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121-605: The Glasgow Subway is an underground light metro system in Glasgow , Scotland. Opened on 14 December 1896, it is the third-oldest underground rail transit system in the world after the London Underground and the Budapest Metro . It is also one of the very few railways in the world with a track running gauge of 4 ft ( 1,219 mm ). Originally a cable railway , the subway was later electrified , but

242-430: A lift . Each station had a ticket office (often very small, little more than a booth with a window). The ticketing system was identical to that of most cinemas of the era, with tickets emerging from slots in the counters of the station ticket offices (the words "Control Systems Ltd" or "Automaticket Ltd" were printed on all tickets). Tickets were invariably collected on leaving the train. From the time of being taken over by

363-478: A mechanical advantage of 3:1, it has been calculated that a single man working the winch could raise 150 kg (330 lb) (3 pulleys x 50 kg or 110 lb = 150), assuming that 50 kg (110 lb) represent the maximum effort a man can exert over a longer time period. Heavier crane types featured five pulleys ( pentaspastos ) or, in case of the largest one, a set of three by five pulleys ( Polyspastos ) and came with two, three or four masts, depending on

484-469: A nonprofit organisation , also categorises several public transport systems as "light metro". The main reason to build a light metro instead of a regular metro is to reduce costs, mainly because this system employs shorter vehicles and shorter stations. Light metros may operate faster than heavy-rail rapid transit systems due to shorter dwell times at stations, and the faster acceleration and deceleration of lighter trains. For example, express trains on

605-613: A Glasgow Metro. This would involve repurposing or reopening existing heavy rail lines, the creation of additional light rail metro, and the construction of an airport rail link. In 2022, Transport Scotland published its final version of the Strategic Transport Projects Review 2, which outlines proposals for the Clyde Metro . The Clyde Metro proposals retain the Subway, and also note the potential for

726-570: A central vertical axle, were commonly found at the Flemish and Dutch coastside, German sea and inland harbors typically featured tower cranes where the windlass and treadwheels were situated in a solid tower with only jib arm and roof rotating. Dockside cranes were not adopted in the Mediterranean region and the highly developed Italian ports where authorities continued to rely on the more labor-intensive method of unloading goods by ramps beyond

847-656: A concerted action required a great amount of coordination between the work groups applying the force to the capstans. During the High Middle Ages , the treadwheel crane was reintroduced on a large scale after the technology had fallen into disuse in western Europe with the demise of the Western Roman Empire . The earliest reference to a treadwheel ( magna rota ) reappears in archival literature in France about 1225, followed by an illuminated depiction in

968-526: A constant pressure, thus increasing the crane's load capacity considerably. One of his cranes, commissioned by the Italian Navy in 1883 and in use until the mid-1950s, is still standing in Venice , where it is now in a state of disrepair. There are three major considerations in the design of cranes. First, the crane must be able to lift the weight of the load; second, the crane must not topple; third,

1089-407: A height of about 34 m (111.5 ft) (see construction of Trajan's Column ). It is assumed that Roman engineers lifted these extraordinary weights by two measures (see picture below for comparable Renaissance technique): First, as suggested by Heron, a lifting tower was set up, whose four masts were arranged in the shape of a quadrangle with parallel sides, not unlike a siege tower , but with

1210-473: A major refurbishment and modernisation; the date was brought forward because of the appearance of more cracks in the Govan Cross roof. Badly deteriorated tunnels were repaired; stations were rebuilt and enlarged, with additional platforms at Buchanan Street, Partick, Govan, Ibrox, Hillhead and St Enoch. The surface building of St George's Cross had already been rebuilt in 1971 as part of the construction of

1331-529: A manuscript of probably also French origin dating to 1240. In navigation, the earliest uses of harbor cranes are documented for Utrecht in 1244, Antwerp in 1263, Bruges in 1288 and Hamburg in 1291, while in England the treadwheel is not recorded before 1331. Generally, vertical transport could be done more safely and inexpensively by cranes than by customary methods. Typical areas of application were harbors, mines, and, in particular, building sites where

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1452-417: A medium-capacity system (as it used shorter 4-car SP1950 trains, compared to 7- to 12-car trains on other heavy rail lines) but can attain up to 32,000 p/h/d which is comparable to the passenger capacity of some full metro transit networks. However, it was built to the full heavy rail standard as it was designed to be extended. Full-length, 8-car trains were deployed on the line in advance of its extension and

1573-609: A much greater lifting capability than was previously possible, although manual cranes are still utilized where the provision of power would be uneconomic. There are many different types of cranes, each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes, used for constructing high buildings. Mini-cranes are also used for constructing high buildings, to facilitate constructions by reaching tight spaces. Large floating cranes are generally used to build oil rigs and salvage sunken ships. Some lifting machines do not strictly fit

1694-410: A new station at West Street. Before the 1970s modernisation, the Subway offered no formal connections to other transport at ground level, although in practice two stations, Merkland Street and Buchanan Street, were only a short walk from British Rail stations. These links were improved at this modernisation: The first rolling stock was largely built in 1896, with additional trailer carriages added over

1815-411: A newer system, issuing magnetic stripe card tickets. The modernised system uses automatic train operation with the driver only responsible for closing the doors pressing a "start" button in normal operation. While the system was closed a replacement bus service was introduced by GGPTE in a bid to retain customers. Service 66 covered the inner circle route, while service 99 covered the route taken by

1936-576: A pit at the Govan workshops. This also meant that the two tracks could be completely separate, with no points anywhere. The company's headquarters were in the upper rooms at St Enoch subway station ; this distinctive ornate building still stands in St Enoch Square and was subsequently used as a travel information office by SPT and is now a coffee shop. When the Subway first opened, single-carriage four axle (twin truck) trains were operated. Late in

2057-408: A point over the center of gravity, they are regarded by archaeologists as the positive evidence required for the existence of the crane. The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon led to a widespread replacement of ramps as the main means of vertical motion. For the next 200 years, Greek building sites witnessed a sharp reduction in the weights handled, as the new lifting technique made

2178-570: A report published in 2018 summarised various extension plans from 1937 onwards. In early 2005, SPT announced that they would employ consultants to look into extending the system in the West End, East End, South Side and Glasgow Harbour areas of the city. The extension would take advantage of existing unused tunnels underneath the city, and there is a possibility that roads would be dug up to install tunnels before being replaced and resurfaced ( cut-and-cover tunnelling). On 14 March 2007, SPT announced

2299-467: A report that showed huge support for a Subway extension. Councillor Alistair Watson of the SPT stated: We want what you want. This city needs a world-class Subway system. That's what our passengers deserve. I realise an extension won't come cheap and we still have lots of hurdles to overcome but, in my view, what the public wants, the public should get. This is a ringing endorsement from the people who would use

2420-520: A section of single track rail) can only achieve lesser headways (e.g. every 15 minutes) which result in lower passenger volume capacities, and thus would be more accurately defined as "light metro" or "medium-capacity" systems as a result. An example is the LA Metro B/D line during the COVID-19 pandemic, as headways were reduced to every 12-20 minutes on each line. In addition to MCS, light metro

2541-497: A variety of platform layouts including single island platforms, opposing side platforms and in some stations such as Hillhead one side and one island platform. The subway's running lines are entirely underground, although the maintenance depot at Broomloan Road (located between the Govan and Ibrox stations) is above ground, as was the earlier depot, also at Govan . Prior to modernisation, trains used to be lifted by crane onto and off

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2662-443: A vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well. Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place, or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of

2783-492: Is a common alternative word in European countries, India, and South Korea. In some countries, however, light metro systems are conflated with light rail . In South Korea, light rail is used as the translation for the original Korean term, "경전철" – its literal translation is "light metro", but it actually means "Any railway transit other than heavy rail, which has capacity between heavy rail and bus transit". For example,

2904-420: Is created from relative lower capacity and/or train configuration comparisons to other heavy rail systems in the same area. For example, the train in an MCS may have a shorter configuration than the standard metro system, usually three (though, in some cases, just two) to six traincars , allowing for shorter platforms to be built and used. Rather than using steel wheels, rubber-tyred metro technology, such as

3025-458: Is near the deck. Additionally, the DLF increases further when lifting objects that are underwater or going through the splash zone. The wind speeds tend to be higher than onshore as well. Though actual DLF values are determined through crane tests under representative operational conditions, design specifications can be used for guidance. The values vary according to the specification, which reflects

3146-418: Is noteworthy that medieval cranes rarely featured ratchets or brakes to forestall the load from running backward. This curious absence is explained by the high friction force exercised by medieval tread-wheels which normally prevented the wheel from accelerating beyond control. According to the "present state of knowledge" unknown in antiquity, stationary harbor cranes are considered a new development of

3267-505: Is preserved in the Riverside Museum . Most of the gripper carriages were subsequently converted to electric traction in 1935. All carriages were originally built with lattice gates (instead of doors) at the ends; many were converted to air-operated sliding doors in the 1960s, but a few retained the gates until 1977. All 15 stations were built with island platforms . The trains were thus built with doors on one side only. Power for

3388-602: Is the Argyle Line , which was formerly part of the Glasgow Central Railway . The subway system was constructed as a circular loop almost 6 + 1 ⁄ 2 miles (10.5 kilometres) long and extends both north and south of the River Clyde . The tracks have the unusual narrow gauge of 4 ft ( 1,219 mm ) and a nominal tunnel diameter of 11 ft (3.4 m), even smaller than that of

3509-440: Is the list of former-MCSs that either developed into a full rapid transit system, or which are no longer in operation: Crane (machine) A crane is a machine used to move materials both vertically and horizontally, utilizing a system of a boom , hoist , wire ropes or chains , and sheaves for lifting and relocating heavy objects within the swing of its boom. The device uses one or more simple machines , such as

3630-405: Is usually part of the crane's type approval . In offshore lifting, where the crane and/or lifted object are on a floating vessel, the DLF is higher compared to onshore lifts because of the additional movement caused by wave action. This motion introduces additional acceleration forces and necessitates increased hoisting and lowering speeds to minimize the risk of repeated collisions when the load

3751-549: The Elswick works at Newcastle , to produce his hydraulic machinery for cranes and bridges in 1847. His company soon received orders for hydraulic cranes from Edinburgh and Northern Railways and from Liverpool Docks , as well as for hydraulic machinery for dock gates in Grimsby . The company expanded from a workforce of 300 and an annual production of 45 cranes in 1850, to almost 4,000 workers producing over 100 cranes per year by

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3872-497: The Glasgow Inner Ring Road , and therefore was merely re-clad in the new corporate style. The entrance to Kelvinbridge was reversed, with a new entrance and car park built at South Woodside Road, an escalator to Great Western Road and stairs down to the west end of the platform; the former entrance and stairway at the east end became an emergency exit, and the lift was withdrawn from service. Merkland Street station

3993-647: The Kelana Jaya , Ampang and Sri Petaling lines as "light rail transit" systems; when originally opened, the original Malay abbreviations for the lines, PUTRA-LRT ( Projek Usahasama Transit Ringan Automatik /Automatic Light Transit Joint Venture Project) and STAR-LRT ( Sistem Transit Aliran Ringan /Light Flow Transit System) did not clearly distinguish between light rail and light rapid transit. Some articles in India also refer to some "light metro"-type systems as "light rail". The Light Rail Transit Association (LRTA),

4114-752: The New York City Subway are about as fast as the Vancouver SkyTrain , but these express trains skip most stops on lines where they operate. Medium-capacity systems have restricted growth capacities as ridership increases. For example, it is difficult to extend station platforms once a system is in operation, especially for underground railway systems, since this work must be done without interfering with traffic. Some railway systems, like Hong Kong and Wuhan, may make advance provisions for longer platforms, for example, so that they will be able to accommodate trains with more, or longer cars, in

4235-539: The Scottish Government in March 2011, and changes to be brought in included: The first station to be modernised was Hillhead . This began in 2011 and finished in 2012. The work included the retiling of all the walls and floors, the replacement of escalators, a new ticket office, better way finding and also a piece of public art. Further plans were announced to modernise Ibrox and Kelvinhall stations before

4356-674: The Taiwan Ministry of Transportation and Communications states that each MCS system can board around 6,000 to 20,000 passengers per hour per direction (p/h/d or PPHPD), while the Taiwan Department of Rapid Transit Systems (TCG) suggests an MCS has a capability of boarding around 20,000 to 30,000 p/h/d, and a report from the World Bank places the capacity of an MCS at 15,000 to 30,000 p/h/d. For comparison, ridership capacity of more than 30,000 p/h/d has been quoted as

4477-510: The U Line in Uijeongbu utilises VAL system, a variant of medium-capacity rail transport, and is therefore categorised "light metro" by LRTA and others, though the operator itself and South Korean sources refer to the U Line as "light rail". Busan–Gimhae Light Rail Transit is also akin to a light metro in its appearance and features, thought the operator refers it as a "light rail". Likewise, Malaysian officials and media commonly refer to

4598-579: The VAL system used on the Taipei Metro , is sometimes recommended, due to its low running noise , as well as the ability to climb steeper grades and turn tighter curves, thus allowing more flexible alignments. Fully heavy rail or metro systems generally have train headways of 10 minutes or better during peak hours. Some systems that qualify as heavy rail/metro in every other way (e.g. are fully grade separated ), but which have network inadequacies (e.g.

4719-586: The lever and pulley , to create mechanical advantage to do its work. Cranes are commonly employed in transportation for the loading and unloading of freight, in construction for the movement of materials, and in manufacturing for the assembling of heavy equipment . The first known crane machine was the shaduf , a water-lifting device that was invented in ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and then appeared in ancient Egyptian technology . Construction cranes later appeared in ancient Greece , where they were powered by men or animals (such as donkeys), and used for

4840-484: The polyspastos indicate that the overall lifting capability of the Romans went far beyond that of any single crane. At the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek , for instance, the architrave blocks weigh up to 60 tons each, and one corner cornice block even over 100 tons, all of them raised to a height of about 19 m (62.3 ft). In Rome , the capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons, which had to be lifted to

4961-406: The slum clearances of the 1960s, often only the station access was left standing. Stations were marked with circular signs often attached to lampposts. This sign had a white background in the top three-quarters (containing a large red letter "U") and black in the bottom quarter (containing the word "Underground" and an arrow to the station entrance). No station had an escalator ; Kelvinbridge had

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5082-455: The 15th century also by windlasses shaped like a ship's wheel . To smooth out irregularities of impulse and get over 'dead-spots' in the lifting process flywheels are known to be in use as early as 1123. The exact process by which the treadwheel crane was reintroduced is not recorded, although its return to construction sites has undoubtedly to be viewed in close connection with the simultaneous rise of Gothic architecture. The reappearance of

5203-427: The 1950s the trains became all red—in a shade similar to that of London buses . During the early 1970s, trailer carriage number 41 was repainted in the original 1896 livery. According to Keith Anderson World War II brought an "unprecedented" level of use by passengers. Anderson attributes this, and an increase in patronage in the years leading up to the conflict, to the expansion of the local shipyard workforce due to

5324-419: The 1990s, ongoing renovation work has resulted in most stations adopting individual colour schemes. The trains' initial orange livery of 1980 (with a white stripe) was soon replaced by a darker, more durable shade of orange, later being replaced by SPT's carmine-red and cream livery. The system was resignalled using Vital Processor Interlocking in 1996 and subsequently an upgraded Supervisory & Control System

5445-522: The 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow. Furthermore, all other stations were planned to receive updated branding prior to modernisation work being carried out on them, so as to achieve unity in design. In March 2016, Strathclyde Partnership for Transport (SPT) awarded contracts to Stadler and Ansaldo STS for the supply of 17 new driverless trains for the Subway. The first was delivered in May 2019. Testing on

5566-460: The 361 t heavy Vatican obelisk in Rome. From his report, it becomes obvious that the coordination of the lift between the various pulling teams required a considerable amount of concentration and discipline, since, if the force was not applied evenly, the excessive stress on the ropes would make them rupture. Cranes were also used domestically during this period. The chimney or fireplace crane

5687-512: The Corporation until 1977, the staff were issued with tramway uniforms; these were dark green and had a black braid on the cuffs which had been introduced at the time of the funeral of Queen Victoria in 1901. The Glasgow Museum of Transport had an area dedicated to the subway, with models showing the operation of the clutch-and-cable system, as well as a full-scale replica of part of a subway station, complete with different rolling stock of

5808-426: The DLF. More sophisticated methods, such as finite element analysis or other simulation techniques, may also be used to model the crane's behavior under various loading conditions, as deemed appropriate by the designer or certifying authority.To verify the actual DLF, control load tests can be conducted on the completed crane using instrumentation such as load cells , accelerometers , and strain gauges . This process

5929-888: The Middle Ages. Unlike construction cranes where the work speed was determined by the relatively slow progress of the masons, harbor cranes usually featured double treadwheels to speed up loading. The two treadwheels whose diameter is estimated to be 4 m or larger were attached to each side of the axle and rotated together. Their capacity was 2–3 tons, which apparently corresponded to the customary size of marine cargo. Today, according to one survey, fifteen treadwheel harbor cranes from pre-industrial times are still extant throughout Europe. Some harbour cranes were specialised at mounting masts to newly built sailing ships, such as in Gdańsk , Cologne and Bremen . Beside these stationary cranes, floating cranes , which could be flexibly deployed in

6050-411: The Middle Ages. The typical harbor crane was a pivoting structure equipped with double treadwheels. These cranes were placed docksides for the loading and unloading of cargo where they replaced or complemented older lifting methods like see-saws , winches and yards . Two different types of harbor cranes can be identified with a varying geographical distribution: While gantry cranes, which pivoted on

6171-421: The Subway started on 5 December 2021. The first new trains were previously expected to operate in 2022. The first passenger service with the new trains operated on 11 December 2023, with the third generation trains fully replacing the second generation after their withdrawal on 28 June 2024. The Glasgow Subway system is the only metro system never to have been expanded from its original route in 125 years, although

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6292-606: The above definition of a crane, but are generally known as cranes, such as stacker cranes and loader cranes. Cranes were so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the bird , cf. Ancient Greek : γερανός , French grue . The first type of crane machine was the shadouf , which had a lever mechanism and was used to lift water for irrigation . It was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) circa 3000 BC. The shadouf subsequently appeared in ancient Egyptian technology circa 2000 BC. A crane for lifting heavy loads

6413-478: The autocratic societies of Egypt or Assyria . The first unequivocal literary evidence for the existence of the compound pulley system appears in the Mechanical Problems ( Mech . 18, 853a32–853b13) attributed to Aristotle (384–322 BC), but perhaps composed at a slightly later date. Around the same time, block sizes at Greek temples began to match their archaic predecessors again, indicating that

6534-405: The column in the middle of the structure ( Mechanica 3.5). Second, a multitude of capstans were placed on the ground around the tower, for, although having a lower leverage ratio than treadwheels, capstans could be set up in higher numbers and run by more men (and, moreover, by draught animals). This use of multiple capstans is also described by Ammianus Marcellinus (17.4.15) in connection with

6655-603: The coming of the Industrial Revolution . For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals, although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural power. The first mechanical power was provided by steam engines , the earliest steam crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, with many remaining in use well into the late 20th century. Modern cranes usually use internal combustion engines or electric motors and hydraulic systems to provide

6776-518: The construction of buildings. Larger cranes were later developed in the Roman Empire , employing the use of human treadwheels , permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages , harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction—some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron , iron and steel took over with

6897-451: The construction of the ancient Egyptian pyramids , where about 50 men were needed to move a 2.5 ton stone block up the ramp (50 kg (110 lb) per person), the lifting capability of the Roman polyspastos proved to be 60 times higher (3,000 kg or 6,600 lb per person). However, numerous extant Roman buildings which feature much heavier stone blocks than those handled by

7018-467: The crane must not fail structurally. For stability, the sum of all moments about the base of the crane must be close to zero so that the crane does not overturn. In practice, the magnitude of load that is permitted to be lifted (called the "rated load" in the US) is some value less than the load that will cause the crane to tip, thus providing a safety margin. Under United States standards for mobile cranes,

7139-409: The cylinder and a valve regulated the amount of fluid intake relative to the load on the crane. This mechanism, the hydraulic jigger , then pulled on a chain to lift the load. In 1845 a scheme was set in motion to provide piped water from distant reservoirs to the households of Newcastle . Armstrong was involved in this scheme and he proposed to Newcastle Corporation that the excess water pressure in

7260-566: The deep-level lines of the London Underground ( 11 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 4  in or 3.56 m at their smallest); consequently, the rolling stock for the Glasgow Subway is considerably smaller. The system is described as two lines, the Outer Circle and Inner Circle, which simply refers to the double track, having trains running clockwise and anticlockwise respectively around the same route in separate tunnels. Stations use

7381-474: The design dynamic factor, is a critical parameter in the crane design and operation. It accounts for the dynamic effects that can increase the load on a crane's structure and components during lifting operations. These effects include: The DLF for a new crane design can be determined with analytical calculations and mathematical models following the relevant design specifications . If available, data from previous tests of similar crane types can be used to estimate

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7502-454: The distance between stations is much longer than typically found on heavy rail networks. An MCS may also be suitable for branch line connections to another mode of a heavy-capacity transport system, such as an airport or a main route of a metro network. The definition of a medium-capacity system varies due to its non- standardisation . Inconsistencies in international definitions are even reflected within individual countries. For example,

7623-544: The double-track circular line was never expanded. The line was originally known as the Glasgow District Subway , and was thus the first mass transit system to be known as a "subway"; it was later renamed Glasgow Subway Railway. In 1936 it was renamed the Glasgow Underground . Despite this rebranding, many Glaswegians continued to refer to the network as "the Subway". In 2003, the name "Subway"

7744-417: The dynamic load on the crane due to vessel motion. Additionally, the stability of the vessel or platform must be considered. For stationary pedestal or kingpost mounted cranes, the moment produced by the boom, jib, and load is resisted by the pedestal base or kingpost. Stress within the base must be less than the yield stress of the material or the crane will fail. The dynamic lift factor (DLF), also known as

7865-469: The early 1860s. Armstrong spent the next few decades constantly improving his crane design; his most significant innovation was the hydraulic accumulator . Where water pressure was not available on site for the use of hydraulic cranes, Armstrong often built high water towers to provide a supply of water at pressure. However, when supplying cranes for use at New Holland on the Humber Estuary , he

7986-429: The electric lighting in the trains was supplied by two parallel wall-mounted rails (known as "T-irons") at window level on the non-platform side of the trains; trains were originally equipped with wheels to pick up the electricity but changed to skids at electrification. The trains remained cable-hauled until 1935, though the anachronistic way of supplying power for the lighting continued until 1977. The lighting circuit

8107-462: The engineers Vitruvius ( De Architectura 10.2, 1–10) and Heron of Alexandria ( Mechanica 3.2–5). There are also two surviving reliefs of Roman treadwheel cranes , with the Haterii tombstone from the late first century AD being particularly detailed. The simplest Roman crane, the trispastos , consisted of a single-beam jib, a winch , a rope , and a block containing three pulleys. Having thus

8228-610: The evening on the opening day, after 11 pm, one car laden with 60 passengers was run into by another under the River Clyde. Four people were injured, one being taken to the infirmary. This entailed the closure of the Subway until 19 January 1897. The 20 original wooden bodied carriages were built by the Oldbury Railway Carriage and Wagon Company, of Oldbury , Worcestershire. Many continued in service until 1977 in an upgraded form. A further 10 were delivered by

8349-549: The event of maintenance or repair work, the system can operate a full service (six trains per circle) with one of the sub-stations inoperative. The system is owned and operated by the Strathclyde Partnership for Transport (SPT), formerly Strathclyde Passenger Transport, and carried 12.7 million passengers in the period 2019–20. The Subway has been policed by British Transport Police since 2007. The Glasgow District Subway Company began construction of

8470-456: The exact circumstances of the shift from the ramp to the crane technology remain unclear, it has been argued that the volatile social and political conditions of Greece were more suitable to the employment of small, professional construction teams than of large bodies of unskilled labour, making the crane preferable to the Greek polis over the more labour-intensive ramp which had been the norm in

8591-510: The existing trains were converted to electric power delivered by a third rail at 600 volts , direct current. From March until December 1935, clockwise trains were cable-hauled, while anti-clockwise ones were electric. The conversion to electric traction cost £120,000 (equivalent to £10,521,927 in 2023). The last cable drawn car service was on 30 November 1935, and was driven by Robert Boyd. The trains lost their original plum and cream-coloured liveries, being painted red and white instead. From

8712-501: The extended Subway. The plans were expected to take twelve years, but never came to fruition. Crossrail Glasgow proposals by Glasgow City Council featured a feasibility study conducted by SPT , which included a proposed new West Street railway station which would interface with the West Street station on the Subway network. The Glasgow Connectivity Commission, established by Glasgow City Council in 2017, has also suggested

8833-405: The following 20 years. This rolling stock was converted from cable to electric traction in 1935 and finally withdrawn from service in 1977 upon the closure of the railway for modernisation. The first 33 cars of the second generation fleet were built by Metro-Cammell , Washwood Heath between 1977 and 1979. Eight additional trailer cars were built in 1992. The rolling stock entered service when

8954-733: The future. Taipei Metro , for example, constructed extra space for two extra cars in all its Wenhu Line stations. The following is the list of currently-operating MCSs which are categorised as light metros by the Light Rail Transit Association (LRTA) as of March 2018 , unless otherwise indicated. The list does not include, for example, monorails and urban maglev , despite most of them also being "medium-capacity rail system". Bombardier Innovia Metro 300 Trains: 4-car configuration AMPANG AND SRI PETALING LINES: CRRC Zhuzhou LRV Trains: 6-car configuration SHAH ALAM LINE: 3-car CRRC Light Rail vehicles The following

9075-456: The initial stages of construction on the ground, often within the building. When a new floor was completed, and massive tie beams of the roof connected the walls, the crane was dismantled and reassembled on the roof beams from where it was moved from bay to bay during construction of the vaults. Thus, the crane "grew" and "wandered" with the building with the result that today all extant construction cranes in England are found in church towers above

9196-580: The lifting of the Lateranense obelisk in the Circus Maximus (c. 357 AD). The maximum lifting capability of a single capstan can be established by the number of lewis iron holes bored into the monolith. In case of the Baalbek architrave blocks, which weigh between 55 and 60 tons, eight extant holes suggest an allowance of 7.5 ton per lewis iron, that is per capstan. Lifting such heavy weights in

9317-658: The line was extended into the Tuen Ma line in June 2021. Two other lines, the Disneyland Resort line shuttle service to Hong Kong Disneyland Resort since 2005 and the South Island line since December 2016, are also classified as MCS because of their shorter trains and smaller capacity, however they use the same technology as the full-capacity rapid transit lines. Generally speaking, medium capacity designation

9438-583: The lower masts of the vessel under construction or repair. These lower masts were the largest and most massive single timbers aboard a ship, and erecting them without the assistance of either a sheer hulk or land-based masting sheer was extremely difficult. The concept of sheer hulks originated with the Royal Navy in the 1690s, and persisted in Britain until the early nineteenth century. Most sheer hulks were decommissioned warships; Chatham , built in 1694,

9559-548: The lower part of town could be used to power one of his hydraulic cranes for the loading of coal onto barges at the Quayside . He claimed that his invention would do the job faster and more cheaply than conventional cranes. The corporation agreed to his suggestion, and the experiment proved so successful that three more hydraulic cranes were installed on the Quayside. The success of his hydraulic crane led Armstrong to establish

9680-491: The maximum load. The polyspastos , when worked by four men at both sides of the winch, could readily lift 3,000 kg (6,600 lb) (3 ropes x 5 pulleys x 4 men x 50 kg or 110 lb = 3,000 kg or 6,600 lb). If the winch was replaced by a treadwheel, the maximum load could be doubled to 6,000 kg (13,000 lb) at only half the crew, since the treadwheel possesses a much bigger mechanical advantage due to its larger diameter. This meant that, in comparison to

9801-424: The modernised system. A new corporate identity was introduced (following contemporary fashions of the 1970s), with trains painted bright orange, stations largely rebuilt with dark brown bricks, orange-yellow wall tiles and other surfaces in off-white, plus brown uniforms for the staff. Large, illuminated orange "U" signs were placed at station entrances (since removed, with the re-adoption of the name "Subway"). Since

9922-418: The more sophisticated compound pulley must have found its way to Greek construction sites by then. The heyday of the crane in ancient times came during the Roman Empire , when construction activity soared and buildings reached enormous dimensions. The Romans adopted the Greek crane and developed it further. There is much available information about their lifting techniques, thanks to rather lengthy accounts by

10043-408: The national railway network—a major weakness—although Buchanan Street and Merkland Street stations were a short walk from Queen Street and Partickhill British Rail stations respectively. Before the 1977–1980 modernisation, the stations had a distinctive earthy odour. The trains (mostly dating back to 1896) were always formed with two carriages—the front (motor) carriage with red leather seats and

10164-519: The need for rearmament. Unlike its larger counterpart in London the system's stations did not make good air-raid shelters as they were much less deep. On 18 September 1940, during World War II, a German bomb, which dropped during a night raid on Glasgow and may have been intended for nearby naval facilities, landed on a bowling green to the south of Merkland Street station . The resulting explosion caused damage to both tunnels, leading to closure of part of

10285-442: The observation of the labor-saving qualities of the waterwheel with which early treadwheels shared many structural similarities. The medieval treadwheel was a large wooden wheel turning around a central shaft with a treadway wide enough for two workers walking side by side. While the earlier 'compass-arm' wheel had spokes directly driven into the central shaft, the more advanced "clasp-arm" type featured arms arranged as chords to

10406-566: The outer circle. The modernised Subway (alongside the rebuilt Argyle Line ) was inaugurated by Queen Elizabeth II on 1 November 1979, who rode the train along with Prince Philip from Buchanan Street to St Enoch. Rebuilding work was however still incomplete, and the actual reopening to passengers did not occur until 16 April 1980. Thirty-three new carriages were built by Metro-Cammell at its Washwood Heath works in Birmingham , and equipped with GEC electric motors. The exterior design of

10527-414: The plans that the consultants had recommended. These included major refurbishment of the existing rolling stock and stations, at an overall cost of £270 million. The expansion of the existing network was also considered at a cost of £2.3 billion, including a new East End Circle, with seven new stations at St Mungo's , Onslow, Duke Street , Celtic Park , Dalmarnock , Newhall and Gorbals . The aim

10648-430: The platforms), leaving by the front door of the front carriage or the rear door of the rear carriage. By the 1970s, the stations were very dilapidated. Surface access to most stations had been largely built into existing buildings and their entrances often formed part of shop frontages ( Kelvinhall being the only surviving example of this in the post-modernised era), and with many of these structures being destroyed during

10769-431: The pre-modernisation era. By the 1970s, use of the Subway had declined significantly. This was caused partly by the closure of some of the dockyards and by widescale demolition of tenements south of the River Clyde . The original carriages, mostly dating back to 1896, were still in use, though adapted for electric traction in 1935. Breakdowns were becoming increasingly frequent; because trains could only be removed from

10890-437: The predicted ridership falls between the service requirements of a light rail and heavy rail or metro system, an MCS project is indicated. An MCS may also result when a rapid transit service fails to achieve the requisite ridership due to network inadequacies (e.g. single-tracking ) or changing demographics. In contrast with light rail systems, an MCS runs on a fully grade separated exclusive right-of-way . In some cases,

11011-439: The rear (trailer) carriage with brown leather seats. Smoking was permitted in the rear carriage only. The backs of the seats were attached to the sides of the carriages, which moved semi-independently from the floor (to which the seats themselves were attached); passengers were rocked forward and backward while the carriage ' shoogled ' them around. Passengers always entered at the middle of the train ("Q Here" signs were painted on

11132-501: The same manufacturer in 1897. From 1898, second four axle (trailer) carriages without a cable gripper mechanism were added, though they were considerably shorter than the front (gripper) carriage. These additional carriages, eventually numbering 30, were built by Hurst Nelson & Company , Motherwell , Lanarkshire. These carriages were soon expanded to match the length of the front carriages, although carriage 41T has been restored to its original length and cut longitudinally and number 39T

11253-554: The stability-limited rated load for a crawler crane is 75% of the tipping load. The stability-limited rated load for a mobile crane supported on outriggers is 85% of the tipping load. These requirements, along with additional safety-related aspects of crane design, are established by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in the volume ASME B30.5-2018 Mobile and Locomotive Cranes . Standards for cranes mounted on ships or offshore platforms are somewhat stricter because of

11374-465: The standard for metro or "heavy rail" standards rapid transit systems, while light rail systems have passenger capacity volumes of around 10,000 to 12,000 p/h/d or 12,000 to 18,000 p/h/d. VAL (Véhicule Automatique Léger) systems are categorised in the medium-capacity rail systems because their manufacturer defines their passenger capacities as being up to 30,000 p/h/d. In Hong Kong , MTR 's Ma On Shan line could, in some contexts, are classified as

11495-485: The station, which hosts a railway station, a subway station and a bus terminal on the outside. In April 2010, Strathclyde Partnership for Transport approved outline plans for a £290 million upgrade of the Subway—the first since the comprehensive modernisation of the late 1970s. Plans included additional safety measures, improved accessibility and smart technology such as electronic tickets. The proposals were approved by

11616-408: The subway re-opened after modernisation work on 16 April 1980. The original 33 were refurbished by ABB at Derby Litchurch Lane Works in 1995. The second generation fleet was entirely retired from service on 28 June 2024. Light metro Since ridership determines the scale of a rapid transit system, statistical modeling allows planners to size the rail system for the needs of the area. When

11737-621: The system until repairs were completed in January 1941. The system suffered no other damage during the conflict. It did lose staff who were called up to participate in the war effort. After the Beeching Axe of the 1960s, both St Enoch and Buchanan Street mainline stations were closed and demolished; there was no direct connection between the underground and mainline stations of Buchanan Street as they were over 500 m (550 yd) distant. The Subway had no direct passenger connection to

11858-400: The system, with one of the two circles continuing to run while the other was upgraded. This idea was abandoned as expert advice suggested a safety risk. On 24 March 1977, cracks were noticed in the roof of Govan Cross station , leading to suspension of services until 2 May. The service resumed with only four trains per circle. On 21 May 1977, the system was shut down eight days prematurely for

11979-528: The tracks to the depot by crane, a single inoperable train could cause major delays. The future of the Subway became a major issue for the Greater Glasgow Passenger Transport Executive (GGPTE), which took over responsibility for the line from Glasgow Corporation in the early 1970s. In January 1974 GGPTE announced a modernisation programme would be undertaken. The original plan would have seen trains continue to run on

12100-422: The tracks. Modernisation brought the installation of points and an access ramp between Govan and Ibrox where trains can exit the tunnel system for maintenance, cleaning or storage. Power is supplied to the trains at 600 V DC , using a third rail , via sub-stations at five locations on the circle: Broomloan Depot, Byres Road (Hillhead), Dundasvale (Cowcaddens), Bridge Street and Cornwall Street (Kinning Park). In

12221-543: The trains was carried out in partnership with Glasgow School of Art , which, according to SPT publicity films of the day, was largely responsible for the trains' "cute" appearance. Eight additional centre-trailer carriages were built in 1992 (the body shells by Hunslet Gyro Mining Transport in Leeds for completion by Hunslet-Barclay in Kilmarnock ), making all trains three carriages long. Smoking has never been permitted on

12342-404: The treadwheel crane may have resulted from a technological development of the windlass from which the treadwheel structurally and mechanically evolved. Alternatively, the medieval treadwheel may represent a deliberate reinvention of its Roman counterpart drawn from Vitruvius ' De architectura which was available in many monastic libraries. Its reintroduction may have been inspired, as well, by

12463-568: The treadwheel crane played a pivotal role in the construction of the lofty Gothic cathedrals . Nevertheless, both archival and pictorial sources of the time suggest that newly introduced machines like treadwheels or wheelbarrows did not completely replace more labor-intensive methods like ladders , hods and handbarrows . Rather, old and new machinery continued to coexist on medieval construction sites and harbors. Apart from treadwheels, medieval depictions also show cranes to be powered manually by windlasses with radiating spokes , cranks and by

12584-436: The type of crane and its usage. Here are some example typical values: The methods for determining the DLF vary in the different crane specifications. The following formulas are examples from one specification. The working load (suspended load) is the total weight that a crane is designed to safely lift under normal operating conditions. It is W = g ⋅ ( m w l l + m

12705-402: The underground in 1891 and it opened on 14 December 1896. The subway was powered by a clutch-and-cable system, with one cable for each direction. The cable was driven from a steam-powered plant between West Street and Shields Road stations. There was no additional cable to allow trains to reach the depot; instead, they were transferred to and from the running lines by crane operating over

12826-508: The unique 4 ft ( 1,219 mm ) gauge, the original Broomloan Depot was modernised and equipped with connecting tracks with points to replace the crane transfer, and a new electrical supply from Westinghouse Electric Corporation was installed. A new ticketing system, provided by Crouzet, with passenger-operated ticket vending machines and automatic turnstile barriers, replaced the old, perforated cinema-style tickets and conductors . The post-1980 yellow tickets have since been replaced by

12947-475: The use of several smaller stones more practical than fewer larger ones. In contrast to the archaic period with its pattern of ever-increasing block sizes, Greek temples of the classical age like the Parthenon invariably featured stone blocks weighing less than 15–20 metric tons. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was practically abandoned in favour of using several column drums. Although

13068-467: The vaulting and below the roof, where they remained after building construction for bringing material for repairs aloft. Less frequently, medieval illuminations also show cranes mounted on the outside of walls with the stand of the machine secured to putlogs . In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists — much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome  — were primarily capable of

13189-538: The wall. Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load. Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340. While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German Teufelskralle ), other objects were placed before in containers like pallets , baskets , wooden boxes or barrels . It

13310-477: The wheel rim, giving the possibility of using a thinner shaft and providing thus a greater mechanical advantage. Contrary to a popularly held belief, cranes on medieval building sites were neither placed on the extremely lightweight scaffolding used at the time nor on the thin walls of the Gothic churches which were incapable of supporting the weight of both hoisting machine and load. Rather, cranes were placed in

13431-451: The whole port basin came into use by the 14th century. A sheer hulk (or shear hulk) was used in shipbuilding and repair as a floating crane in the days of sailing ships , primarily to place the lower masts of a ship under construction or repair. Booms known as sheers were attached to the base of a hulk's lower masts or beam, supported from the top of those masts. Blocks and tackle were then used in such tasks as placing or removing

13552-417: Was also part of the operation of the signalling system. Opening times of the Glasgow Subway have varied through the years, now open 06:30 to 23:40 Monday to Saturday and 10:00 to 18:12 on Sunday following a trial period between April 2011 and 2012 when the subway was open from 09:00–18:30. Glasgow Corporation took over the company in 1923 at a cost of £385,000 (equivalent to £27,736,099 in 2023). In 1935,

13673-635: Was closed (thus becoming a ghost station ); a new station to the north was built at Partick to provide an interchange with the North Clyde Line of the suburban rail system. The site of Merkland Street can be noticed by the characteristic hump and the larger-diameter tunnel with both tracks. Many fittings from Merkland Street were used to build a replica pre-modernisation station at the Glasgow Museum of Transport which contained three preserved cars. A further interchange via moving walkway

13794-467: Was developed by the Ancient Greeks in the late 6th century BC. The archaeological record shows that no later than c. 515 BC distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to appear on stone blocks of Greek temples. Since these holes point at the use of a lifting device, and since they are to be found either above the center of gravity of the block, or in pairs equidistant from

13915-424: Was installed between Buchanan Street station and Queen Street mainline station as part of the modernisation. In August 1977, all redundant fittings and equipment from the old system were sold at a public sale at Broomloan Works. During the 1977–1980 modernisation, two Clayton battery locomotives were used by the contractors Taylor Woodrow to haul construction trains. Heavier track was installed although still at

14036-458: Was installed. A £40,000 study examining the feasibility of an expansion into the city's south side was conducted in 2005, and in 2007 Labour further committed to extend the line to the East End, but to no avail. New electronic destination signs were installed in the stations in 2008. The Partick station modernisation project was completed in 2009, and resulted in a complete redevelopment at

14157-627: Was officially readopted by its operator, the Strathclyde Partnership for Transport (SPT). The system is not the oldest underground railway in Glasgow: that distinction belongs to a three-mile (five-kilometre) section of the Glasgow City and District Railway opened in 1886, now part of the North Clyde Line of the suburban railway network, which runs in a tunnel under the city centre between High Street and west of Charing Cross . Another major section of underground suburban railway line in Glasgow

14278-461: Was the first of only three purpose-built vessels. There were at least six sheer hulks in service in Britain at any time throughout the 1700s. The concept spread to France in the 1740s with the commissioning of a sheer hulk at the port of Rochefort. A lifting tower similar to that of the ancient Romans was used to great effect by the Renaissance architect Domenico Fontana in 1586 to relocate

14399-506: Was to improve transport links in an area of the city which is currently poorly served by rail, in the hope that this would aid regeneration, and the city's 2014 Commonwealth Games bid. This circle would interchange at Cowcaddens , Buchanan Street and St Enoch . Other proposals include extending the system southwards to Cathcart and further westwards to the SEC Centre and Maryhill using an older railway line. In 2007, SPT produced

14520-441: Was unable to do this, because the foundations consisted of sand. He eventually produced the hydraulic accumulator, a cast-iron cylinder fitted with a plunger supporting a very heavy weight. The plunger would slowly be raised, drawing in water, until the downward force of the weight was sufficient to force the water below it into pipes at great pressure. This invention allowed much larger quantities of water to be forced through pipes at

14641-413: Was used to swing pots and kettles over the fire and the height was adjusted by a trammel . With the onset of the Industrial Revolution the first modern cranes were installed at harbours for loading cargo. In 1838, the industrialist and businessman William Armstrong designed a water-powered hydraulic crane . His design used a ram in a closed cylinder that was forced down by a pressurized fluid entering

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