104-471: Gendebelo (also called Gende Belo ) was an ancient Muslim trading city in Ethiopia . Its location was discovered in 2009 by a team of French archaeologists. Gendebelo was a medieval Muslim trading center thought to be lost. It was believed to situated about 30 kilometres (19 mi) from Ankobar. Gendebelo was "a great mercantile city", where camel caravans brought all kinds of spices except ginger (which
208-587: A referendum was held in the territory to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum favoured continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also reports of widespread vote rigging , with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining
312-553: A series of protests against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger Arab Spring demonstrations. The unrest eventually subsided by April of the year, and Djibouti's ruling People's Rally for Progress party was re-elected to office. The Dervish existed for 25 years, from 1895 until 1920. The Turks named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognize any territories
416-726: A European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor Lebna Dengel , who had just inherited the throne from his father. This proved to be an important development, for when Abyssinia was subjected to the attacks of the Adal Sultanate General and Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (called " Gurey " or " Grañ ", both meaning "the Left-handed"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son Gelawdewos defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule. This Ethiopian–Adal War
520-648: A UN-supervised referendum in Eritrea (dubbed UNOVER ) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993. In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War . From 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the Gulf of Tadjoura situated in modern-day Djibouti was called Obock and
624-580: A change within Ethiopia's religious groups through decentralizing the structure of ethnic federalism to enable Salafi's to raise their activities. During this period, a new generation of Salafi's emerged. Salafi teachings became widespread due to organizations in Ethiopia like, World Association of Muslim Youth (WAMY). the Islamic Da'wa and Knowledge Organization, and the Awolia College. Besides
728-460: A colony of Italy . In 1896 further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. By 1936 however, Eritrea became a province of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana), along with Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland . By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians. The Commonwealth armed forces, along with the Ethiopian patriotic resistance, expelled those of Italy in 1941, and took over
832-538: A good opportunity to expand their religion throughout the country. Emperor Yohannis (r. 1667–1682) created a council of Muslims to establish their own quarters in Addis Alem, far from the Christians in the political commercial capital, Gondar town. Muslims were able to have their own space and the population of Muslims increased because of wider urbanization. Islam and Christianity have had their conflicts within
936-607: A national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was then set up. The first free and democratic election took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime Minister Meles Zenawi was elected to office. As with other nations in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close relations with countries in the Middle East during this period of change. Zenawi died in 2012, but his Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) party remains
1040-739: A number of lakes formed by lava flows that dammed up several valleys. Among these are Lake Asale (116 m below sea level) and Lake Giuletti/Afrera (80 m below sea level), both of which possess cryptodepressions in the Danakil Depression . The Afrera contains many active volcanoes, including the Maraho, Dabbahu , Afdera and Erta Ale . In Somalia, there is not much seasonal variation in climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 28 to 43 °C (82 to 109 °F), except at higher elevations along
1144-715: A one-party communist state , which was called the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia . In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after the Somalia government of Siad Barre sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia . By September 1977, the Somali army controlled 90 percent of the Ogaden, but was later forced to withdraw after Ethiopia's Derg received assistance from
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#17327729486841248-512: A pious Christian king of Aksum . It is agreed by Islamic scholars that Najashi gave shelter to the Muslim refugees around 615–616. Bilal ibn Ribah , the first Muezzin (the person chosen to call the faithful to prayer) and one of the foremost companions of Muhammad, was born in Mecca to an Abyssinian (Ethiopian) mother. Islam was in 2007 the second largest religion in Ethiopia with over 33.9% of
1352-550: A region of geopolitical and strategic importance, since it is situated along the southern boundary of the Red Sea ; extending hundreds of kilometres into the Gulf of Aden , Guardafui Channel , and Indian Ocean , it also shares a maritime border with the Arabian Peninsula . This peninsula has been known by various names. Ancient Greeks and Romans referred to it as Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora due to
1456-566: A religious and social function for society. Once a day men go and pray in the mosque while the women pray at home, though construction has begun to areas where women can pray as well. Mosques would also allow Islamic learning such as the interpretation of the Quran , the Arabic language, and the principles of Islam. Muslims in Ethiopia are predominantly Sunni. In Sunni Islam , there are four schools of thought and three of them are located in Ethiopia,
1560-551: A united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi , Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977. Hassan Gouled Aptidon , a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, became the nation's first president (1977–1999). In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in
1664-608: A wall built of local Hashi stone bonded together by mud and wood and it was able to protect the city from the invasion of the non-Muslim Oromo in 1567. Harar began to develop the characteristics of an Islamic city with the Shafi‘i school in the 19th century as well as Harar serving as a conduit for the spreading of Islam in the Oromo population during an Islamization campaign under the reign of Amir Muhammad. The 82 mosques in Harar have served
1768-596: A worldwide figure and 1935's Time magazine Man of the Year . Following the entry of Italy into World War II, British Empire forces, together with patriot Ethiopian fighters, liberated Ethiopia during the East African Campaign in 1941. Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a Soviet-backed Marxist-Leninist military junta , the Derg led by Mengistu Haile Mariam , deposed him, and established
1872-455: Is derived from al-salaf, signifying a link back to what is known as pure and authentic Islam. The main aspect of Salafism is the emphasis on the idea that there is only one God. In Ethiopia, the concept of Salafism applies to the resistance of pilgrimages to local shrines, celebration of the Prophet's birthday and other practices. Saudi Arabia is known for the rise of Salafism in Ethiopia, but
1976-411: Is sometimes used to be inclusive of neighbouring southeast African countries to distinguish the broader geopolitical definition of the Horn of Africa from narrower peninsular definitions. The name Horn of Africa is sometimes shortened to HoA . Quite commonly it is referred to simply as "the Horn", while inhabitants are sometimes colloquially termed Horn Africans or Horners . Regional studies on
2080-806: Is the Aden Ridge along the coast of Saudi Arabia . The eastern boundary is the Central Indian Ridge , the northern portion of which is also known as the Carlsberg Ridge . The southern boundary is the Southwest Indian Ridge . Extensive glaciers once covered the Simien and Bale Mountains but melted at the beginning of the Holocene . The mountains descend in a huge escarpment to the Red Sea and more steadily to
2184-500: Is the second largest religion in Ethiopia behind Christianity . In 2024, 31.5% of the population is Muslim. Islam in Ethiopia dates back to the founding of the religion. At the counsel of the prophet Muhammad , a group of Muslims escaping persecution in Mecca travelled to Ethiopia and Eritrea , which was known as Abyssinian (Al-Habash) in the Qur'an . They were received by Najashi ,
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#17327729486842288-420: Is the supreme law of the land. All laws, customary practices, and decisions made by state organs or public officials inconsistent therewith, shall be null and void.” It raises a question about Ethiopia's commitment to human rights because personal status laws, which are under Ethiopia's jurisdiction of sharia courts are considered an area of law which discrimination on the basis of gender is established. Much as
2392-416: Is usually sunny and dry, but the short ( belg ) rains occur from February to April and the big ( meher ) rains from mid-June to mid-September. The Danakil Desert stretches across 100,000 km of arid terrain in northeast Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, and northwestern Djibouti. The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daily temperatures over 45 °C and often surpassing 50 °C. It has
2496-509: Is widespread. The emphasis seems less on the contemplative and disciplined mysticism, and more on the concentration of the spiritual powers possessed by certain founders of the orders and the leaders of local branches. Muslims in contemporary Ethiopia have become actively engaged in challenging their political marginalization through the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front . They are persistent in wanting to engage with
2600-968: The Barbara civilization . The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the "City of Islam" and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries. During the Middle Ages , several powerful empires dominated the regional trade in the Horn, including the Adal Sultanate , the Ajuran Sultanate , the Ethiopian Empire , the Zagwe dynasty , and the Sultanate of the Geledi . The Sultanate of Showa , established in 896,
2704-594: The Ancient Egyptians , Phoenicians , Mycenaeans , Babylonians and Romans . The Romans consequently began to refer to the region as Regio Aromatica . In the classical era , several flourishing Somali city-states such as Opone , Mosylon and Malao also competed with the Sabaeans , Parthians and Axumites for the rich Indo - Greco-Roman trade. The birth of Islam opposite the Horn's Red Sea coast meant that local merchants and sailors living on
2808-529: The Arabian Peninsula gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their converted Arab Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from the Islamic world to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of the local population by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic Mogadishu , Berbera , Zeila , Barawa and Merka , which were part of
2912-825: The Axumite Empire during the Hijarat as early disciples from Mecca , persecuted by the ruling Quraysh tribe . They were received by the Christian ruler of Axum, whom Arabic tradition has named Ashama ibn Abjar (King Armah in Ge'Ez and Amharic), and he settled them in Negash . Located in the Tigray Region . On the other hand, the principal center of Islamic culture, learning, and propagation has been Wello . The Quraysh sent emissaries to bring them back to Arabia , but
3016-792: The Banu Hashim clan, in modern-day Somaliland and Ethiopia . The sultanate was governed by the Reer Guled branch of the Eidagale sub-clan established by the first sultan, Sultan Guled Abdi . The sultanate is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modern Somaliland . According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the Isaaq clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo,
3120-669: The Ethiopian Empire . In 1270, the Amhara nobleman Yekuno Amlak , who claimed descent from the last Aksumite king and ultimately the Queen of Sheba , overthrew the Agaw Zagwe dynasty at the Battle of Ansata , ushering his reign as Emperor of Ethiopia . While initially a rather small and politically unstable entity, the empire managed to expand significantly during the crusades of Amda Seyon I (1314–1344) and his successors, becoming
3224-453: The Fascist era in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by a British military administration . Former British Somaliland would remain, along with Italian Somaliland, a trusteeship of Italy, between 1950 and 1960. The Union of the two countries in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on 20 July 1961, through a popular referendum ,
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3328-551: The Gojjam , near Sudan, where they continued practicing Islam. Tewodros' successor, Emperor Yohannes IV (r. 1872–1889) continued to coerce Muslims into converting to achieve religious uniformity by ordering them to be baptized within three years. Islam developed more rapidly in the eastern part of the Horn region, particularly among the Somali and Harari. This was challenged by the mostly Christian northern people of Abyssinia, including Amhara, Tigray and north western Oromo. However
3432-562: The Habr Awal with whom they still mostly live. The Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by King Osman Mahamuud during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on
3536-677: The Herto skull (from ca. 160,000 ago) have been found in the region, both in Ethiopia. The findings of the Earliest Stone Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift dated to more than 279,000 years ago "in combination with the existing archaeological, fossil and genetic evidence, isolate East Africa as a source of modern cultures and biology." According to the Southern Dispersal scenario,
3640-589: The House of Gareen , also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances. The Zagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty comes from the Cushitic -speaking Agaw people of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for many centuries, the Solomonic dynasty ruled
3744-719: The Indian Ocean . Socotra is a small island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia. Its size is 3,600 km (1,400 sq mi) and it is a territory of Yemen. The lowlands of the Horn are generally arid in spite of their proximity to the equator. This is because the winds of the tropical monsoons that give seasonal rains to the Sahel and the Sudan blow from the west. Consequently, they lose their moisture before reaching Djibouti and northern part of Somalia, with
3848-501: The Red Sea coast of Eritrea and Sudan is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning god's land), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BCE. Dʿmt was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia , which existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. With its capital probably at Yeha , the kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plows , grew millet , and made iron tools and weapons. After
3952-632: The Somali Peninsula , is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa . Located on the easternmost part of the African mainland, it is the fourth largest peninsula in the world. It is composed of Somalia (including the de facto independent Somaliland and Puntland ), Djibouti , Ethiopia , and Eritrea . Although not common, broader definitions include parts or all of Kenya and Sudan . It has been described as
4056-572: The Somali wild ass , the desert warthog , the hamadryas baboon , the Somali pygmy gerbil , the ammodile , and the Speke's pectinator . The Grevy's zebra is the unique wild equid of the region. There are predators such as spotted hyena , striped hyena and African leopard . The endangered painted hunting dog had populations in the Horn of Africa, but pressures from human exploitation of habitat along with warfare have reduced or extirpated this canid in this region. Some important bird species of
4160-653: The USSR , Cuba , South Yemen , East Germany and North Korea , including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops. In 1989, the Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), and eventually managed to overthrow Mengistu's dictatorial regime in 1991. A transitional government, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by
4264-644: The Yejju Oromo tribe as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo. The Sultanate of the Geledi was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldier Ibrahim Adeer , who had defeated various vassals of the Ajuran Empire and established the House of Gobroon . The dynasty reached its apex under
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4368-410: The constitution drafted in 1960 was ratified. Due to its longstanding ties with the Arab world , the Somali Republic was accepted in 1974 as a member of the Arab League . During the same year, the nation's former socialist administration also chaired the Organization of African Unity , the predecessor of the African Union . In 1991, the Somali Civil War broke out, which saw the dissolving of
4472-434: The 16th century, Muslims from the Adal Sultanate embarked on a Conquest of Abyssinia ( Futuh al-Habash ) under the command of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (referred to as Gragn Mohammed or "Mohammed the left-handed" in Amharic). Under the former Emperor Haile Selassie , Muslim communities could bring matters of personal and family law and inheritance before Islamic courts; many did so and probably continued to do so under
4576-439: The Dervishes were to acquire. After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy of aerial bombardment . As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a protectorate of Britain. Italy faced similar opposition from Somali Sultans and armies, and did not acquire full control of modern Somalia until
4680-463: The EPRDF's basis of political legitimacy and challenging their forceful secularism that limits religion to the private domain. In the context of electoral politics, Muslims have become increasingly involved in voting blocs. Their demands include expanding into Western financial institutions, consolidation with other parts of the Islamic world and the right to religious expression freely. Horn of Africa The Horn of Africa ( HoA ), also known as
4784-402: The Ethiopians. The early 20th century in Ethiopia was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I , who came to power after Iyasu V was deposed. In 1935, Haile Selassie's troops fought and lost the Second Italo-Abyssinian War , after which Italy annexed Ethiopia to Italian East Africa . Haile Selassie subsequently appealed to the League of Nations , delivering an address that made him
4888-413: The Horn of Africa are carried out in fields of Ethiopian studies and Somali studies . This peninsula has been known by various names. Ancient Greeks and Romans referred to it as Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora due to the aromatic plants or as Regio Incognita owing to its uncharted territory. Some of the earliest Homo sapiens fossils, the Omo remains (from ca. 233,000 years ago) and
4992-481: The Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker " M35 / 215 " Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant. Ehret argued that this genetic distribution paralleled the spread of the Afrasian language family with the movement of people from the Horn of Africa into Egypt and added a new demic component to the existing population of Egypt 17,000 years ago. The area comprising Somalia , Djibouti ,
5096-414: The Islamic principle of division of property among one's heirs. When Mohammed saw the persecution to which his followers were subjected to in Mecca, he told them to find safe haven in northern Ethiopia, Abyssinia, where they would "find a king there who does not wrong anyone." It was the first hijra (migration) in Islamic history. The persecution his followers suffered was due to polytheists who harmed
5200-482: The King of Axum refused their demands. The Prophet himself instructed his followers who came to the Axumite empire, to respect and protect Axum as well as live in peace with the native Christians. While the city of Medina, north of Mecca, ultimately became the new home of most of the exiles from Mecca, a 7th-century cemetery excavated inside the boundaries of Negash shows the Muslim community survived their departure. The period of Fasilides (r. 1632–1667) gave Muslims
5304-443: The Rift Valley. Geologically, the Horn and Yemen once formed a single landmass around 18 million years ago, before the Gulf of Aden rifted and separated the Horn region from the Arabian Peninsula . The Somali Plate is bounded on the west by the East African Rift, which stretches south from the triple junction in the Afar Depression , and an undersea continuation of the rift extending southward offshore. The northern boundary
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#17327729486845408-481: The Southern route of the Out of Africa migration occurred in the Horn of Africa through the Bab el Mandeb . Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (19 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Shell middens 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea, indicating
5512-425: The ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were also strengthened or re-established, and the state left behind an extensive architectural legacy . Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers, including a lot of the pillar tomb fields, necropolises and ruined cities built during that era. The royal family,
5616-434: The area's administration. The British continued to administer the territory under a UN Mandate until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, per UN resolution 390 A (V) adopted December 1950. The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its Red Sea coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province in 1962 . This
5720-607: The aromatic plants found there, or as Regio Incognita owing to its uncharted territory. In ancient and medieval times, the Horn of Africa was referred to as the Bilad al Barbar ("Land of the Berbers"). It is also known as the Somali Peninsula, or in the Somali language as Geeska Afrika or Jasiiradda Soomaali . In other local languages it is called "Horn of Africa" or the "African Horn", in Amharic የአፍሪካ ቀንድ yäafrika qänd, in Arabic القرن الأفريقي al-qarn al-'afrīqī , in Oromo Gaanfaa Afrikaa , and in Tigrinya ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ q'ärnī afīrīqa . The Horn of Africa Region consists of
5824-480: The arrival of Salafism in Ethiopia is due to the Italian occupation from 1936 to 1941. Many Ethiopians were making their way to hajj when they were subsidized by the Italians and introducing Salafi teachings to the town of Harar , before spreading to other parts of the country. The Wahhabism movement began to spread in the 1990s due to the political transition in 1991 and the arrival of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The EPRDF promised
5928-405: The commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India , Aksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency . The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian Peninsula , eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom . Under Ezana (fl. 320–360),
6032-400: The community. Muslims were one of the marginalized groups that were not allowed access to land until the 1974 revolution. The revolution brought forth major changes to the socio-political and religious position of Ethiopian Muslims. In Gojjam , most Muslims did not have access to land, but had ways to get around it. They could rent, buy land, or enter in a crop sharing verbal agreement with
6136-403: The country, from the birth of Islam into the 16th century Christians dominated the borderlands where Islam was more prominent. This brought about the settlement of Islam to Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa . In the Dahlak islands, the first Muslims resided in the 8th century until the 10th century where Islam spread along the Red Sea and Islam was restricted to northern Ethiopia because Christianity
6240-434: The diet of early humans included seafood obtained by beachcombing . Ethiopian and Eritrean agriculture established the earliest known use of the seed grass teff ( Poa abyssinica ) between 4000 and 1000 BCE. Teff is used to make the flatbread injera /taita. Coffee also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage. Historian Christopher Ehret , cited genetic evidence which had identified
6344-436: The domestic front. Much of the Sultanate's former domain is today coextensive with the autonomous Puntland region in northern Somalia. The Sultanate of Hobyo was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid . Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and
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#17327729486846448-436: The dominant force in East Africa . In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King Henry IV of England to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives. In 1428, the Emperor Yeshaq sent two emissaries to Alfonso V of Aragon , who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip. The first continuous relations with
6552-475: The eastern coast, a strong upwelling and the fact that the winds blow parallel to the coast means annual rainfall can be as low as 50 mm (2.0 in). The climate in Ethiopia varies considerably between regions. It is generally hotter in the lowlands and temperate on the plateau. At Addis Ababa , which ranges from 2,200 to 2,600 m (7,218 to 8,530 ft), maximum temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) and minimum 4 °C (39.2 °F). The weather
6656-443: The eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the Jubba and the Shabele , both of which begin in the Ethiopian Highlands . About 220 mammals are found in the Horn of Africa. Among threatened species of the region, there are several antelopes such as the beira , the dibatag , the silver dikdik and the Speke's gazelle . Other remarkable species include
6760-414: The eldest son of Sheikh Ishaaq 's Harari wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun ( Somali : Boqor Haaruun ) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century. The last Tolje'lo ruler Garad Dhuh Barar ( Somali : Dhuux Baraar ) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst
6864-449: The expansion of the Wahhabism movement it has brought up intense debates over religious symbols and rituals, intrinsic to Ethiopian Islam. All around the world, Sharia courts are designed to question and make decisions regarding Muslim law. Sharia courts have existed in Ethiopia since the country accepted Islam and the influence of the religion in the coastal areas that is surrounding the country. The courts became officially recognized by
6968-433: The fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BCE, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century, the Aksumite Kingdom , which was able to reunite the area. The Kingdom of Aksum (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in the Eritrea and Ethiopian highlands , which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in
7072-401: The harassment making it the first migration in Islam. Ethiopia is home to Harar . According to UNESCO , it is regarded as the fourth holy city of Islam. It has 82 mosques, three of which date from the 10th century, as well as 102 shrines. The city of Harar is located in Eastern Ethiopia and got its role of being an Islamic center in the 16th century AD. Harar is contained by a djugel ,
7176-434: The historic cities in the region, such as Amud , Maduna , Abasa , Berbera , Zeila and Harar , flourished during the kingdom's golden age. This period that left behind numerous courtyard houses , mosques , shrines and walled enclosures . Under the leadership of rulers such as Sabr ad-Din II , Mansur ad-Din , Jamal ad-Din II , Shams ad-Din , General Mahfuz and Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi , Adalite armies continued
7280-445: The holy month of Ramadan , are observed both in urban centers as well as in rural areas, among both settled peoples and nomads. Numerous Muslims in Ethiopia perform the pilgrimage to Mecca every year. In Ethiopia's Muslim communities, as in neighboring Sudan and Somalia , many of the faithful are associated with, but not necessarily members of any specific Sufi order. Nevertheless, formal and informal attachment to Sufi practices
7384-476: The internationally recognized countries of Djibouti , Eritrea , Ethiopia , and Somalia . Geographically the protruding shape that resembles a "Horn" consists of the "Somali peninsula" and eastern part of Ethiopia. But the region encompasses also the rest of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti. Broader definitions include Kenya and Sudan . The term Greater Horn Region (GHR) can additionally include South Sudan and Uganda . The term Greater Horn of Africa
7488-430: The kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adopt Christianity , and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time, along with Persia , Rome and China . Somalia was an important link in the Horn, connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense , myrrh and spices, all of which were valuable luxuries to
7592-441: The landowner. Muslims did not have the right to own, administer, or inherit land they simply were only allowed to live as tenants. If a verbal agreement was not an option, another way Muslims were able to acquire land was by clearing out unoccupied land and settling there, but only if they were able to offer some type of service to the balebat . Muslims were marginalised in Ethiopia, but particularly in Gojjam . Salafism/Wahhabism
7696-578: The main one is held by the Shafi‘i school. Roughly 98% of Ethiopian Muslims are Sunni, whilst another 2% adhere to other sects. Shia Islam is not represented in Ethiopia compared to other denominations. Ibadis were allegedly seen as the most admirable Muslims to be eligible for the caliphate office and are known for being the earliest sect of Islam. There are about 500,000 Ibadis residing in North and East Africa as well as Oman and Tanzania . The Orientalist notion defined Islamic Orthodoxy "as
7800-593: The mosque. An old Ajami manuscript helped the archaeologists determine the city's location. Italian scholar and Ethiopia expert Enrico Cerulli had found the manuscript in the Muslim city of Harar in 1936, where it was being used to wrap sugar. The archaeologists also used the writings of Alessandro Zorzi, a 16th-century Venetian explorer who had found the ruins of Gendebelo in the desert and referred to it as "the place where mules are to be unloaded and camels take over." Islam in Ethiopia Islam
7904-509: The north and expansion in the east and south toward its present borders, owing to several migrations, commercial integration, treaties as well as conquests, particularly by Emperor Menelik II and Ras Gobena . From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate 'the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire.' He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia, began expanding his kingdom to
8008-443: The north and northeastern expansion of the Oromo, who practiced mainstream traditional Waaqa , affected the growth of Islam in its early days. Historian Ulrich Braukamper says, "the expansion of the non-Muslim Oromo people during subsequent centuries mostly eliminated Islam in those areas." However, following the centralization of some Oromo communities, some of them adopted Islam and today constitutes over 50% of their population. In
8112-556: The organizations the Salafi movement was led by Oromo scholars who were developing the Salafi ideology in Ethiopia. The youth became involved in the movement and began to call people to align with the obligatory practices of Islam with strict Salafi teachings. In January 2012 to August 2013, the city Addis Ababa was swarmed with protests by Muslim demonstrators because of the alleged government enforced al-Ahbash campaigns that they Muslims viewed it as an interference in religious affairs by
8216-494: The parties are Muslim. Also, the councils decide on any questions about wills or succession given that the donor or deceased was a Muslim. Lastly, the courts decide on any questions regarding payments of the cost incurred by the aforementioned decisions. The provisions provided by the courts made the Ethiopian Muslim courts similar to ones Sudan , Nigeria and other Africa countries where Sharia courts exist to handle
8320-494: The personal laws of the Muslim population. In terms of gender equality, sharia law has a different approach to tackling gender equality. Islamic law contains different ways to treat women that can be applied to courts for example, divorce, partition of property, inheritance and many more. Final decisions made by the Sharia court are treated as an exception to the constitutional standard of Article 9(1), which states “The Constitution
8424-429: The point of departure that consequently measured other practices and beliefs as syncretistic or pre-Islamic." J. Spencer Trimingham the author of Islam in Ethiopia examined the impacts of Islam in the country and arranged his analysis by a hierarchical typology of different forms of appropriation categorized as an "orthodox system." Institutions of Islamic learning in Ethiopia were maintaining an Islamic Orthodoxy within
8528-454: The polytheists were so amazed they pounded on him until he bled to prevent the verses from affecting them. Subsequently, because of the threats early Muslims suffered the verses from An-Nahl were revealed. According to historians, these verses were specifically sent as instructions for the migration to Abyssinia. The threats by the polytheists were so harsh it prompted the Prophet to save his people and have them migrate to Abyssinia to escape
8632-538: The population. The faith arrived in Tigray , north of Ethiopia, at an early date, shortly before the hijira . The Kingdom of Aksum in Ethiopia was the first foreign country to accept Islam when it was unknown in most parts of the world. The kingdom also favored its expansion and making Islam present in the country since the times of Muhammad (571–632). Islam and Christianity are the two major religions and have co-existed for hundreds of years. Muslims arrived in
8736-430: The regime. The protests sparked concern within the regime of what looked like “extremism,” a concept that is accredited with the Salafi movement. Within the regime, local, and international observers are claiming that Wahhabism “extremists” are wanting to gain political power to turn Ethiopia into an Islamic State. Others have argued that Ethiopian Wahhabism are reluctant and opposed to getting involved in politics. Due to
8840-744: The rest of the Muslim world , the beliefs and practices of the Muslims in Ethiopia are essentially the same: embodied in the Qur'an and the Sunnah . There are also Sufi brotherhoods present in Ethiopia such as the Qadiriyyah order in Wello . The most important Islamic religious practices, such as the daily ritual prayers ( Salat ) and fasting ( Arabic صوم, Sawm , Ethiopic ጾም, S.om or Tsom - used by Christians during their holy days as well) during
8944-559: The result that most of the Horn receives little rainfall during the monsoon season. In the mountains of Ethiopia, many areas receive over 2,000 mm (79 in) per year, and even Asmara receives an average of 570 mm (22 in). This rainfall is the sole source of water for many areas outside Ethiopia, including Egypt . In the winter, the northeasterly trade winds do not provide any moisture except in mountainous areas of northern Somalia, where rainfall in late autumn can produce annual totals as high as 500 mm (20 in). On
9048-415: The revolutionary regime. However, many Muslims dealt with such matters in terms of customary law . For example, the Somali and other pastoralists tended not to follow the requirement that daughters inherit half as much property as sons, particularly when livestock was at issue. In parts of Eritrea, the tendency to treat land as the corporate property of a descent group (lineage or clan) precluded following
9152-666: The ruling political coalition in Ethiopia. The Horn of Africa is almost equidistant from the equator and the Tropic of Cancer . It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley , a fissure in the Earth's crust extending from Turkey to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates . Mostly mountainous, the region arose through faults resulting from
9256-544: The south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi , and other areas that had never been under his rule, resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today. Menelik had signed the Treaty of Wichale with Italy in May 1889, in which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area of northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea). In return, Italy
9360-943: The state in 1942 when the Proclamation for the Establishment of Khadis Courts was issued. The Proclamation defined the authority of the courts, but was repealed in 1994 by the Khadis and Naiba Councils Proclamation, providing a three set of courts: the Supreme Court of Sharia, the High Court of Sharia and the First Instance Court of Sharia each with its own judges and necessary number of Khadis. The Khadis and Naiba councils decide on any questions surrounding marriage such as divorce and guardianship of children all that must be related to Mohammedans law or all
9464-692: The state religion to again be Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity , and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans. During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty (more specifically, the Warasek) ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire. Founded by Ali I of Yejju several successive descendants of him and Abba Seru Gwangul ruled with their army coming from mainly their clan
9568-613: The struggle against the Solomonic dynasty , a campaign historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia or Futuh al Habash . Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Sultanate successfully resisted an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran-Portuguese wars . Trading routes dating from
9672-527: The successive reigns of Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim , who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the Bardera wars , and Sultan Ahmed Yusuf , who forced regional powers such as the Omani Empire to submit tribute . The Isaaq Sultanate was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of the Isaaq clan, descendants of
9776-475: The union and Somaliland regaining its independence, along with the collapse of the central government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including the Puntland administration in the north. Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular , Islamic or customary law , with a provision for appeal of all sentences. A Transitional Federal Government
9880-630: The weaker Muslims and blackmailed richer Muslims, causing a severe decline in business. The abuse the Muslims endured eventually led people to convert while others held their Islamic beliefs. Abdullah ibn Masud was a new convert and participated in a Muslim group where a member suggested reciting the Qur’an in Masjid al-Haram because the people of the Quraysh never heard it before. Abdullah agreed to do so and
9984-413: Was already more dominant in the rest of the country. The port of Zeila allowed Islam to enter through the eastern and central parts of Ethiopia where Christianity had not reached yet. During the 19th century, Emperor Tewodros II (r. 1855–1868) demanded that his Muslim subjects convert to Christianity or leave his empire. Some Muslims converted due to coercion; non-converts moved to the western parts of
10088-526: Was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the Ottoman Empire , and Portugal took sides in the conflict. When Emperor Susenyos converted to Roman Catholicism in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths. The Jesuit missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians. On 25 June 1632, Susenyos's son, Emperor Fasilides , declared
10192-779: Was eventually forced into exile in Yemen . A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a band of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northern and central Somalia during the early modern period. In the period following the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, when European powers scrambled for territory in Africa and tried to establish coaling stations for their ships, Italy invaded and occupied Eritrea . On 1 January 1890, Eritrea officially became
10296-493: Was grown locally) from the port of Zeila . Although Ethiopia is known as the second oldest Christian country in the world, about half of its population is Muslim. Gendebelo was a place of peaceful trade between the Christian and Muslim cultures. In 2009, French archaeologists François-Xavier Fauvelle-Aymar and Bertrand Hirsch discovered the site as a medieval city now known as Nora, which has been abandoned for years except for
10400-550: Was one of the oldest local Islamic states. It was centered in the former Shewa province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by the Sultanate of Ifat around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital at Zeila in Somaliland and was the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate. The Adal Sultanate was a medieval multi-ethnic Muslim state centered in the Horn region. At its height, it controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of
10504-446: Was ruled by Somali and Afar Sultans , local authorities with whom France signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region. In 1894, Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region Côte française des Somalis ( French Somaliland ), a name which continued until 1967. In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia 's independence in 1960,
10608-493: Was subsequently created in 2004. The Federal Government of Somalia was established on 20 August 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate. It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war. The Federal Parliament of Somalia serves as the government's legislative branch. Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in
10712-456: Was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching of Amharic , the main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools. The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s (1961), which erupted into a 30-year war against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. Following
10816-596: Was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor. The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state funded program of resettlement for landless Italians in Eritrea, which increased tensions between the Eritrean peasants and the Italians. This conflict erupted in the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by
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