Soldier units. The movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather . With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard , Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior . They wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of

5162-404: The first time. The initial listing of U.S. areas was presented in 2010, consisting of areas already set aside under other legislation. The NPS has 19 park units designated as MPAs. The National Park System received over 325 million recreation visits in 2023. Park visitation grew 64 percent between 1979 and 2015. The 10 most-visited units of the National Park System handle around 30 percent of

5251-526: The formation of barrier islands for more than 150 years. There are three major theories: offshore bar, spit accretion, and submergence. No single theory can explain the development of all barriers, which are distributed extensively along the world's coastlines. Scientists accept the idea that barrier islands, including other barrier types, can form by a number of different mechanisms. There appears to be some general requirements for formation. Barrier island systems develop most easily on wave-dominated coasts with

5340-427: The island at an angle will carry sediment long, extending the island. Longshore currents, and the resultant extension, are usually in one direction, but in some circumstances the currents and extensions can occur towards both ends of the island (as occurs on Anclote Key , Three Rooker Bar , and Sand Key , on the Gulf Coast of Florida). Washover fans on the lagoon side of barriers, where storm surges have over-topped

5429-524: The island, are common, especially on younger barrier islands. Wave-dominated barriers are also susceptible to being breached by storms, creating new inlets. Such inlets may close as sediment is carried in them by longshore currents, but may become permanent if the tidal prism (volumn and force of tidal flow) is large enough. Older barrier islands that have accumulated dunes are less subject to washovers and opening of inlets. Wave-dominated islands require an abundant supply of sediment to grow and develop dunes. If

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5518-407: The island. This process leads to the evolution and migration of the barrier island. Barrier islands are often formed to have a certain width. The term "critical width concept" has been discussed with reference to barrier islands, overwash, and washover deposits since the 1970s. The concept basically states that overwash processes were effective in migration of the barrier only where the barrier width

5607-648: The land proposed by the RPA, including the Coney Island shore. The recreation area comprises three units and 11 park sites in all. Primary law enforcement in the Gateway National Recreation Area is the responsibility of the United States Park Police in the New York units, and National Park Service Rangers in the New Jersey unit. Jamaica Bay Unit , in Brooklyn and Queens , includes much of

5696-660: The last remnants of the original shoreline. Annual visitation is estimated at around 8 million people. In 2001, the Jamaica Bay and Staten Island Units in New York drew more than 6 million visitors, while the Sandy Hook Unit in New Jersey attracted over 1 million. In 1969, the Regional Plan Association proposed a new national seashore in the New York metropolitan area , to be administered by

5785-430: The mainland coast . They usually occur in chains, consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a dozen. They are subject to change during storms and other action, but absorb energy and protect the coastlines and create areas of protected waters where wetlands may flourish. A barrier chain may extend for hundreds of kilometers, with islands periodically separated by tidal inlets . The largest barrier island in

5874-543: The mainland, and lagoons formed behind the ridges. He used the Mississippi–Alabama barrier islands (consists of Cat , Ship , Horn , Petit Bois and Dauphin Islands) as an example where coastal submergence formed barrier islands. His interpretation was later shown to be incorrect when the ages of the coastal stratigraphy and sediment were more accurately determined. Along the coast of Louisiana , former lobes of

5963-585: The mainland. An unusual natural structure in New Zealand may give clues to the formation processes of barrier islands. The Boulder Bank , at the entrance to Nelson Haven at the northern end of the South Island , is a unique 13 km-long stretch of rocky substrate a few metres in width. It is not strictly a barrier island, as it is linked to the mainland at one end. The Boulder Bank is composed of granodiorite from Mackay Bluff, which lies close to

6052-492: The most popular areas do charge entrance fees. Fees vary site to site and are charged either on a per-vehicle or per-person basis, with most passes valid for 7 days. The America the Beautiful Pass series waives the per-vehicle fee or per-person fee for the holder and up to 3 other adults (children age 15 and younger are admitted for free at most sites). Annual passes for single areas are also available for those who visit

6141-400: The overall visits. The top 10 percent of parks (43) handle over 64 percent of all visits, leaving the remaining more than 380 units to accommodate around 36 percent of visits. (Note that only 380 sites recorded visitors during 2021 due to COVID-19-related closures). Most areas of the National Park System do not charge entrance fees and are completely supported by tax dollars, although some of

6230-481: The parks after the end of the World War II left them overburdened with demands that the NPS could not meet. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the NPS and began to bring park facilities up to the standards that the public was expecting. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower , Wirth began Mission 66 , a ten-year effort to upgrade and expand park facilities for the 50th anniversary of

6319-461: The parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of the NPS. On August 25, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson signed the National Park Service Organic Act that mandated the agency "to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and wildlife therein, and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for

6408-628: The point where the bank joins the mainland. It is still debated what process or processes have resulted in this odd structure, though longshore drift is the most accepted hypothesis. Studies have been conducted since 1892 to determine the speed of boulder movement. Rates of the top-course gravel movement have been estimated at 7.5 metres a year. Richard Davis distinguishes two types of barrier islands, wave-dominated and mixed-energy. Wave-dominated barrier islands are long, low, and narrow, and usually are bounded by unstable inlets at either end. The presence of longshore currents caused by waves approaching

6497-429: The same site often. Over 15 million visitors spent a night in one of the national park units during 2015. The largest number (3.68 million) were tent campers. The second largest group (3.38 million) stayed in one of the lodges, followed by miscellaneous stays (on boats, group sites—2.15 million). The last three groups of over-night visitors included RV campers (2.26 million), backcountry campers (2.02 million) and users of

6586-521: The sand into one location. In 1845 the Frenchman Elie de Beaumont published an account of barrier formation. He believed that waves moving into shallow water churned up sand, which was deposited in the form of a submarine bar when the waves broke and lost much of their energy. As the bars developed vertically, they gradually rose above sea level, forming barrier islands. Several barrier islands have been observed forming by this process along

6675-406: The shore is called a breakwater . In terms of coastal morphodynamics , it acts similarly to a naturally occurring barrier island by dissipating and reducing the energy of the waves and currents striking the coast. Hence, it is an important aspect of coastal engineering . The shoreface is the part of the barrier where the ocean meets the shore of the island. The barrier island body itself separates

6764-408: The shoreface from the backshore and lagoon / tidal flat area. Characteristics common to the upper shoreface are fine sands with mud and possibly silt. Further out into the ocean the sediment becomes finer. The effect of waves at this point is weak because of the depth. Bioturbation is common and many fossils can be found in upper shoreface deposits in the geologic record . The middle shoreface

6853-693: The shoreline and water below the Shore Parkway beginning at Plum Beach and ending at John F. Kennedy International Airport , along with several dozen islands in Jamaica Bay , a tidal estuary . The Jamaica Bay Unit is the largest of the three units.It also includes most of the western part of the Rockaway Peninsula , which separates Jamaica Bay from the Atlantic Ocean . Among the sites in this unit are: The Staten Island Unit

6942-425: The site. Big Cypress National Preserve and Big Thicket National Preserve were created in 1974 as the first national preserves. National reserves are similar to national preserves, but the operational authority can be placed with a state or local government. New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve was the first to be established in 1978. National historic sites protect a significant cultural resource that

7031-506: The sites of larger actions, such as Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park , Vicksburg National Military Park , Gettysburg National Military Park , and Shiloh National Military Park —the original four from 1890. Examples of battlefield parks , battlefield sites , and national battlefields include Richmond National Battlefield Park , Brices Cross Roads National Battlefield Site , and Antietam National Battlefield . National memorials are areas that officially memorialize

7120-492: The special initiatives of the service for the year specified in the legislation. During fiscal year 2010, the service was charged with five initiatives. They include: stewardship and education; professional excellence; youth programs; climate change impacts; and budget restructure and realignment. Barrier island Barrier islands are a coastal landform , a type of dune system and sand island , where an area of sand has been formed by wave and tidal action parallel to

7209-692: The twelve-member NPS Advisory Board Science Committee to take a fresh look at the ecological issues and make recommendations for updating the original Leopold Report. The committee published their 23-page report in 2012, titled, "Revisiting Leopold: Resource Stewardship in the National Parks". The report recommended that parks leadership "manage for change while confronting uncertainty." "... New and emerging scientific disciplines — including conservation biology, global change science, and genomics — along with new technological tools like high-resolution remote sensing can provide significant information for constructing contemporary tactics for NPS stewardship. This knowledge

7298-408: The volume stored in the dunes and the net long-shore and cross-shore sand transport, as well as the island elevation. The concept of critical width is important for large-scale barrier island restoration, in which islands are reconstructed to optimum height, width, and length for providing protection for estuaries, bays, marshes and mainland beaches. Scientists have proposed numerous explanations for

7387-529: The world is Padre Island of Texas, United States, at 113 miles (182 km) long. Sometimes an important inlet may close permanently, transforming an island into a peninsula , thus creating a barrier peninsula , often including a beach , barrier beach . Though many are long and narrow, the length and width of barriers and overall morphology of barrier coasts are related to parameters including tidal range , wave energy , sediment supply , sea-level trends , and basement controls . The amount of vegetation on

7476-420: Was created in 1937. Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore and Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore , created in 1966, were the first national lakeshores. National rivers and wild and scenic riverways protect free-flowing streams over their length. The riverways may not be altered with dams, channelization, or other changes. Recreational pursuits are encouraged along the waterways. Ozark National Scenic Riverways

7565-684: Was created in 1968 and consists of two major components: National scenic trails are long-distance trails through some of the most scenic parts of the country. They received official protection in 1968. The Appalachian Trail is the best known. National historic trails commemorate the routes of major historic events. Some of the best known are the Trail of Tears , the Mormon Trail , and the Santa Fe Trail . These trails are administered by several federal agencies. Wilderness areas are part of

7654-504: Was established in 1964. National recreation areas originally were units surrounding reservoirs impounded by dams built by other federal agencies, the first being Lake Mead National Recreation Area . Some national recreation areas are in urban centers, such as Gateway National Recreation Area and Golden Gate National Recreation Area , which encompass significant cultural as well as natural resources. The National Trails System preserves long-distance routes across America. The system

7743-463: Was established in 1972. National Park Service The National Park Service ( NPS ) is an agency of the United States federal government , within the US Department of the Interior . The service manages all national parks ; most national monuments ; and other natural, historical, and recreational properties, with various title designations. The United States Congress created

7832-684: Was revisited in 2012. The Leopold Report was the first concrete plan for managing park visitors and ecosystems under unified principles. Park management issues and controversies addressed in this report included the difficulties of managing elk populations in Yellowstone National Park and how "overprotection from natural ground fires" in California's Sequoia National Park , Kings Canyon National Park , and Yosemite National Park had begun to threaten groves of Giant Sequoia with catastrophic wildfires. The report also established

7921-561: Was the first in 1906. While the National Park Service holds the most national monuments, a monument may be managed or co-managed by a different entity such as the Bureau of Land Management or the Forest Service . National preserves are for the protection of certain resources and operate similar to many National Parks, but allow limited resource extraction. Activities like hunting, fishing, and some mining may be allowed depending on

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