Misplaced Pages

#334665

122-885: According to Article 65a of the German Constitution ( Grundgesetz) , the Federal Minister of Defence is Commander-in-chief of the Bundeswehr , the German armed forces, with around 260,953 active soldiers and civilians. Article 115b decrees that in the state of defence , declared by the Bundestag with consent of the Bundesrat , the command in chief passes to the Chancellor . The ministry currently has approximately 2,000 employees. On April 1, 2012,

244-501: A Reich Minister, which essentially made him the second most powerful person in the armed forces' hierarchy after Hitler. The next officer after Keitel was Lieutenant General Alfred Jodl , who served as the OKW's Chief of Operations Staff. However, despite this seemingly powerful hierarchy, the German military's officers mostly disregarded Keitel's position, deeming him nothing more than Hitler's lackey. Other officers often had direct access to

366-557: A compact between the Federal Republic and the acceding state. It remained unclear whether accession under Article 23 could be achieved by a part of Germany whose government was not recognised de jure by the Federal Republic, and if so how; but in practice this situation did not arise. Article 23, altered after 1990, originally read as follows: Former Article 23 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany For

488-485: A conference of their own on Rittersturz ridge near Koblenz . They decided that any of the Frankfurt requirements should only be implemented in a formally provisional way. So the constitutional assembly was to be called Parlamentarischer Rat (lit. parliamentary council) and the constitution given the name of Basic Law instead of calling it a "constitution". By these provisions they made clear, that any West German state

610-484: A dominant role in decision making. This "divide and conquer" method helped put most military decisions in Hitler's own hands, which at times included even those affecting engagements at the battalion level, a practice which, due to bureaucratic delays and Hitler's worsening indecision as the war progressed, would eventually contribute to Germany's defeat. The OKW was established by executive decree on 4 February 1938, in

732-688: A federal disciplinary court. Article 92 establishes that all courts other than the federal courts established under the Basic Law are courts of the Länder . Article 101 bans extraordinary courts , such as the Volksgerichtshof . Article 97 provides for judicial independence . Article 102 abolishes capital punishment . Oberkommando der Wehrmacht The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( German: [ˈoːbɐkɔˌmando deːɐ̯ ˈveːɐ̯ˌmaxt] ; abbreviated OKW German: [oːkaːˈveː] ; Armed Forces High Command)

854-507: A federal or state law or public ordinance is alleged to be in violation of these fundamental rights, the Basic Law provides the constitutional complaint with an appeal to the Federal Constitutional Court (Article 93 paragraph 1 No. 4a). Article 1 of these fundamental rights, which states that human dignity shall be inviolable and all state authority shall respect and protect it, cannot be changed or removed. The same

976-594: A further clause 143(3) to entrench in the Basic Law the irreversibility of acts of expropriation undertaken by the Soviet occupying powers between 1945 and 1949. Hence when the GDR's nominal accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 came into effect on 3 October 1990, Article 23 was no longer in place. Strictly therefore, German reunification was effected by the Unification Treaty between two sovereign states,

1098-510: A guarantee of inviolable fundamental rights. Initially it was intended to limit these to classic formulations of civil freedoms, as with equality before the law, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of occupation and freedom of religious conscience. In the event particular interests pushed for additional consideration: the Catholic Church (through CDU /CSU representatives) succeeded in inserting protection both for 'Marriage and

1220-420: A mockery of the soldier's oath of obedience to military orders. When it suits their defence they say they had to obey; when confronted with Hitler's brutal crimes, which are shown to have been within their general knowledge, they say they disobeyed. The truth is, they actively participated in all these crimes, or sat silent and acquiescent, witnessing the commission of crimes on a scale larger and more shocking than

1342-608: A national Ministry of War . Instead the larger German states (such as the kingdoms of Prussia , Bavaria , Saxony and Württemberg ), insisting on their autonomy, each had an own war ministry. According to the military agreements the Prussian minister president Otto von Bismarck had forged with the South German states on the eve of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71, the major states were responsible also for

SECTION 10

#1732797151335

1464-429: A provisional West German state , expecting that an eventual reunified Germany would adopt a proper constitution, enacted under the provisions of Article 146 of the Basic Law, which stipulates that such a constitution must be "freely adopted by the German people". Nevertheless, although the amended Basic Law was approved by all four Allied Powers in 1990 (who thereby relinquished their reserved constitutional rights ), it

1586-478: A reborn and unified German state: either under Article 23 whereby 'other parts of Germany' over and above the named States of the Federal Republic ( Bundesländer ) could subsequently declare their accession, or under Article 146 where constituent power ( pouvoir constituant ) could be exercised by elected representatives of the entirety of the German people in creating a new permanent constitution that would replace

1708-551: A successor in a "constructive vote of no confidence". The guardian of the Basic Law is the German Federal Constitutional Court ( Bundesverfassungsgericht ) which is both an independent constitutional organ and at the same time part of the judiciary in the sectors of constitutional law and public international law. Its judgements have the legal status of ordinary law. It is required by law to declare statutes as null and void if they are in violation of

1830-835: A third office was established: the Ministerial Office, whose Chief functioned as the political representative of the Minister. The role of the General Staff was filled by the Truppenamt . The Social Democratic politician Gustav Noske became the first Minister of Defence of Germany. After the Nazi Machtergreifung , when the Reichswehr was recreated as the Wehrmacht in 1935, the ministry

1952-569: A whole' in the form of German peoples living outside the territory under the control of the Federal Republic of 1949, with whom the Federal Republic was constitutionally bound to pursue reunification, and in respect of whom mechanisms were provided by which such other parts of Germany might subsequently declare their accession to the Basic Law. Since initially the Basic Law did not apply for all of Germany, its legal provisions were only valid in its field of application ( Geltungsbereich des Grundgesetzes für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland ). This legal term

2074-423: A wider national German nation, and from that date the GDR maintained that from 1949 there had existed two entirely separate sovereign German states. The Federal Republic's Cold-war Allies supported its claims in part, as they acknowledged the Federal Republic as the sole legitimate democratically organised state within former German territory (the GDR being held to be a Soviet puppet state ), but they did not accept

2196-422: Is a protection of human dignity ("Menschenwürde") and human rights; they are core values protected by the Basic Law. The principles of democracy , republicanism , social responsibility , federalism and rule of law are key components of the Basic Law (Article 20). Articles 1 and 20 are protected by the so-called eternity clause ("Ewigkeitsklausel") Article 79 (3) that prohibits any sort of change or removal of

2318-487: Is amended, this has to be done explicitly; the concerning article must be cited. Under Weimar the constitution could be amended without notice; any law passed with a two-thirds majority vote was not bound by the constitution. Under the Basic Law the fundamentals of the constitution in Articles 1 and 20, the fundamental rights in Articles 1 to 19, and key elements of the federalist state, cannot be removed. Especially important

2440-691: Is headed by the Federal Constitutional Court , which oversees the constitutionality of laws. In Germany's parliamentary system of government, the Federal Chancellor runs the government and the day-to-day affairs of state. However, the German President's role is more than merely ceremonial. By his or her actions and public appearances, the Federal President represents the state itself, its existence, its legitimacy, and unity. The President's office has an integrative role and

2562-575: Is the protection of the division of state powers into the legislative, executive and judicial branches. This is provided by Article 20. A clear separation of powers was considered imperative to prevent measures like an over-reaching Enabling act , as happened in Germany in 1933 . This act had given the government legislative powers which effectively finished the Weimar Republic and led to the dictatorship of Nazi Germany . Article 95 establishes

SECTION 20

#1732797151335

2684-482: Is true of Article 20, which enshrines fundamental principles of the state—for example, that Germany is a state of law and a democracy. Laws which limit these basic rights are in no case allowed to affect the essence of these rights (Article 19 paragraph 2). Some people think every basic right cannot be changed or removed. However, that is a misconception as other fundamental rights are not protected by Article 79 paragraph 3 ( Eternity Clause ). According to this regulation

2806-710: The Führer , such as officers with the rank of field marshal, while other officers even outranked Keitel, an example being the Commander-in-Chief of the Air Force, Hermann Göring . This position ideally meant Göring was subordinate to Keitel, but his alternate rank of Reichsmarschall made him the second most powerful person in Germany after Hitler, and he used this alternate power to circumvent Keitel and access Hitler directly whenever he wished. By June 1938,

2928-544: The Führer Directives , and issuing them to the three services while having little control over them. However, as the war progressed, the OKW found itself exercising increasing amounts of direct command authority over military units, particularly in the west. This created a situation such that by 1942, the OKW held the de facto command of western forces while the Army High Command directly controlled

3050-458: The Bundeswehr to shoot down civilian aircraft in case of a terrorist attack. It was ruled to be in violation of the guarantee of life and human dignity in the Basic Law. The Federal Constitutional Court decides on the constitutionality of laws and government actions under the following circumstances: The Weimar Constitution did not institute a court with similar powers. When the Basic Law

3172-565: The Eastern Front . It was not until 28 April 1945 (two days before his suicide ) that Hitler placed the OKH directly under the OKW, finally giving the latter full command of Germany's armed forces. True to his strategy of setting different parts of the Nazi bureaucracy to compete for his favor in areas where their administration overlapped, Hitler ensured there was a rivalry between the OKW and

3294-854: The Federal Court of Justice , the Federal Administrative Court , the Federal Finance Court , the Federal Labour Court and the Federal Social Court as supreme courts in their respective areas of jurisdiction. Article 96 authorizes the establishment by federal law of the Federal Patent Court , of federal military criminal courts having jurisdiction only in a state of defense or on soldiers serving abroad, and of

3416-490: The London Six-Power Conference of the three western occupying powers (US, United Kingdom, France) and the three Western neighbours of Germany (Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg) was debating the political future of the three western occupation zones of Germany. The negotiations ended with the conclusion that a democratic and federal West German state was to be established. As an immediate consequence of

3538-578: The Museum Koenig in Bonn on 8 May 1949—the museum was the only intact building in Bonn large enough to house the assembly—and after being approved by the occupying powers on 12 May 1949, it was ratified by the parliaments of all the Trizonal Länder with the exception of Bavaria . The Landtag of Bavaria rejected the Basic Law mainly because it was seen as not granting sufficient powers to

3660-463: The Nazi regime was characterised as having been a 'criminal' state, illegal and illegitimate from the outset, while the Weimar Republic was characterised as having been a 'failed' state, whose inherent institutional and constitutional flaws had been exploited by Hitler in his "illegal" seizure of dictatorial powers. Consequently, following the death of Hitler in 1945 and the subsequent capitulation of

3782-711: The Nuremberg trials , the OKW was indicted but acquitted of being a criminal organization because of Article 9 of the charter of the International Military Tribunal. In the opinion of the Tribunal, the General Staff and High Command is neither an "organisation" nor a "group" Although the Tribunal is of the opinion that the term "group" in Article 9 must mean something more than this collection of military officers, it has heard much evidence as to

Federal Ministry of Defence (Germany) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3904-569: The Reichstag Fire Decree of 1933 to suspend basic rights and to remove communist members of the Reichstag from power, an important step for Hitler 's Machtergreifung . The suspension of human rights would also be illegal under Articles 20 and 79, as above. The right to resist is permitted against anyone seeking to abolish constitutional order, if other remedies were to fail under Article 20. The constitutional position of

4026-476: The Volkskammer of the GDR did indeed declare its accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the Basic Law, but postdated to come into effect on 3 October 1990, and conditional on fundamental amendments being made to the Basic Law in the interim. These amendments were required to implement the series of constitutional changes to the Basic Law that had been agreed both in the Unification Treaty between

4148-475: The parliament of the GDR (East Germany) declared the accession of the GDR according to Article 23 to the Federal Republic of Germany to come into effect on 3 October 1990, making unification an act unilaterally initiated by the last East German parliament . East Germany's "declaration of accession" ( Beitrittserklärung ) envisaged states within East Germany being included into the field of application of

4270-573: The 'overall' Reich was currently not capable of action. According to the 1973 decision of the Federal Constitutional Court, Article 23 of the Basic Law required the Federal Republic to be "legally open" to the accession of those former parts of Germany who were then organised into the German Democratic Republic, and they noted that this implied that the Federal Republic could recognise the capability of

4392-763: The Armed Forces. In Berlin and Königsberg, the German Army had large Fernschreibstelle (teleprinter offices) which collected morning messages each day from regional or local centres. They also had a Geheimschreibstube or cipher room where plaintext messages could be encrypted on Lorenz SZ40/42 machines. If sent by radio rather than landline they were intercepted and decrypted at Bletchley Park in England, where they were known as Fish . Some messages were daily returns, and some were between Hitler and his generals; both were valuable to Allied intelligence. During

4514-600: The Basic Law, but subject to the Basic Law first being amended in accordance with both the previously negotiated Unification Treaty between East and West Germany, and also the Two-Plus-Four Treaty , under which the Allied Powers had relinquished their residual German sovereignty. So, on the date of accession of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany Article 23 was repealed, representing an explicit commitment under Two-Plus-Four Treaty that, following

4636-477: The Basic Law, in contrast to the Weimar Constitution , which listed them merely as "state objectives". Pursuant to the mandate to respect human dignity , all state power is directly bound to guarantee these basic rights. Article 1 of the Basic Law, which establishes this principle that "human dignity is inviolable" and that human rights are directly applicable law, as well as the general principles of

4758-648: The Basic Law. Adoption of a constitution under Article 146 would have implied that the legal validity of a unified German State would rest on "a free decision by the German people" as a whole. Following the surrender of the German High Command and the dissolution of the Flensburg Government in May 1945, no effective national government of any sort existed in Germany and all national military and civil authority and powers were thereon exercised by

4880-565: The Basic Law. Although judgements of the Federal Constitutional Court are supreme over all other counts, it is not a court of appeal; the FCC only hears constitutional cases, and maintains sole jurisdiction in all such cases, to the exclusion of all other courts. The court is famous for nullifying several high-profile laws, passed by large majorities in the parliament. An example is the Luftsicherheitsgesetz , which would have allowed

5002-617: The Chancellor. As the rearmament plans met with harsh opposition by a wide circle within the West German population and contradicted the occupation statute , the government office responsible for the rearmament acted secretly, unofficially known as Amt Blank . By 1955, the number of employees had surpassed 1,300. On 7 June 1955 the office became the Ministry of Defence, or Bundesministerium für Verteidigung in German. The Bundeswehr

Federal Ministry of Defence (Germany) - Misplaced Pages Continue

5124-488: The Court then explicitly acknowledged that this limited de jure recognition of the GDR also implied acceptance of the constitutional power of the GDR in the interim to enter into international treaties on its own account, naming specifically the treaty with Poland which confirmed the transfer of the " Eastern Territories " to Polish sovereignty. The Communist regime in East Germany fell in 1990. Following free elections

5246-473: The Family" and for parental responsibility for children's education, SPD representatives then amended this to protect additionally the rights of children born outside marriage, and Elisabeth Selbert (one of only four women on the 70-strong panel) was eventually successful in a largely lone campaign to gain constitutional protection for sex equality. Notwithstanding this, there was a striking disjunction between

5368-402: The Federal Constitutional Court can be called not only because of a violation of fundamental rights, but also by violation "of the rights set out in Article 20 paragraph 4 and Articles 33, 38, 101, 103 and 104". Hence, these rights are called the rights identical to fundamental rights. The 1949 Basic Law was explicitly irredentist , maintaining that there remained separated parts of 'Germany as

5490-622: The Federal Government. Article 24 states that the Federal Government may "transfer sovereign powers to international institutions" and Article 25 states that "general rules of international law shall be an integral part of federal law". The latter article was included in deference to the post-war actions of the occupying Western powers; but had the unintended consequence that the Federal Constitutional Court tended to define "rules of international law" as applicable to German federal law within Germany, that were nevertheless different from

5612-591: The Federal Ministry of Defence (DEU MOD) changes its organization to the following general structure: The Bundeswehr is divided into a military part (armed forces or Streitkräfte) and a civil part with the armed forces administration (Wehrverwaltung) and consists of 11 Departments/Services: From the Unification of Germany in 1871 until the end of World War I , the German Empire did not have

5734-460: The Federal President represents the Federal Republic of Germany in matters of international law, concludes treaties with foreign states on its behalf and accredits diplomats. Furthermore, all federal laws must be signed by the President before they can come into effect; however, he/she can only veto a law that he believes to violate the constitution. The Chancellor is the head of government and

5856-513: The Federal Republic alone could represent that Reich, was adopted both by the Federal Government itself and by the Federal Constitutional Court . Initially, the 1949 constitution of the German Democratic Republic adopted a mirror image version of this claim, being framed in anticipation of a future all-German constitution on its own political terms, but it was replaced with a new constitution in 1968 that made no references to

5978-429: The Federal Republic in 1963 by means of an international treaty without invoking Article 23. The Basic Law, in its original form, maintained the continuing existence of a larger Germany and German people, only parts of whom were currently organised within the Federal Republic. Nevertheless, the full extent of the implied wider German nation is nowhere defined in the Basic Law, although it was always clearly understood that

6100-571: The Federal Republic of Germany The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany ( Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland ) is the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany . The West German Constitution was approved in Bonn on 8 May 1949 and came into effect on 23 May after having been approved by the occupying western Allies of World War II on 12 May. It was termed "Basic Law" ( Grundgesetz ) to indicate that it

6222-491: The Federal Republic of Germany—composed as it was in 1949—no right to negotiate, reject or deny another German state's declaration of its accession to the FRG, subject to the FRG's recognising that state de jure and being satisfied that the declaration of accession resulted from the free self-determination of its people; while on the other side an acceding state would have to accept the Basic Law and all laws so far legislated under

SECTION 50

#1732797151335

6344-536: The Federal Republic regarded itself as including almost all of Western Germany such that the only "other parts of Germany" to which Article 23 might be extended were now to the east, hence relinquishing all claims to those western parts of the former German Reich that had been surrendered to France and Denmark. (cf. Little Reunification with the Saar ). The towns of Elten, Selfkant, and Suderwick, which had been occupied and annexed by Netherlands in 1949 , were reunited with

6466-497: The Federal Republic. The government now depends only on the parliament; while the military, by contrast with their status in the Weimar Republic, are entirely under parliamentary authority. To remove the chancellor, the parliament has to engage in a Constructive vote of no confidence ( Konstruktives Misstrauensvotum ), i.e. the election of a new chancellor. The new procedure was intended to provide more stability than under

6588-530: The GDR and the Federal Republic, and in the 'Two Plus Four Treaty' ( Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany ), and had the general effect of removing or rewording all the clauses (including Article 23) on which the Federal Constitutional Court had relied in support of its claim to the continued legal identity of the German Reich as an 'overall state'. Specifically too, the Basic Law

6710-508: The GDR and the Federal Republic, and not by the GDR's prior declaration of accession under Article 23, although the former Article 23 was agreed by both parties to the Treaty as setting the constitutional model by which unification would be achieved. As part of the process, East Germany, which had been a unitary state since 1952, was re-divided into its initial five partially self-governing states ( Bundesländer ), being granted equal status as

6832-565: The GDR state, as then constituted, of so declaring its accession. In this sense, the Basic Treaty's recognition of the GDR as a de jure German State and as a valid state in international relations (albeit without then according it within West Germany with the status of a separate sovereign state) could be interpreted as furthering the long-term objective of eventual German unification, rather than as contradicting it. On 23 August 1990

6954-413: The German Armed Forces, the national institutions and constitutional instruments of both Nazi Germany and the Weimar Republic were understood as entirely defunct, such that the Basic Law could be established in a condition of constitutional nullity. Nevertheless, although the Weimar Republic was now wholly irretrievable, avoiding its perceived constitutional weaknesses represented the predominant concern for

7076-461: The German people in respect to their government. With the specific request of a federal structure of a future German state the Western Powers followed German constitutional tradition since the foundation of the Reich in 1871. The Ministerpräsidenten were reluctant to fulfill what was expected from them, as they anticipated that the formal foundation of a West German state would mean a permanent disruption of German unity. A few days later they convened

7198-454: The London Six-Power Conference, the representatives of the three western occupation powers on 1 July 1948, convoked the Ministerpräsidenten ( minister-presidents ) of the West German Länder in Frankfurt am Main and committed to them the so-called Frankfurt Documents ( Frankfurter Dokumente ). The handover took place in the I.G. Farben building on the Campus Westend of today's Goethe University . These papers—amongst other points—summoned

7320-408: The Ministerpräsidenten to arrange a constitutional assembly, that should work out a democratic and federal constitution for a West German state. According to Frankfurt Document No 1, the constitution should specify a central power of German government, but nevertheless respect the administration of the Länder and it should contain provisions and guarantees of individual freedom and individual rights of

7442-406: The OKH. Since most German operations during World War II were army-controlled (with Luftwaffe support), the OKH demanded control over German military forces. Nevertheless, Hitler decided against the OKH in favor of the OKW overseeing operations in many land theaters, despite being the head of the OKH. As the war progressed, more and more influence moved from the OKH to the OKW, with Norway being

SECTION 60

#1732797151335

7564-455: The OKW and Oberbefehlshaber West (OBW, Commander in Chief West), who was Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt (succeeded by Field Marshal Günther von Kluge ). There was even more fragmentation since the Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe operations had their own commands (the Oberkommando der Marine (OKM) and the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL)) which, while theoretically subordinate, were largely independent from

7686-403: The OKW comprised four departments: The WFA replaced the Wehrmachtsamt (Armed Forces Office) which had existed between 1935 and 1938 within the Reich War Ministry, headed by Keitel. Hitler promoted Keitel to Chief of the OKW ( Chef des OKW ), i.e. Chief of the Armed Forces High Command. As head of the WFA, Keitel appointed Max von Viebahn  [ de ] although after two months he

7808-404: The OKW from becoming a unified German General Staff in an effective chain of command , though it did help coordinate operations among the three services. During the war, the OKW acquired more and more operational powers. By 1942, the OKW had responsibility for all theatres except for the Eastern Front . However, Adolf Hitler manipulated the system in order to prevent any one command from taking

7930-412: The OKW or the OBW. Further complications in OKW operations also arose in circumstances such as when, on 19 December 1941, Hitler dismissed Walther von Brauchitsch as Commander-in-Chief of the Army, after the failure of the Battle of Moscow , and assumed von Brauchitsch's former position, in essence reporting directly to himself, since the Commander-in-Chief of the Army reported to the Supreme Commander of

8052-479: The Saarlanders rejected in a referendum (1955) the transformation of their protectorate into an independent state within the emerging European Economic Community . The Saar Treaty then opened the way for the government of the Saar Protectorate to declare its accession to the West German state under Article 23, including the new Saarland into the field of application of the Basic Law. The Saar held no separate referendum on its accession. With effect from 1 January 1957

8174-420: The State Minister of War. After the Weimar Constitution came into force, the remaining war ministries in the states of Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg and Prussia were abolished and military authority was concentrated in the Reich Minister of Defence. Command was exercised respectively by the Chief of the Heeresleitung (Army Command) and the Chief of the Marineleitung (Navy Command, see Reichsmarine ). In 1929

8296-478: The Weimar Constitution, when extremists on the left and right would vote to remove a chancellor, without agreeing on a new one, creating a leadership vacuum. In addition it was possible for the parliament to remove individual ministers by a vote of distrust, while it now has to vote against the cabinet as a whole. Article 32 of the Basic Law allows the states to conduct foreign affairs with states with regards to matters falling within their purview, under supervision of

8418-411: The aftermath of the Blomberg-Fritsch affair , which had led to the dismissal of the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and head of the Reich Ministry of War , Werner von Blomberg , as well as the Commander-in-Chief of the Army , Werner von Fritsch . Adolf Hitler, who had been waiting for an opportunity to gain personal control over the German military, quickly took advantage of the scandal, using

8540-403: The aggressive ambitions of Hitler and his fellow Nazis would have been academic and sterile. Although they were not a group falling within the words of the Charter, they were certainly a ruthless military caste. The contemporary German militarism flourished briefly with its recent ally, National Socialism, as well as or better than it had in the generations of the past. Many of these men have made

8662-439: The already existing Länder , with East and West Berlin reuniting into a new city-state (like Bremen and Hamburg ). After the changes of the Basic Law, mostly pertaining to the accession in 1990, additional major modifications were made in 1994 ( Verfassungsreform ), 2002 and 2006 ( Föderalismusreform ). We must be sure that what we construct will some day be a good house for all Germans. Between February and June 1948,

8784-698: The associated arguments for the Reich's continuing 'metaphysical' existence de jure within the organs of the Federal Republic alone. Subsequently, under the Ostpolitik , the Federal Republic in the early 1970s sought to end hostile relations with the countries of the Eastern Bloc , in the course of which it negotiated in 1972 a Basic Treaty with the GDR, recognising it as one of two German states within one German nation, and relinquishing any claim to de jure sovereign jurisdiction over East Germany. The Treaty

8906-614: The bleak context of Germany in 1949. Hence they built into the Basic Law a strong instrument for guardianship of the " free democratic basic order " of the Federal Republic, in the form of the Federal Constitutional Court, representing a 'staggering conferral of judicial authority'. Unlike the United States Supreme Court the Federal Constitutional Court not only has jurisdiction in constitutional matters, but also exclusive jurisdiction in such matters; all other courts must refer constitutional cases to it. The intention of

9028-405: The controlling function of upholding the law and the constitution. It has also a "political reserve function" for times of crisis in the parliamentary system of government. The Federal President gives direction to general political and societal debates and has some important " reserve powers " in case of political instability (such as those provided for by Article 81). Under Article 59 paragraph 1,

9150-646: The convention were appointed by the leaders of the newly formed (or newly reconstituted) Länder (states). On 1 September 1948 the Parlamentarischer Rat assembled and began working on the exact wording of the Basic Law. The 65 members of the Parlamentarischer Rat were elected by the parliaments of the German Länder with one deputy representing about 750,000 people. After being passed by the Parliamentary Council assembled at

9272-635: The course of Germany's Sonderweg—to reclaim the German State from its special historical path, and to realise in postwar West Germany the Liberal Democratic Republic that had proved unachievable for the Frankfurt patriots of 1848 or the Weimar revolutionaries of 1919." In interpreting it, the Federal Constitutional Court seemed to "have its eye on a Germany that might have been". In the dominant post-war narrative of West Germany ,

9394-801: The defence of the smaller states. However, the Imperial Navy from 1889 was overseen by a federal department, the Imperial Naval Office . After the war and the German Revolution of 1918–19 , the Weimar Constitution provided for a unified, national ministry of defence, which was created largely from the Prussian Ministry of War and the Imperial Naval Office. The Ministry of the Reichswehr

9516-757: The early 1990s, and saw combat in the 1999 Kosovo War . Until the Fall of Kabul in August 2021, Germany deployed for nearly 20 years its armed forces in Afghanistan as part of the International Security Assistance Force (2001-2015) and later the Resolute Support Mission (2015-2021). German forces withdrew on 29 June . Political Party:     CDU/CSU     SPD Basic Law for

9638-601: The federal government was strengthened, as the Bundespräsident has only a small fraction of the former power of the Reichspräsident , and in particular, is no longer in Supreme Command of the armed forces. Indeed, the original text of the Basic Law of 1949 made no provision for federal armed forces; only in 1955 was the Basic Law amended with Article 87a to allow the creation of a German military for

9760-688: The federal minister is still denoted as Bundesminister für Verteidigung in Article 65a of the German Constitution. Until 1960, the ministry had its seat in the Ermekeil barracks in Bonn. From 1960 onwards, it was moved to a new building complex at Hardthöhe. After German reunification , the Bendlerblock, former seat of its Weimar Republic predecessor, became the secondary seat of the ministry in 1993. The German military has become increasingly engaged in international operations since

9882-645: The first "OKW war theater ". More and more areas came under complete control of the OKW. Finally, only the Eastern Front remained the domain of the OKH. However, as the Eastern Front was by far the primary battlefield of the German military, the OKH was still influential. The OKW ran military operations on the Western front, in North Africa , and in Italy . In the west, operations were further split between

10004-422: The former German state had been rendered powerless to act, and that consequently, once a freely constituted German government had come into being in the form of the Federal Republic, it could resume the identity and legal status of the former German Reich without reference to the Allied Powers. From the 1950s, the claim that there was a single continuing German Reich, and that in some sense the Federal Republic and

10126-714: The four Allies . The Allies maintained in fact that sovereign authorities wielding state powers no longer existed in the former German Reich; so, as the 'highest authority' for Germany, they were entitled to assume all sovereign powers without limitation of duration or scope, and could legitimately impose whatever measures on the German people within German national territory as any government could legally do on its own people—including validly ceding parts of that territory and people to another country. They argued furthermore that international conventions constraining occupying powers in wartime from enforcing fundamental changes of governmental system, economic system or social institutions within

10248-411: The framers of the Basic Law was that this court would range widely against any tendency to slip back toward non-democratic ways: "a strict but benevolent guardian of an immature democracy that cannot quite trust itself". As such the Federal Constitutional Court had the power to ban political parties whose objectives or actions threatened the 'free democratic basic order". The Basic Law places at its head

10370-472: The framers of the Basic Law. The experience of the Weimar Republic had resulted in a widespread public perception that the principles of representative democracy and of the rule of law ( Rechtsstaat ) were inherently in conflict with one another, and the Parliamentary Council drafting the Basic Law were well aware that their militantly pro-democratic ideals were far from generally shared in

10492-637: The functions of the Reich War Minister. The Wehrmachtsamt was turned into the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW; High Command of the Armed Forces), which formally existed until the end of World War II . The High Command was not a government ministry, but a military command, however. After World War II, West Germany started with preparations for rearmament ( Wiederbewaffnung ) in 1950, as ordered by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer . After

10614-455: The generality of rules and principles of international law as they might operate between Germany and other nations. Hence, the Federal Constitutional Court could recognise East Germany as a sovereign state in international law in the second sense, while still asserting that it was not a "sovereign state in international law" within Germany itself. In seeking to come to terms with Germany's catastrophic recent history, much discussion has focused on

10736-576: The individual Länder , but at the same time decided that it would still come into force in Bavaria if two-thirds of the other Länder ratified it. On 23 May 1949, in a solemn session of the Parliamentary Council, the German Basic Law was signed and promulgated. The time of legal nonentity ended, as the new West German state, the Federal Republic of Germany, came into being, although still under Western occupation. Basic rights are fundamental to

10858-635: The insistence of the Western Allies, formally excluded West Berlin . In 1990, the Two Plus Four Agreement between the two parts of Germany and all four Allies stipulated the implementation of a number of amendments. The German word Grundgesetz may be translated as either Basic Law or Fundamental Law . The term "constitution" (Verfassung) was avoided as the drafters regarded the Grundgesetz as an interim arrangement for

10980-436: The institutions of the FRG as they were. As the Federal Republic could not itself declare the accession of another part of Germany under Article 23, this provision could not be applied as an instrument of annexation , nor could accession under Article 23 be achieved by international treaty with third party states, although the Federal Constitutional Court recognised that a future declared accession could be framed de facto as

11102-411: The jurisdiction of this German state, it refers to it as the 'federal territory', so avoiding any inference of there being a constitutionally defined 'German national territory'. The authors of the Basic Law sought to ensure that a potential dictator would never again be able to come to power in the country. Although some of the Basic Law is based on the Weimar Republic's constitution , the first article

11224-434: The key theory of a German Sonderweg (special way): the proposition that Germany had followed a path to modernity radically different from that of its European neighbours, that had rendered it particularly susceptible to militaristic, anti-humanitarian, totalitarian and genocidal impulses. The theory is much contested, but formed the major context for the original formulation of the Basic Law. The Basic Law sought "to correct

11346-528: The largely ceremonial Federal President as head of state and the Federal Chancellor , the head of government, normally (but not necessarily) the leader of the largest grouping in the Bundestag. The legislative branch is represented by the Bundestag , elected directly through a mixed-member proportional representation , with the German Länder participating in legislation through the Bundesrat , reflecting Germany's federal structure. The judicial branch

11468-494: The most influential figure in German day-to-day politics, as well as the head of the Federal Government , consisting of ministers appointed by the Federal President on the Chancellor's suggestion. While every minister governs his or her department autonomously, the Chancellor may issue overriding policy guidelines. The Chancellor is elected for a full term of the Bundestag and can only be dismissed by parliament electing

11590-616: The outbreak of the Korean War , the United States called for a West German contribution to the defence of Western Europe (against the Soviet Union ). Initially Gerhard Graf von Schwerin , a former Wehrmacht General, advised the Chancellor on these issues and led the preparations, but after Count Schwerin had talked to the press about his work, he was replaced by Theodor Blank , who was appointed as "Special Representative" of

11712-425: The participation of these officers in planning and waging aggressive war, and in committing war crimes and crimes against humanity. This evidence is, as to many of them, clear and convincing. They have been responsible, in large measure, for the miseries and suffering that have fallen on millions of men, women and children. They have been a disgrace to the honourable profession of arms. Without their military guidance,

11834-466: The peoples of both East Germany and Berlin would be included. In its judgement of 1973, confirming the constitutional validity of the Basic Treaty between East Germany and West Germany, the Federal Constitutional Court justified the recognition of East Germany as a valid German state, on the basis that this would enable the GDR in the future to declare accession to the Basic Law under Article 23. But

11956-469: The powers granted to him by the Enabling Act to do so. The decree dissolved the ministry and replaced it with the OKW. The OKW was directly subordinate to Hitler in his position as Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht (Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces), to the detriment of the existing military structure. The OKW was led by Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel as Chief of the OKW with the rank of

12078-417: The preamble to the Basic Law, its adoption was declared as an action of the "German people", and Article 20 states "All state authority is derived from the people". These statements embody the constitutional principles that 'Germany' is identical with the German people, and that the German people act constitutionally as the primary institution of the German state. Where the Basic Law refers to the territory under

12200-496: The principles laid down in Articles 1 and 20. Fundamental rights ( Grundrechte ) are guaranteed in Germany by the Federal Constitution and in some state constitutions. In the Basic Law, most fundamental rights are guaranteed in the first section of the same name (Articles 1 to 19). They are subjective public rights with the constitutional rank which bind all institutions and functions of the state. In cases where

12322-711: The same duties. Commander-in-Chief of the OKW Chief of Operations Staff of the OKW Officially, the OKW served as the military general staff for the Third Reich, coordinating the efforts of the army, navy, and air force. With the start of World War II , tactical control of the Waffen-SS was exercised by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht . In practice, however, Hitler used OKW as his personal military staff, translating his ideas into military orders, such as

12444-426: The social context of two-parent, family households assumed in the Basic Law, and the everyday reality of German society in 1949, where over half of adult women were unmarried, separated or widowed, where the effective working population was overwhelmingly female, and where millions of expellees, refugees and displaced families were still without permanent accommodation. It was not until 1994 that constitutional protection

12566-473: The state in Article 20, which guarantees democracy, republicanism , social responsibility and federalism , remain under the guarantee of perpetuity stated in Article 79 paragraph 3, i.e., the principles underlying these clauses cannot be removed even if the normal amendment process is followed. There were, in the original version, no emergency powers such as those used by the Reichspräsident in

12688-671: The territory under their control—the Hague Regulations of Land Warfare and the Geneva Conventions —did not apply, and could not apply, as the termination of Nazi Germany and the total Denazification of German institutions and legal structures had been agreed by the Allies as absolute moral imperatives. Consequently, the Potsdam Agreement envisaged that an eventual self-governing state would emerge from

12810-482: The time being, this Basic Law shall apply in the territory of the Länder of Baden , Bavaria, Bremen , Greater Berlin, Hamburg , Hesse, Lower Saxony , North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate , Schleswig-Holstein, Württemberg-Baden , and Württemberg-Hohenzollern . In other parts of Germany it shall be put into force on their accession. Whereas the West German state had gained restricted sovereignty in May 1955,

12932-596: The unification of East Germany, West Germany and Berlin, no "other parts of Germany" remained in east or west to which the Berlin Republic might validly be extended. Rather than adopting a new constitution under Article 146 of the Basic Law, the Bundestag (Parliament of Germany) amended Article 146 and the Preamble of the Basic Law to state that German unification had now been fully achieved, while also adding

13054-403: The unity and freedom of Germany." This was understood as embedding in the Basic Law both the proposition that Germany in 1949 was neither unified nor free, and also as binding the new Federal Republic to a duty to pursue the creation of such a free and unified Germany "on behalf of those Germans to whom participation was denied". The Basic Law potentially provided two routes for the establishment of

13176-471: The world has ever had the misfortune to know. This must be said. Despite this, both Keitel and Jodl were convicted of war crimes and sentenced to death by hanging . During the subsequent High Command Trial in 1947–48, fourteen Wehrmacht officers were charged with war crimes , especially for the Commissar Order to execute Soviet political commissars in occupied territories in the east,

13298-424: The wreckage of WWII covering 'Germany as a whole', but that this new state would have no claim to sovereignty other than as derived from the sovereignty then being assumed by the Allies, and its constitution would also require the approval of all the Allies. From the 1950s onwards, however, a school of German legal scholars developed the alternative view that the Allies had only taken custody of German sovereignty while

13420-416: Was a provisional piece of legislation pending the reunification of Germany . However, when reunification took place in 1990, the Basic Law was retained as the definitive constitution of reunified Germany. Its original field of application ( Geltungsbereich )—that is, the states that were initially included in the Federal Republic of Germany —consisted of the three Western Allies' zones of occupation, but at

13542-567: Was challenged in the Federal Constitutional court, as apparently contradicting the overriding aspirations of the Basic Law for a unified German state; but the Treaty's legality was upheld by the Court, heavily qualified by a reassertion of the claim that the German Reich continued to exist as an 'overall state' such that the duty to strive for future German unity could not be abandoned while East and West Germany remained disunited, albeit that without any institutional organs of itself

13664-607: Was established and Germany joined the NATO the same year. In 1956, Germany reintroduced conscription , and the German military force quickly became the largest conventional military force in Western Europe. To confirm the ministry's importance, it was renamed Bundesministerium der Verteidigung on 30 December 1961, similar to the German names of the "classic" ministries of Finance , the Interior and Justice — though

13786-823: Was established in October 1919, and had its seat in the Bendlerblock building. In the context of the Treaty of Versailles and the "Law for the Creation of a provisional Reichswehr " of March 1919, the Reichspräsident became the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, whilst the Reich Minister of Defence exercised military authority. Only in the Free State of Prussia did military authority remain with

13908-408: Was extended against discrimination on grounds of disability, while discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation is still not disallowed within the Basic Law. As adopted by West Germany in 1949 as an interim constitution, the preamble of the Basic Law looked forward explicitly to a future free and united German state: "The entire German people is called upon to accomplish, by free self-determination,

14030-513: Was frequently used in West German legislation when West German laws did not apply to the entirety of German territory, as was usually the case. Article 23 of the Basic Law provided other de jure German states, initially not included in the field of application of the Basic Law, with the right to declare their accession ( Beitritt ) at a later date. Therefore, although the Basic Law was considered provisional, it allowed more parts of Germany to join its field of application. On one side, it gave

14152-403: Was never submitted to a popular vote, neither in 1949 nor in 1990. However, the Basic Law as passed in 1949 also contained Article 23 which provided for "other parts of Germany" to "join the area of applicability of the Basic Law" which was the provision that was used for German reunification from the constitutional standpoint. As the overwhelming consensus thereafter was that the German question

14274-621: Was not a definite state for the German people, and that future German self-determination and the reunification of Germany was still on their agenda. The Ministerpräsidenten prevailed and the Western Powers gave in concerning this highly symbolic question. The draft was prepared at the preliminary Herrenchiemsee convention (10–23 August 1948) on the Herreninsel in the Chiemsee , a lake in southeastern Bavaria . The delegates at

14396-678: Was removed from command, and this post was not refilled until the promotion of Alfred Jodl. To replace Jodl at the Abteilung Landesverteidigungsführungsamt (WFA/L), Walther Warlimont was appointed. In December 1941 further changes took place with the Abteilung Landesverteidigungsführungsamt (WFA/L) being merged into the Wehrmacht-Führungsamt and losing its role as a subordinate organization. These changes were largely cosmetic however as key staff remained in post and continued to fulfill

14518-667: Was renamed Reichskriegsministerium (Reich Ministry of War); also, the Heeresleitung became the Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH), the Marineleitung became the Oberkommando der Marine (OKM) and the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL) was newly created. The Ministeramt (Ministerial Office) was renamed the Wehrmachtsamt . In 1938, following the Blomberg-Fritsch Affair , Hitler himself exercised

14640-545: Was settled, and to reaffirm the renunciation of any residual German claim to land east of Oder and Neiße , Article 23 was repealed the same day as reunification came into force. An unrelated article on the relationship between Germany and the European Union was instead inserted in its place two years later. As a heritage of the Lesser German solution , neither was unification with Austria aspired for. In

14762-559: Was the supreme military command and control office of Nazi Germany during World War II . Created in 1938, the OKW replaced the Reich Ministry of War and had oversight over the individual high commands of the country's armed forces : the army ( Heer ), navy ( Kriegsmarine ), and air force ( Luftwaffe ). Rivalry with the different services' commands, mainly with the Army High Command (OKH), prevented

14884-520: Was then amended such that the constitutional duty of the German people to strive for unity and freedom was stated as now fully realised, and consequently that the expanded ' Berlin Republic ' could no longer be "legally open" to further accessions of former German territories. The Basic Law established Germany as a parliamentary democracy with separation of powers into executive , legislative , and judicial branches. The executive branch consists of

#334665