88-632: This list of glassware includes drinking vessels (drinkware), tableware used to set a table for eating a meal and generally glass items such as vases, and glasses used in the catering industry. It does not include laboratory glassware . Drinkware , beverageware (in other words, cups , jugs and pitchers ) is a general term for a vessel intended to contain beverages or liquid foods for drinking or consumption. The word cup comes from Middle English cuppe , from Old English , from Late Latin cuppa , drinking vessel, perhaps variant of Latin cupa , tub, cask. The first known use of
176-609: A charger . The rest of the place setting depends upon the first course, which may be soup, salad or fish. In either arrangement, the napkin may either rest folded underneath the forks , or it may be folded and placed on the dinner plate. When more courses are being served, place settings may become more elaborate and cutlery more specialised. Examples include fruit spoon or fruit knife, cheese knife, and pastry fork . Other types of cutlery, such as boning forks, were used when formal meals included dishes that have since become less common. Carving knives and forks are used to carve roasts at
264-416: A superplasticizer for making high-resistance concrete . Sulfonated melamine formaldehyde (SMF) is a polymer used as a cement admixture to reduce the water content in concrete while increasing the fluidity and the workability of the mix during handling and pouring. It results in concrete with a lower porosity and a higher mechanical strength, exhibiting an improved resistance to aggressive environments and
352-411: A fertilizer. Melamine and its salts are used as fire-retardant additives in paints, plastics, and paper. A melamine fiber, Basofil , has low thermal conductivity, excellent flame resistance and is self-extinguishing; this makes it useful for flame-resistant protective clothing, either alone or as a blend with other fibres. Melamine is sometimes illegally added to food products in order to increase
440-575: A limit of 0.35 mg/kg, and the US FDA's limit was put at 0.063 mg/kg (previously 0.63 mg/kg). The World Health Organization 's food safety director estimated that the amount of melamine a person could stand per day without incurring a bigger health risk, the TDI, was 0.2 mg per kilogram of body mass. Toxicity of melamine can be mediated by intestinal microbiota . In culture, Raoultella terrigena , which rarely colonizes mammalian intestines,
528-399: A longer lifetime. Melamine was once envisioned as fertilizer for crops during the 1950s and 1960s because of its high nitrogen content (2/3). However, melamine is much more expensive to produce than other common nitrogen fertilizers, such as urea . The mineralization (degradation to ammonia) for melamine is slow, making this product both economically and scientifically impractical for use as
616-566: A manager at Henan Xinxiang Huaxing Chemical in Henan Province , stated, "Our chemical products are mostly used for additives, not for animal feed. Melamine is mainly used in the chemical industry, but it can also be used in making cakes." Shandong Mingshui Great Chemical Group, the company reported by the New York Times as producing melamine from coal , produces and sells both urea and melamine but does not list melamine resin as
704-540: A permanent replacement for sugar sculptures on the dining table. In wealthy countries, table decorations for the aristocracy were often made of precious metals such as silver-gilt . The model ship or nef was popular throughout the Renaissance. One of the most famous table decorations is the Cellini Salt Cellar . Ephemeral and silver table decorations were sometimes replaced with porcelain after it
792-722: A product. Another recall incident in 2007 involved melamine which had been purposely added as a binder to fish and livestock feed manufactured in the United States. This was traced to suppliers in Ohio and Colorado. In September 2008, several companies, including Nestlé , were implicated in a scandal involving milk and infant formula which had been adulterated with melamine, leading to kidney stones and other kidney failure , especially among young children. By December 2008, nearly 300,000 people had become ill, with more than 50,000 infant hospitalizations and six infant deaths. In
880-449: A rapid aggregation of metabolites such as cyanuric acid diamide ( ammeline ) and cyanuric acid. A 2013 study demonstrated that melamine can be metabolized to cyanuric acid by gut bacteria. In particular, Klebsiella terrigena was determined to be a factor in melamine toxicity. In culture, K. terrigena was shown to convert melamine to cyanuric acid directly. Cyanuric acid was detected in the kidneys of rats administered melamine alone, and
968-826: A rarity. The table fork was revived in Italy in the 16th century, and was described for his English readers by Thomas Coryat in the 1590s as "not used in any other country that I saw in my travels". In England and France, it only became common after the 1660s, even in the court of Louis XIV, and for a while seems to have mostly been used by ladies, and for especially messy food, like fruits in syrup . Chopsticks ( Chinese : 筷子 or 箸 ; Pinyin : kuaizi or zhu ) are shaped pairs of equal-length sticks that have been used as both kitchen and eating utensils in much of East and Southeast Asia for over three millennia. Traditionally wood, especially bamboo, although other materials such as plastic or metal are also used. Usually, they have
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#17328010695471056-428: A rural Chinese area recovered, 12 per cent still showed kidney abnormalities six months later. "The potential for long-term complications after exposure to melamine remains a serious concern," the report said. "Our results suggest a need for further follow-up of affected children to evaluate the possible long-term impact on health, including renal function." Another 2010 follow-up study from Lanzhou University attributed
1144-525: A square profile at the slightly thicker end held in the hand, but are round at the other end, that touches the food. Chopsticks have been used since at least the Shang dynasty (1766–1122 BCE). However, the Han dynasty historian Sima Qian wrote that it is likely that chopsticks were also used in the preceding Xia dynasty and even the earlier Erlitou culture , although finding archeological evidence from this era
1232-491: A study published in the New England Journal of Medicine , it was reported that melamine exposure increased the incidence of urinary tract stones by seven times in children. Melamine may have been added to fool government protein content tests after water was added to fraudulently dilute the milk. Because of melamine's high nitrogen content (66% by mass versus approximately 10–12% for typical protein), it can cause
1320-488: A table for a typical meal, along with a soy sauce cruet , a small pitcher for tempura or other sauce, and a tea setting of tea pot, tea cups and tea cup saucers. Tableware for special circumstances has to be adapted. Dining in the outdoors, for example, whether for recreational purposes, as on a picnic or as part of a journey, project or mission requires specialised tableware. It must be portable, more robust and if possible, lighter in weight than tableware used indoors. It
1408-541: A variety of plates , bowls ; or cups for individual diners and a range of serving dishes to transport the food from the kitchen or to separate smaller dishes. Plates include charger plates as well as specific dinner plates, lunch plates, dessert plates, salad plates or side plates. Bowls include those used for soup, cereal, pasta, fruit or dessert. A range of saucers accompany plates and bowls, those designed to go with teacups, coffee cups, demitasses and cream soup bowls. There are also individual covered casserole dishes. In
1496-641: Is charger (12 inches); dinner plate (10.5 inches); dessert plate (8.5 inches) salad plate (7.5 inches); side plate , tea plate (6.75 inches). Glasses and mugs of various types are an important part of tableware, as beverages are important parts of a meal. Vessels to hold alcoholic beverages such as wine , whether red , white , sparkling tend to be quite specialised in form, with for example Port wine glasses, beer glasses , brandy balloons , aperitif and liqueur glasses all having different shapes. Water glasses , juice glasses and hot chocolate mugs are also differentiated. Their appearance as part of
1584-527: Is a light meal, it will typically include the base and one main dish. The base is often served directly to the guest in a bowl, whereas main dishes are chosen by the guest from shared serving dishes on the table. An "elaborate" formal meal would include the following place setting: Japanese ceramic tableware industry is many centuries old. Unlike in Western cultures, where tableware is often produced and bought in matching sets, traditional Japanese tableware
1672-440: Is a traditional handle-less pottery cup from South Asia that is typically undecorated and unglazed, and is meant to be disposable. The earliest pottery in cultures around the world does not seem to have included flatware, concentrating on pots and jars for storage and cooking. Wood does not survive well in most places, and though archaeology has found few wooden plates and dishes from prehistory , they may have been common, once
1760-440: Is another term used to refer to tableware, and crockery refers to ceramic tableware, today often porcelain or bone china . Sets of dishes are referred to as a table service , dinner service or service set . Table settings or place settings are the dishes, cutlery and glassware used for formal and informal dining. In Ireland, tableware is often referred to as delph , the word being an English language phonetic spelling of
1848-852: Is commonly made of ceramic materials such as earthenware , stoneware , bone china or porcelain . The popularity of ceramics is at least partially due to the use of glazes as these ensure the ware is impermeable, reduce the adherence of pollutants and ease washing. In 2020, the global market for ceramic tableware was estimated to be worth $ US2.22 billion, with the top five exporting countries being China ($ US834 million), Portugal ($ US215 million), Germany ($ US113 million), Thailand ($ US110 million) and United Kingdom ($ US106 million). Banana leaves are used in some South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures. Tableware can also made of other materials, such as wood (including lacquer ), metals (such as pewter ), tempered glass , acrylic and melamine . Before mass-produced tableware, it
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#17328010695471936-555: Is incredibly difficult. Though originating in China, chopsticks later spread to Japan, Korea, Tibet, Vietnam and other parts of Asia. Chopsticks have become more accepted in connection with Asian food in the West, especially in cities with significant Asian diaspora communities. Tableware is generally the functional part of the settings on dining tables but great attention has been paid to the purely decorative aspects, especially when dining
2024-566: Is introduced onto a fluidized bed with catalyst for reaction. Hot ammonia gas is also present to fluidize the bed and inhibit deammonization. The effluent then is cooled. Ammonia and carbon dioxide in the off-gas are separated from the melamine-containing slurry. The slurry is further concentrated and crystallized to yield melamine. Major manufacturers and licensors such as Orascom Construction Industries , BASF , and Eurotecnica have developed some proprietary methods. The off-gas contains large amounts of ammonia. Therefore, melamine production
2112-446: Is more usually known as silverware or flatware in the United States, where cutlery usually means knives and related cutting instruments; elsewhere cutlery includes all the forks , spoons and other silverware items. Outside the US, flatware is a term for "open-shaped" dishware items such as plates , dishes and bowls (as opposed to "closed" shapes like jugs and vases). Dinnerware
2200-493: Is not microwave -safe, to identify melamine it is "slightly heavier and noticeably thicker than its plastic counterparts." Melamine foam is used as insulation, soundproofing material and in polymeric cleaning products, such as Magic Eraser . Melamine is one of the major components in Pigment Yellow 150 , a colorant in inks and plastics. Melamine also is used in the fabrication of melamine polysulfonate, used as
2288-465: Is often called teaware . It developed in the late 17th century, and for some time the serving pots, milk jugs and sugar bowls were often in silver, while the cups and saucers were ceramic, often in Chinese export porcelain or its Japanese equivalent . By the mid 18th century matching sets of European "china" were usual for all the vessels, although these often did not include plates for cake etc. until
2376-419: Is often integrated into urea production, which uses ammonia as feedstock. Crystallization and washing of melamine generates a considerable amount of waste water, which may be concentrated into a solid (1.5–5% of the weight) for easier disposal. The solid may contain approximately 70% melamine, 23% oxytriazines ( ammeline , ammelide , and cyanuric acid ), 0.7% polycondensates ( melem , melam , and melon ). In
2464-411: Is on a par with common table salt, with an LD 50 of more than 3 grams per kilogram of bodyweight. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) scientists explained that when melamine and cyanuric acid are absorbed into the bloodstream, they concentrate and interact in the urine-filled renal tubules , then crystallize and form large numbers of round, yellow crystals, which in turn block and damage
2552-409: Is on displaying each individual food in a pleasing way, usually in separate bowls or dishes. Formal table settings are based upon the arrangements used in a family setting, although they can become extremely elaborate with many dishes. Serving bowls and dishes are brought to the table, where guests can choose their own portions. Formal Chinese restaurants often use a large turning wheel in the centre of
2640-411: Is part of the core structure for a number of drugs including almitrine , altretamine , cyromazine , ethylhexyl triazone , iscotrizinol , meladrazine , melarsomine , melarsoprol , tretamine , trinitrotriazine , and others. Between the late 1990s and early 2000s, both consumption and production of melamine grew considerably in mainland China . By early 2006, melamine production in mainland China
2728-524: Is popular in some Asian countries. Chopsticks are made of wood, bamboo , metal, ivory and plastic. Disposable tableware includes all disposable tableware such as paper and plastic . Due to environment concerns, single-use plastic plates and cutlery will be banned in England from October 2023. A similar ban has been place in the EU since July 2021. Canada is also planning such legislation. A kulhar
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2816-807: Is regarded as part of entertainment such as in banquets given by important people or special events, such as State occasions. Table decoration may be ephemeral and consist of items made from confectionery or wax; substances commonly employed in Roman banqueting tables of the 17th century. During the reign of George III of the United Kingdom , ephemeral table decoration was done by men known as "table-deckers" who used sand and similar substances to create marmotinto works (sand painting) for single-use decoration. In modern times, ephemeral table decorations continue to be made from sugar or carved from ice . The porcelain figurine began in early 18th-century Germany as
2904-666: Is reported to be in "serious surplus". Between 2002 and 2007, while the global melamine price remained stable, a steep increase in the price of urea (feedstock for melamine) has reduced the profitability of melamine manufacturing. Currently, China is the world's largest exporter of melamine, while its domestic consumption still grows by 10% per year. However, reduced profit has already caused other joint melamine ventures to be postponed there. Surplus melamine has been an adulterant for feedstock and milk in mainland China for several years now because it can make diluted or poor quality material appear to be higher in protein content by elevating
2992-445: Is set on the table so that each dish complements the type of food served in it. Since Japanese meals normally include several small amounts of each food per person, this means that each person has a place setting with several different small dishes and bowls for holding individual food and condiments. The emphasis in a Japanese table setting is on enhancing the appearance of the food, which is partially achieved by showing contrasts between
3080-506: Is the much plainer English silver Lacock Cup , which has survived as it was bequeathed to a church early on, for use as a chalice. The same is true for French silver from the 150 years before the French Revolution , when French styles, either originals or local copies, were used by all the courts of Europe. London silversmiths came a long way behind, but were the other main exporters. French silver now survives almost entirely in
3168-590: Is used as insulation, soundproofing material and in polymeric cleaning products, such as Magic Eraser . Melamine-formaldehyde resin tableware was evaluated by the Taiwan Consumers' Foundation to have 20,000 parts per billion of free melamine that could migrate out of the plastic into acidic foods if held at 160 °F for two hours, such as if food was kept heated in contact with it in an oven. Melamine gained infamy because Chinese food producers added it to baby formula in order to increase
3256-826: Is usually carefully packed for transportation to the place where it will be used. Melamine Melamine / ˈ m ɛ l ə m iː n / is an organic compound with the formula C 3 H 6 N 6 . This white solid is a trimer of cyanamide , with a 1,3,5-triazine skeleton. Like cyanamide, it contains 66% nitrogen by mass, and its derivatives have fire-retardant properties due to its release of nitrogen gas when burned or charred. Melamine can be combined with formaldehyde and other agents to produce melamine resins . Such resins are characteristically durable thermosetting plastic used in high pressure decorative laminates such as Formica , melamine dinnerware including cooking utensils, plates, plastic products, laminate flooring, and dry erase boards . Melamine foam
3344-670: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued new methods for the analysis of melamine and cyanuric acid in infant formulations in the Laboratory Information Bulletin No 4421. Similar recommendations have been issued by other authorities, like the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, both based on liquid chromatography – mass spectrometry ( LC/MS ) detection after hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography ( HILIC ) separation. The existing methods for melamine determination using
3432-495: The false appearance of a higher level of protein was an "open secret" in many parts of mainland China, reporting that this melamine scrap was being produced by at least one plant processing coal into melamine. Four days later, the New York Times reported that, despite the widely reported ban on melamine use in vegetable proteins in mainland China, at least some chemical manufacturers continued to report selling it for use in animal feed and in products for human consumption. Li Xiuping,
3520-428: The uric acid stone accumulation after ingestion of melamine to a rapid aggradation of metabolites such as cyanuric acid diamide ( ammeline ) and cyanuric acid and reported that urine alkalinization and stone liberalization were the most effective treatments. Until the 2007 pet food recalls , melamine had not routinely been monitored in food, except in the context of plastic safety or insecticide residue. Following
3608-494: The 1980s suggested that melamine cyanurate , commonly used as a fire retardant, could be more toxic than either melamine or cyanuric acid alone. For rats and mice, the reported LD 50 for melamine cyanurate was 4.1 g/kg (given inside the stomach) and 3.5 g/kg (via inhalation), compared to 6.0 and 4.3 g/kg for melamine and 7.7 and 3.4 g/kg for cyanuric acid respectively. A toxicology study in animals conducted after recalls of contaminated pet food concluded that
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3696-429: The 19th century, crescent-shaped bone dishes could be used to hold side-salad or to discard bones. Warewashing is essential but can be costly regardless of whether done by hand or in a dishwasher . Dishes come in standard sizes, which are set according to the manufacturer. They are similar throughout the industry. Plates are standardised in descending order of diameter size according to function. One standard series
3784-558: The American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians suggested that crystals formed in the kidneys when melamine combined with cyanuric acid, "don't dissolve easily. They go away slowly, if at all, so there is the potential for chronic toxicity." Melamine is a metabolite of cyromazine , a pesticide . It has been reported that cyromazine can also be converted to melamine in plants. Fast diagnosis and treatment of acute obstructive urolithiasis may prevent
3872-569: The Eurotecnica process, however, there is no solid waste and the contaminants are decomposed to ammonia and carbon dioxide and sent as off gas to the upstream urea plant; accordingly, the waste water can be recycled to the melamine plant itself or used as clean cooling water make-up. Melamine reacts with acid and related compounds to form melamine cyanurate and related crystal structures, which have been implicated as contaminants or biomarkers in Chinese protein adulterations . Melamine
3960-522: The Romans, who made great use of spoons, joined by forks later, there were only knives and perhaps wooden spoons for most of the Middle Ages. It was only in the 17th century that hosts among the elite again began to lay out cutlery at the table, although at an Italian banquet in 1536 for Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , it is recorded that each guest was provided with knife, spoon and fork, evidently
4048-470: The analysis showed that the calculus was composed of melamine and uric acid , and the molecular ratio of uric acid to melamine was around 2:1. In a 2009 study of 683 children diagnosed in Beijing in 2008 with nephrolithiasis and 6,498 children without nephrolithiasis aged < 3 years, investigators found that in children exposed to melamine levels < 0.2 mg/kg per day, the risk for nephrolithiasis
4136-488: The apparent protein content. Ingestion of melamine may lead to reproductive damage , or bladder or kidney stones , and bladder cancer . It is also an irritant when inhaled or in contact with the skin or eyes. The United Nations' food standards body, the Codex Alimentarius Commission , has set the maximum amount of melamine allowed in powdered infant formula to 1 mg/kg and the amount of
4224-483: The apparent protein content. Standard tests, such as the Kjeldahl and Dumas tests, estimate protein levels by measuring the nitrogen content, so they can be misled by the addition of nitrogen-rich, but non-proteinaceous compounds such as melamine. There are instruments available today that can differentiate melamine nitrogen from protein nitrogen. Melamine derivatives of arsenical drugs are potentially important in
4312-515: The better-off working-class household. Until the mid-19th century the American market was largely served by imports from Britain, with some from China and the European continent. The introduction to Europe of hot drinks, mostly but not only tea and coffee, as a regular feature of eating and entertaining, led to a new class of tableware. In its most common material, various types of ceramics, this
4400-489: The chemical allowed in other foods and animal feed to 2.5 mg/kg. While not legally binding, the levels allow countries to ban importation of products with excessive levels of melamine. The German word Melamin was coined by combining the words melam (a derivative of ammonium thiocyanate) and amine . Melamine is, therefore, unrelated etymologically to the root melas ( μέλας , meaning 'black' in Greek), from which
4488-404: The combination of melamine and cyanuric acid in diet does lead to acute kidney injury in cats. A 2008 study produced similar experimental results in rats and characterized the melamine and cyanuric acid in contaminated pet food from the 2007 outbreak. A 2010 study from Lanzhou University attributed kidney failure in humans to uric acid stone accumulation after ingestion of melamine resulting in
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#17328010695474576-452: The concentration after Klebsiella colonization was increased. Ingestion of melamine may lead to reproductive damage , or bladder or kidney stones , which can lead to bladder cancer . A study in 1953 reported that dogs fed 3% melamine for a year had the following changes in their urine: (1) reduced specific gravity , (2) increased output , (3) melamine crystalluria , and (4) protein and occult blood . A survey commissioned by
4664-401: The custom in most restaurants, whereas service à la française is the norm in family settings. Place settings for service à la russe dining are arranged according to the number of courses in the meal. The tableware is arranged in a particular order. With the first course, each guest at the table begins by using the tableware placed on the outside of place setting. As each course is finished
4752-684: The deaths of children in China from powdered milk in 2008, the Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission in Belgium set up a website about methods to detect melamine. In May 2009, the JRC published the results of a study that benchmarked the ability of labs around the world to accurately measure melamine in food. The study concluded that the majority of labs can effectively detect melamine in food. In October 2008,
4840-435: The development of acute kidney failure. Urine alkalinization and stone liberalization have been reported to be the most effective treatments in humans. The United Nations' food standards body, Codex Alimentarius Commission , has set the maximum amount of melamine allowed in powdered infant formula to 1 mg/kg and the amount of the chemical allowed in other foods and animal feed to 2.5 mg/kg. While not legally binding,
4928-480: The discovery of severe kidney damage to children and pets poisoned by melamine-adulterated food. In 2007, a pet food recall was initiated by Menu Foods and other pet food manufacturers who had found their products had been contaminated and caused serious illnesses or deaths in some of the animals that had eaten them. In March 2007, the US Food and Drug Administration reported finding white granular melamine in
5016-420: The first step, urea decomposes into cyanic acid and ammonia: Cyanic acid polymerizes to cyanuric acid , which condenses with the liberated ammonia forming melamine. The released water reacts with cyanic acid, which helps to drive the reaction: The above reaction can be carried out by either of two methods: catalyzed gas-phase production or high pressure liquid-phase production. In one method, molten urea
5104-655: The form of exported pieces, like the Germain Service for the King of Portugal . In London in the 13th century, the more affluent citizens owned fine furniture and silver, "while those of straiter means possessed only the simplest pottery and kitchen utensils." By the later 16th century, "even the poorer citizens dined off pewter rather than wood" and had plate, jars and pots made from "green glazed earthenware". The nobility often used their arms on heraldic china . The final replacement of silver tableware with porcelain as
5192-439: The guest leaves the used cutlery on the used plate or bowl, which are removed from the table by the server. In some case, the original set is kept for the next course. To begin the next course, the diner uses the next item on the outside of the place setting, and so on. Forks are placed on the left of a dinner plate, knives to the right of the plate, and spoons to the outer right side of the place setting. Items of tableware include
5280-481: The items. Each bowl and dish may have a different shape, colour or pattern. A basic complete place setting for one person in Japan would include the following: Not all of these plates and bowls would be necessary for one meal. A rice bowl, a soup bowl, two or three small dishes with accompanying foods, and two or three condiment dishes for person would be typical. Various serving bowls and platters would also be set on
5368-547: The legal limit of melamine. York Chow, the health secretary of Hong Kong, said he thought animal feeds might be the source of the contamination and announced that the Hong Kong Centre for Food Safety would henceforward be testing all mainland Chinese pork, farmed fish, animal feed, chicken meat, eggs, and offal products for melamine. As of July 2010, Chinese authorities were still reporting some seizures of melamine-contaminated dairy product in some provinces, though it
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#17328010695475456-480: The levels allow countries to ban importation of products with excessive levels of melamine. Melamine was first synthesized by the German chemist Justus von Liebig in 1834. In early production, first calcium cyanamide was converted into dicyandiamide , which was heated above its melting temperature to produce melamine. Today most industrial manufacturers use urea in the following reaction to produce melamine: In
5544-472: The more numerous its pieces. The materials used were often controlled by sumptuary laws . In the late Middle Ages and for much of the Early Modern period much of a great person's disposable assets were often in "plate", vessels and tableware in precious metal, and what was not in use for a given meal was often displayed on a dressoir de parement or buffet (similar to a large Welsh dresser ) against
5632-412: The next century. This move to local china was rather delayed by the tendency of some early types of European soft-paste porcelain to break if too hot liquid was poured into it. The knife is the oldest type of cutlery; early ones were normally carried by the individual at all times. Forks and spoons came later, and are initially only for the wealthy, who typically carried their own personal set. After
5720-578: The norm in French aristocratic dining had taken place by the 1770s. After this the enormous development of European porcelain and cheaper fine earthenwares like faience and creamware , as well as the resumption of large imports of Chinese export porcelain , often armorial porcelain decorated to order, led to matching "china" services becoming affordable by an ever-wider public. By 1800 cheap versions of these were often brightly decorated with transfer printing in blue, and were beginning to be affordable by
5808-405: The pet food, in samples of white granular wheat gluten imported from a single source in China, Xuzhou Anying Biologic Technology as well as in crystalline form in the kidneys and in urine of affected animals. Further vegetable protein imported from China was later implicated. In April 2007, The New York Times reported that the addition of "melamine scrap" into fish and livestock feed to give
5896-603: The protein content of food to appear higher than the true value. Officials estimate that about 20% of the dairy companies tested in China sell products tainted with melamine. On January 22, 2009, three of those involved in the scandal (including one conditional sentence) were sentenced to death in a Chinese court. In October 2008, "Select Fresh Brown Eggs" exported to Hong Kong from the Hanwei Group in Dalian in northeastern China were found to be contaminated with nearly twice
5984-481: The renal cells that line the tubes, causing the kidneys to malfunction and lead to kidney stones, kidney failure, and death. Signs of melamine toxicity can include irritability, blood in the urine, little to no urine, symptoms of kidney infection, or high blood pressure. The European Union set a standard for acceptable human consumption ( tolerable daily intake or TDI) of melamine at 0.2 mg per kilogram of body mass (previously 0.5 mg/kg), Canada declared
6072-534: The rich. Religious considerations influenced the choice of materials. Muhammad spoke against using gold at table, as the contemporary elites of Persia and the Byzantine Empire did, and this greatly encouraged the growth of Islamic pottery . In Europe, the elites dined off metal, usually silver for the rich and pewter for the middling classes, from the ancient Greeks and Romans until the 18th century. A trencher (from Old French tranchier 'to cut')
6160-973: The serving of tea or coffee also have long cultural traditions. They include teapots and coffee pots as well as samovars , sugar bowls ; milk or cream jugs . Serving utensils are implements used to move food from serving dishes to individual plates. In family-style dining , these might include serving spoons . A fish slice is an early example of a specialty silver service utensil used in waiter or butler service. Place markers are used to designate assigned seats to guests. They are typically used at large formal functions such as weddings, banquets for dignitaries, politicians or diplomats as well as on special occasions such as large children's parties. Some are collectible. Chinese table settings are traditional in style. Table setting practices in Japan and other parts of East Asia have been influenced by Chinese table setting customs. The emphasis in Chinese table settings
6248-456: The table to rotate food for easier service. In a family setting, a meal typically includes a fan dish, which constitutes the meal's base (much like bread forms the base of various sandwiches), and several accompanying mains, called cai dish ( choi or seoung in Cantonese). More specifically, fan usually refers to cooked rice, but can also be other staple grain-based foods. If the meal
6336-516: The table. A wide range of serving dishes are used to transport food from kitchen to table or to serve it at table, to make food service easier and cleaner or more efficient and pleasant. Serving dishes include: butter dishes ; casseroles ; fruit bowls; ramekins or lidded serving bowls; compotes ; pitchers or jugs ; platters , salvers , and trays ; salt and pepper shakers or salt cellars ; sauce or gravy boats ; tureens and tajines ; vegetable or salad bowls. A range of items specific to
6424-415: The tableware depends on the meal and the style of table arrangement. Tea and coffee tend to involve strong social rituals and so teacups and, coffee cups (including demitasse cups) have a shape that depends on the culture and the social situation in which the drink is taken. Cutlery is an important part of tableware. A basic formal place setting will usually have a dinner plate at the centre, resting on
6512-405: The tools to fashion them were available. Ancient elites in most cultures preferred flatware in precious metals ("plate") at the table; China and Japan were two major exceptions, using lacquerware and later fine pottery, especially porcelain . In China bowls have always been preferred to plates. In Europe pewter was often used by the less well off, and eventually the poor, and silver or gold by
6600-648: The total nitrogen content detected by some simple protein tests. Actions taken in 2008 by the Government of China have reduced the practice of adulteration, with the goal of eliminating it. As a result of the Chinese milk scandal , court trials began in December 2008 for six people involved in adding melamine in food products, ending in January 2009 with two of the convicts being sentenced to death and executed. Melamine has been involved in several food recalls after
6688-416: The treatment of African trypanosomiasis . Melamine use as non-protein nitrogen (NPN) for cattle was described in a 1958 patent. In 1978, however, a study concluded that melamine "may not be an acceptable non-protein N source for ruminants" because its hydrolysis in cattle is slower and less complete than other nitrogen sources such as cottonseed meal and urea. The short-term lethal dose of melamine
6776-707: The wall in the dining hall. At the wedding of Philip the Good , Duke of Burgundy , and Isabella of Portugal in 1429, there was a dresser 20 feet long on either side of the room, each with five rows of plate; a similar display on three dressoirs could be seen at the State Banquet in Buckingham Palace for the US President, Donald Trump in 2019. Inventories of King Charles V of France (r. 1364–1380) record that he had 2,500 pieces of plate. Plate
6864-520: The word Delft , the town from which so much delftware came. Silver service or butler service are methods for a butler or waiter to serve a meal. Setting the table refers to arranging the tableware, including individual place settings for each diner at the table as well as decorating the table itself in a manner suitable for the occasion. Tableware and table decoration are typically more elaborate for special occasions. Unusual dining locations demand tableware be adapted. In recent centuries, flatware
6952-776: The word cup is before the 12th century. Tumblers are flat-bottomed drinking glasses. Tableware Tableware items are the dishware and utensils used for setting a table, serving food, and dining. The term includes cutlery , glassware , serving dishes, serving utensils, and other items used for practical as well as decorative purposes. The quality, nature, variety and number of objects varies according to culture, religion, number of diners, cuisine and occasion. For example, Middle Eastern, Indian or Polynesian food culture and cuisine sometimes limits tableware to serving dishes, using bread or leaves as individual plates, and not infrequently without use of cutlery. Special occasions are usually reflected in higher quality tableware. Cutlery
7040-410: The words melanin , a pigment, and melatonin , a hormone, are formed. In one large-scale application, melamine is combined with formaldehyde and other agents to produce melamine resins . Such resins are characteristically durable thermosetting plastic used in high-pressure decorative laminates such as Wilsonart , melamine dinnerware, laminate flooring, and dry erase boards . Melamine cookware
7128-495: Was 1.7 times higher than in those without melamine exposure, suggesting that the risk of melamine-induced nephrolithiasis in young children starts at a lower intake level than the levels recommended by the World Health Organization . In a study published in 2010, researchers from Beijing University studying ultrasound images of infants who fell ill in the 2008 contamination found that while most children in
7216-487: Was commonly used in medieval cuisine . A trencher was originally a flat round of (usually stale) bread used as a plate , upon which the food could be placed to eat. At the end of the meal, the trencher could be eaten with sauce, but could also be given as alms to the poor. Similar use of bread is still found with the bread bowl . The trencher was not fully replaced in France until the 1650s, although in Italy maiolica
7304-442: Was fashioned from available materials, such as wood. Industrialisation and developments in ceramic manufacture made inexpensive tableware available. It is sold either by the piece or as a matched set for a number of diners, normally four, six, eight or twelve place settings. Cutlery is normally made of metal, especially stainless steel , though large pieces such as ladles for serving may be of wood. The use of porcelain for spoons
7392-568: Was made in Europe from the 18th century onwards. A table setting in Western countries is mainly in one of two styles: service à la russe (French for "in the Russian style "), where each course of the meal is brought out in specific order; and service à la française (French for "in the French style"), where all the courses for the meal are arranged on the table and presented at the same time that guests are seated. Service à la russe has become
7480-508: Was often melted down to finance wars or building, or until the 19th century just for remaking in a more fashionable style, and hardly any of the enormous quantities recorded in the later Middle Ages survives. The French Royal Gold Cup now in the British Museum , in solid gold and decorated with enamel and pearls, is one of few secular exceptions. Weighing more than two kilos, it was perhaps passed around for ceremonial toasts. Another
7568-460: Was shown to convert melamine to cyanuric acid directly. Rats colonized by R . terrigena showed greater melamine-induced kidney damage compared to those not colonized. Melamine is reported to have an oral median lethal dose (LD 50 ) of 3248 mg /kg based on rat data. It is also an irritant when inhaled or in contact with the skin or eyes. The reported dermal LD 50 is greater than 1000 mg/kg for rabbits. A study by Soviet researchers in
7656-724: Was unclear whether these new contaminations constituted wholly new adulterations or were the result of illegal reuse of material from the 2008 adulterations. On characterization and treatment of urinary stones in affected infants, The New England Journal of Medicine printed an editorial in March 2009, along with reports on cases from Beijing, Hong Kong and Taipei. Urinary calculi specimens were collected from 15 cases treated in Beijing and were analyzed as unknown objects for their components at Beijing Institute of Microchemistry using infrared spectroscopy , nuclear magnetic resonance , and high performance liquid chromatography . The result of
7744-506: Was used from the 15th century. Orders survive for large services. At an Este family wedding feast in Ferrara in 1565, 12,000 plates painted with the Este arms were used, though the "top table" probably ate off precious metal. Possession of tableware has to a large extent been determined by individual wealth; the greater the means, the higher was the quality of tableware that was owned and
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