135-727: The Gran Valira ( Catalan pronunciation: [ˈɡram baˈliɾa] ) is the largest river in Andorra . It flows through the capital, Andorra la Vella , and exits the country in the south near the Spain–;Andorra road border crossing. The Gran Valira is a tributary to the Segre , which in turn is a tributary to the Ebro . It flows into the Segre in La Seu d'Urgell . Its main tributaries are
270-627: A Roman province . The end of the war sparked a major but eventually unsuccessful revolt within Carthaginian territory known as the Mercenary War . The Second Punic War began in 218 BC and witnessed the Carthaginian general Hannibal 's crossing of the Alps and invasion of mainland Italy . This expedition enjoyed considerable early success and campaigned in Italy for 14 years before
405-484: A fleet and used a shipwrecked Carthaginian quinquereme as a blueprint for their own. As novice shipwrights , the Romans built copies that were heavier than the Carthaginian vessels; thus they were slower and less manoeuvrable. Getting the oarsmen to row as a unit, let alone to execute more complex battle manoeuvres, required long and arduous training. At least half of the oarsmen would need to have had some experience if
540-583: A thalassocracy . Beginning in 480 BC Carthage fought a series of inconclusive wars against the Greek city-states of Sicily, led by Syracuse . By 264 BC Carthage was the dominant external power on the island, and Carthage and Rome were the preeminent powers in the western Mediterranean. Relationships were good, and the two states had several times declared their mutual friendship in formal alliances : in 509 BC, 348 BC and around 279 BC. There were strong commercial links. During
675-539: A viceroy and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Hasdrubal , in the early 220s BC and then his son, Hannibal, in 221 BC. In 226 BC the Ebro Treaty was agreed with Rome, specifying the Ebro River as the northern boundary of the Carthaginian sphere of influence . At some time during the next six years Rome made a separate agreement with the city of Saguntum , which was situated well south of
810-403: A 2,000-talent loan from Ptolemaic Egypt , which was refused. Rome was also close to bankruptcy and the number of adult male citizens, who provided the manpower for the navy and the legions, had declined by 17 per cent since the start of the war. Historian Adrian Goldsworthy (2006) has described Roman manpower losses as "appalling". The Romans rebuilt their fleet again in 243 BC after
945-421: A Council General of 24 members elected by suffrage limited to heads of families. The Council General replaced the aristocratic oligarchy that previously ruled the state. The New Reform ( Nova Reforma ) began after ratification by both Co-Princes and established the basis of the constitution and symbols – such as the tricolour flag – of Andorra. A new service economy arose as
1080-432: A GDP per capita and a life expectancy higher than the most standard countries of the current economy. Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France, Spain and Portugal . But in recent times its thriving tourist industry, along with developments in transport and communications, have removed the country from its isolation. Since 1976
1215-733: A demand of the valley inhabitants and began to build infrastructure such as hotels, spa resorts, roads and telegraph lines. The authorities of the Co-Princes banned casinos and betting houses throughout the country. The ban resulted in an economic conflict and the Revolution of 1881, which began when revolutionaries assaulted the house of the syndic on 8 December 1880, and established the Provisional Revolutionary Council led by Joan Pla i Calvo and Pere Baró i Mas. The Provisional Revolutionary Council allowed for
1350-509: A distance and avoided close combat; the latter were usually Numidians . The close order African infantry and the citizen-militia both fought in a tightly-packed formation known as a phalanx . On occasion some of the infantry would wear captured Roman armour, especially among the troops of the Carthaginian general Hannibal . In addition both Iberia and Gaul provided many experienced infantry and cavalry. The infantry from these areas were unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had
1485-403: A large shield and short thrusting swords . They were divided into three ranks: the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second and third ranks had a thrusting spear instead. Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. It was the long-standing Roman procedure to elect two men each year as senior magistrates , known as consuls , who in
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#17327836057621620-472: A large indemnity, severely restricted the size of its armed forces , and prohibited Carthage from waging war without Rome's express permission. This caused Carthage to cease to be a military threat. In 151 BC, Carthage attempted to defend itself against Numidian encroachments and Rome used this as a justification to declare war in 149 BC, starting the Third Punic War . This conflict
1755-468: A long-drawn-out affair, or, if the target was a port, impossible. Carthage's new allies felt little sense of community with Carthage, or even with each other. The new allies increased the number of places that Hannibal's army was expected to defend from Roman retribution, but provided relatively few fresh troops to assist him in doing so. Such Italian forces as were raised resisted operating away from their home cities and performed poorly when they did. When
1890-628: A population of approximately 79,034. The Andorran people are a Romance ethnic group closely related to Catalans . Andorra is the world's 16th-smallest country by land and 11th-smallest by population . Its capital, Andorra la Vella, is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of 1,023 metres (3,356 feet) above sea level . The official language is Catalan , but Spanish , Portuguese , and French are also commonly spoken. Tourism in Andorra brings approximately 8 million visitors to
2025-570: A reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted. The Gallic cavalry, and possibly some of the Iberians, wore armour and fought as close order troops; most or all of the mounted Iberians were light cavalry . Slingers were frequently recruited from the Balearic Islands. The Carthaginians also employed war elephants ; North Africa had indigenous African forest elephants at the time. Garrison duty and land blockades were
2160-481: A similar number of allied troops. The majority were deployed in southern Italy in field armies of approximately 20,000 men each. This was insufficient to challenge Hannibal's army in open battle, but sufficient to force him to concentrate his forces and to hamper his movements. For 12 years after Cannae the war surged around southern Italy as cities went over to the Carthaginians or were taken by subterfuge and
2295-473: A social health insurance system was created ( CASS ). The Andorran government necessarily involved planning, projection and forecasts for the future: with the official visit of the French co-prince Charles de Gaulle in 1967 and 1969, it was given approval for the economic boom and national demands within the framework of human rights and international openness. Andorra experienced an era commonly known as
2430-404: A surprise night assault and captured several districts of the city. Meanwhile, the Carthaginian army was crippled by plague . After the Carthaginians failed to resupply the city, Syracuse fell that autumn; Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier. Carthage sent more reinforcements to Sicily in 211 BC and went on the offensive. A fresh Roman army attacked the main Carthaginian stronghold on
2565-1011: A time of war would each lead an army. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies ; allied legions usually had a larger attached complement of cavalry than Roman ones. Carthaginian citizens only served in their army if there was a direct threat to the city of Carthage . When they did they fought as well-armoured heavy infantry armed with long thrusting spears, although they were notoriously ill-trained and ill-disciplined. In most circumstances Carthage recruited foreigners to make up its army. Many were from North Africa and these were frequently referred to as "Libyans". The region provided several types of fighters, including: close order infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting spears ; javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers; close order shock cavalry (also known as "heavy cavalry") carrying spears; and light cavalry skirmishers who threw javelins from
2700-708: Is a need to distinguish between them. This Andorra -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Andorra in Europe (dark grey) Andorra , officially the Principality of Andorra , is a sovereign landlocked country on the Iberian Peninsula , in the eastern Pyrenees in Western Europe, bordered by France to the north and Spain to the south . Believed to have been created by Charlemagne , Andorra
2835-468: Is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts". Other sources include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions, such as the trireme Olympias . The Roman Republic had been aggressively expanding in the southern Italian mainland for a century before the First Punic War . It had conquered peninsular Italy south of
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#17327836057622970-549: The corvus became useless; part way through the First Punic War the Romans ceased using it. Much of the First Punic War was fought on, or in the waters near, Sicily. Away from the coasts its hilly and rugged terrain made manoeuvring large forces difficult and so encouraged defensive strategies. Land operations were largely confined to raids , sieges and interdiction ; in 23 years of war on Sicily there were only two full-scale pitched battles. The war began with
3105-611: The Adriatic coast to block Hannibal's advance into central Italy. In early spring 217 BC, the Carthaginians crossed the Apennines unopposed, taking a difficult but unguarded route. Hannibal attempted to draw the main Roman army under Gaius Flaminius into a pitched battle by devastating the area they had been sent to protect, provoking Flaminius into a hasty pursuit without proper reconnaissance. Hannibal set an ambush and in
3240-583: The Arno River by 270 BC, when the Greek cities of southern Italy ( Magna Graecia ) submitted after the conclusion of the Pyrrhic War . During this period of Roman expansion Carthage, with its capital in what is now Tunisia , had come to dominate southern Iberia, much of the coastal regions of North Africa, the Balearic Islands , Corsica , Sardinia and the western half of Sicily in
3375-780: The Carta de Poblament or a local municipal charter c. 805 . In 988, Count Borrell II of Urgell gave the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in Cerdanya . Since then, the bishop of Urgell, based in Seu d'Urgell, has been co-prince of Andorra. The first document that mentions Andorra as a territory is the Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell (Deed of Consecration and Endowment of
3510-748: The Moors near Porté-Puymorens ( Cerdanya ). Andorra remained part of the Frankish Marca Hispanica , the buffer zone between the Frankish Empire and the Muslim territories, Andorra being part of the territory ruled by the Count of Urgell and eventually the bishop of the Diocese of Urgell. Tradition also holds that it was guaranteed by the son of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious , writing
3645-480: The Peninsular War ( Guerra Peninsular ) and divided the region into four départements , with Andorra as a part of the district of Puigcerdà . In 1814, an imperial decree reestablished the independence and economy of Andorra. During this period, Andorra's late medieval institutions and rural culture remained largely unchanged. In 1866, the syndic Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit led the reformist group in
3780-566: The Urn culture in Andorra. The model of small settlements began to evolve to complex urbanism during the Bronze Age . Metallurgical items of iron, ancient coins, and reliquaries can be found in the ancient sanctuaries scattered around the country. The sanctuary of Roc de les Bruixes (Stone of the Witches) is perhaps the most important archeological complex of this age in Andorra, located in
3915-738: The Valira d'Orient , the Valira del Nord and the Madriu . The Valira river system is 35 kilometres (22 mi) long. The map service of the Andorran government calls it the Gran Valira. In certain sources, especially those with a Spanish influence such as maps published in Spain, it is sometimes referred to as the Valira because in the territory of Spain there is only one Valira river. In Andorra, however, there are several different Valiras and hence there
4050-634: The Valley of Madriu (the present-day Natural Park located in Escaldes-Engordany declared UNESCO World Heritage Site ) as a permanent camp in 6640 BCE. The population of the valley grew cereals, raised domestic livestock, and developed commercial trade with people from Ségre and Occitania . Other archaeological deposits include the Tombs of Segudet ( Ordino ) and Feixa del Moro (Sant Julià de Lòria), both dated in 4900–4300 BCE as an example of
4185-455: The battle of Akragas . That night the Carthaginian garrison escaped and the Romans seized the city and its inhabitants, selling 25,000 of them into slavery . After this the land war on Sicily reached a stalemate as the Carthaginians focused on defending their well-fortified towns and cities; these were mostly on the coast and so could be supplied and reinforced without the Romans being able to use their superior army to interfere. The focus of
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4320-412: The battle of Dertosa . Meanwhile, the Romans took drastic steps to raise new legions: enrolling slaves, criminals and those who did not meet the usual property qualification. By early 215 BC they were fielding at least 12 legions; by 214 BC, 18; and by 213 BC, 22. By 212 BC the full complement of the legions deployed would have been in excess of 100,000 men, plus, as always,
4455-463: The battle of Lake Trasimene completely defeated the Roman army, killing 15,000 Romans, including Flaminius, and taking 15,000 prisoners . A cavalry force of 4,000 from the other Roman army was also engaged and wiped out. The prisoners were badly treated if they were Romans, but released if they were from one of Rome's Latin allies. Hannibal hoped some of these allies could be persuaded to defect and marched south hoping to win over Roman allies among
4590-405: The battle of Phintias and all but swept the Romans from the sea. It was to be seven years before Rome again attempted to field a substantial fleet, while Carthage put most of its ships into reserve to save money and free up manpower. After more than 20 years of war, both states were financially and demographically exhausted. Evidence of Carthage's financial situation includes their request for
4725-536: The battle of Ticinus . As a result, most of the Gallic tribes declared for the Carthaginian cause and Hannibal's army grew to 37,000 men. A large Roman army was lured into combat by Hannibal at the battle of the Trebia , encircled and destroyed. Only 10,000 Romans out of 42,000 were able to cut their way to safety. Gauls now joined Hannibal's army in large numbers. The Romans stationed an army at Arretium and one on
4860-640: The battle of the Metaurus and destroyed his army, killing Hasdrubal. This battle confirmed Roman dominance in Italy and marked the end of their Fabian strategy. In 205 BC, Mago landed in Genua in north-west Italy with the remnants of his Spanish army ( see § Iberia below ) where it received Gallic and Ligurian reinforcements. Mago's arrival in the north of the Italian peninsula was followed by Hannibal's inconclusive battle of Crotona in 204 BC in
4995-612: The syndic (now spokesman and president of the parliament) as representative of the Andorrans to their co-princes, making possible the creation of local departments (comuns, quarts and veïnats). After being ratified by Bishop Francesc Tovia and Count John I , the Consell de la Terra or Consell General de les Valls (General Council of the Valleys) was founded in 1419, the second oldest parliament in Europe. The syndic Andreu d'Alàs and
5130-620: The "Andorran dream" (similar to the American Dream ) along with the Trente Glorieuses : the mass culture rooted the country experiencing radical changes in the economy and culture. Proof of this was Ràdio Andorra , the top musical radio station in Europe in this period, with guests and speakers of great importance promoting musical hits of chanson française , swing , rhythm & blues , jazz , rock and roll and American country music . During this period Andorra achieved
5265-446: The 1930s, with the construction of FHASA and the creation of professional banking with Banc Agrícol (1930) and Crèdit Andorrà (1949), later with Banca Mora (1952), Banca Cassany (1958) and SOBANCA (1960). Shortly after, activities such as skiing and shopping become a tourist attraction, with the inauguration of ski resorts and cultural entities in the late 1930s. All in all, a renovated hotel industry has developed. In April 1968
5400-566: The 9th through 14th centuries, particularly in the construction of churches, bridges, religious murals and statues of the Virgin and Child ( Our Lady of Meritxell being the most important). Nowadays, the Romanesque buildings that form part of Andorra's cultural heritage stand out in a remarkable way, with an emphasis on Església de Sant Esteve , Sant Joan de Caselles , Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters , Sant Martí de la Cortinada and
5535-457: The Alps and invading Italy. His aim was to join his forces with those of Hannibal, but Hannibal was unaware of his presence. The Romans facing Hannibal in southern Italy tricked him into believing the whole Roman army was still in camp, while a large portion marched north under the consul Claudius Nero and reinforced the Romans facing Hasdrubal, who were commanded by the other consul, Marcus Salinator . The combined Roman force attacked Hasdrubal at
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5670-677: The Basque word ur ("water"). Another theory suggests that Andorra may derive from Arabic ad-dārra ( الدَّارَة ), indicating a vast land which is located among mountains or a thickly wooded place (with ad- being the definite article ). When the Moors conquered the Iberian Peninsula, the valleys of the High Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of forest. These regions were not administered by Muslims , because of
5805-832: The Busquets family. Inside the parliament was placed the Closet of the six keys (Armari de les sis claus), representative of each Andorran parish, where the Andorran constitution and other documents and laws were later kept. In both the Reapers' War and the War of the Spanish Succession , the Andorran people (while professing to be a neutral country) supported the Catalans who saw their rights reduced in 1716 . The reaction
5940-550: The Carthaginian colonial cities with mixed success until moving into Italy; and Africa, where the war was decided. In 218 BC there was some naval skirmishing in the waters around Sicily; the Romans defeated a Carthaginian attack and captured the island of Malta . In Cisalpine Gaul (modern northern Italy), the major Gallic tribes attacked the Roman colonies there, causing the Roman settlers to flee to their previously-established colony of Mutina (modern Modena ), where they were besieged. A Roman relief force broke through
6075-430: The Carthaginians advanced on Panormus, but in a battle outside the walls the Romans drove off the Carthaginian elephants with javelins. The elephants routed through the Carthaginian infantry, who were then charged by the Roman infantry to complete their defeat. Slowly the Romans had occupied most of Sicily; in 250 BC they besieged the last two Carthaginian strongholds – Lilybaeum and Drepana in
6210-526: The Catalan or foreign public even within Andorra. Andorran Group (Agrupament Andorrà), an anti-fascist organization linked to the Occitanie's French Resistance , accused the French representative (veguer) of collaboration with Nazism . The Andorran opening to the capitalist economy resulted in two axes: mass tourism and the country's tax exemption. The first steps toward the capitalist boom date from
6345-510: The Cathedral of La Seu d'Urgell). The document, dated 839, depicts the six old parishes of the Andorran valleys that made up the country's administrative division. Before 1095, Andorra had no military protection, and the bishop of Urgell, who knew that the count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys, asked the Lord of Caboet for help and protection. In 1095, the lord of Caboet and
6480-525: The Ebro. In 219 BC a Carthaginian army under Hannibal besieged, captured and sacked Saguntum and in spring 218 BC Rome declared war on Carthage. There were three main military theatres in the war: Italy, where Hannibal defeated the Roman legions repeatedly, with occasional subsidiary campaigns in Sicily, Sardinia and Greece; Iberia, where Hasdrubal , a younger brother of Hannibal, defended
6615-637: The First Punic War, Carthaginian possessions in Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal) were limited to a handful of prosperous coastal cities in the south. Hamilcar took the army which he had led in the Mercenary War to Iberia in 237 BC and carved out a quasi-monarchial, autonomous state in its south east. This gave Carthage the silver mines, agricultural wealth, manpower , military facilities such as shipyards , and territorial depth to stand up to future Roman demands with confidence. Hamilcar ruled as
6750-542: The General Council organized the creation of the Justice Courts (La Cort de Justicia) in 1433 with the co-princes and the collection of taxes like foc i lloc (literally "fire and site", a national tax active since then). Although there are remains of ecclesiastical works dating before the 9th century (Sant Vicenç d'Enclar or Església de Santa Coloma ), Andorra developed exquisite Romanesque Art during
6885-500: The Mediterranean region as a whole. The immense effort of repeatedly building large fleets of galleys during the war laid the foundation for Rome's maritime dominance, which was to last 600 years. The Mercenary, or Truceless, War began in 241 BC as a dispute over the payment of wages owed to 20,000 foreign soldiers who had fought for Carthage on Sicily during the First Punic War. This erupted into full-scale mutiny under
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#17327836057627020-574: The Pious after defeating the Moors in the "wild valleys of Hell". La Balma de la Margineda , found by archaeologists at Sant Julià de Lòria , was settled in 9,500 BCE as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was perfectly located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers from Ariege and Segre . During the Neolithic , a group of people moved to
7155-509: The Punic Wars is the historian Polybius ( c. 200 – c. 118 BC ), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. He is best known for The Histories , written sometime after 146 BC. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral between Carthaginian and Roman points of view. Polybius was an analytical historian and wherever possible interviewed participants from both sides in
7290-514: The Pyrrhic War of 280–275 BC, against a king of Epirus who alternately fought Rome in Italy and Carthage on Sicily, Carthage provided materiel to the Romans and on at least one occasion provided its navy to ferry a Roman force. According to the classicist Richard Miles , Rome had an expansionary attitude after its conquest of southern Italy, while Carthage had a proprietary approach to Sicily. The conflict between these policies pushed
7425-691: The Roc d'Enclar. People continued trading, mainly with wine and cereals, with the Roman cities of Urgellet (the present-day La Seu d'Urgell ) and across Segre through the via romana Strata Ceretana (also known as Strata Confluetana). After the fall of the Roman Empire , Andorra came under the influence of the Visigoths , the Kingdom of Toledo , and the Diocese of Urgell . The Visigoths remained in
7560-410: The Romans gaining a foothold on Sicily at Messana (modern Messina) in 264 BC. They then pressed Syracuse, the only significant independent power on the island, into allying with them and laid siege to Carthage's main base at Akragas on the south coast. A Carthaginian army of 50,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and 60 elephants attempted to lift the siege in 262 BC, but was badly defeated at
7695-419: The Romans recaptured them by siege or by suborning pro-Roman factions. Hannibal repeatedly defeated Roman armies, in 209 BC both consuls were killed in a cavalry skirmish. But wherever his main army was not active the Romans threatened Carthaginian-supporting towns or sought battle with Carthaginian or Carthaginian-allied detachments; frequently with success. By 207 BC Hannibal had been confined to
7830-410: The Romans were still in their winter quarters. His surprise entry into the Italian peninsula led to the cancellation of Rome's planned campaign for the year: an invasion of Africa. The Carthaginians captured the chief city of the hostile Taurini (in the area of modern Turin ) and seized its food stocks. In late November the Carthaginian cavalry routed the cavalry and light infantry of the Romans at
7965-400: The Senate approached Rome's wealthiest citizens for loans to finance the construction of one ship each, repayable from the reparations to be imposed on Carthage once the war was won. This new fleet effectively blockaded the Carthaginian garrisons. Carthage assembled a fleet which attempted to relieve them, but it was destroyed at the battle of the Aegates Islands in 241 BC, forcing
8100-416: The aftermath of the 1933 Revolution. During the Spanish Civil War, the inhabitants of Andorra welcomed refugees from both sides, and many of them settled permanently in the country thus contributing to the subsequent economic boom and the entry into the capitalist era of Andorra. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war. During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and
8235-422: The area , in the context of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation . With the passage of time, the co-title to Andorra passed to the kings of Navarre . After Henry III of Navarre became king of France , he issued an edict in 1607 that established the head of the French state and the bishop of Urgell as Co-Princes of Andorra , a political arrangement that still holds. During 1617, communal councils form
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#17327836057628370-443: The bishop of Urgell and the count of Foix as aftermath of the Cathar Crusade . The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of the king of Aragon , Peter III , between the bishop and the count, by the signing of the first paréage , which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the bishop of Urgell, in Catalonia . This gave
8505-408: The bishop of Urgell signed under oath a declaration of their co-sovereignty over Andorra. Arnalda de Caboet , daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the viscount of Castellbò. Their daughter, Ermessenda de Castellbò , married the count of Foix , Roger-Bernard II . Roger-Bernard II and Ermessenda shared rule over Andorra with the bishop of Urgell. In the 13th century, a military dispute arose between
8640-524: The brink of collapse. Within a few weeks of Cannae a Roman army of 25,000 was ambushed by Boii Gauls at the battle of Silva Litana and annihilated. Fabius was elected consul in 215 BC and was re-elected in 214 BC. Little survives of Polybius's account of Hannibal's army in Italy after Cannae and Livy is the best surviving source for this part of the war. Several of the city states in southern Italy allied with Hannibal or were captured when pro-Carthaginian factions betrayed their defences. These included
8775-501: The capital city there was a smuggling black market of propaganda, culture and cinematic art not favorable to totalitarian regimes, promulgated in such places as the Hotel Mirador or the Casino Hotel, as a meeting place for Free French forces and a route for escorting crashed Allied pilots out of Europe. The network was maintained after the war, when film societies were formed, where movies, music and books censored in Franco's Spain were imported, becoming an anti-censorship attraction for
8910-408: The city they razed and abandoned it. The Romans rapidly rebuilt their fleet, adding 220 new ships, and captured Panormus (modern Palermo ) in 254 BC. The next year they lost another 150 ships to a storm. On Sicily the Romans avoided battle in 252 and 251 BC, according to Polybius because they feared the war elephants which the Carthaginians had shipped to the island. In 250 BC
9045-495: The classicist Adrian Goldsworthy says Livy's "reliability is often suspect", and the historian Philip Sabin refers to Livy's "military ignorance". Later ancient histories of the wars also exist in fragmentary or summary form. Modern historians usually take into account the writings of various Roman annalists , some contemporary; the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus ; and the later Roman historians Plutarch , Appian , and Dio Cassius . Goldsworthy writes "Polybius' account
9180-480: The co-princes' approval. In 1989 the Principality signed an agreement with the European Economic Community to regularize trade relations. Punic Wars The Punic Wars were a series of wars between 264 and 146 BC fought between the Roman Republic and Ancient Carthage . Three wars took place, on both land and sea, across the western Mediterranean region and involved a total of forty-three years of warfare. The Punic Wars are also considered to include
9315-432: The coast in May or June. It entered Gaul and took an inland route, to avoid the Roman allies to the south. At the battle of the Rhone Crossing Hannibal defeated a force of local Gauls which sought to bar his way. A Roman fleet carrying the Iberian-bound army landed at Rome's ally Massalia (modern Marseille ) at the mouth of the Rhone, but Hannibal evaded the Romans and they continued to Iberia. The Carthaginians reached
9450-432: The construction of casinos and spas by foreign companies. From 7 to 9 June 1881, the loyalists of Canillo and Encamp reconquered the parishes of Ordino and La Massana by establishing contact with the revolutionary forces in Escaldes-Engordany . After a day of combat the Treaty of the Bridge of Escalls was signed on 10 June. The council was replaced and new elections were held. The economic situation worsened, as
9585-399: The country and wealth through the establishment of a tax haven and foreign investments, received the support of the members of the General Council to proclaim himself the sovereign of Andorra. On 8 July 1934 Boris issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself Boris I, King of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell and approving the King's constitution on 10 July. He
9720-646: The country annually. Andorra is not a member state of the European Union . It has been a member of the United Nations since 1993. The origin of the word Andorra is unknown, although several hypotheses have been proposed. The oldest is one put forward by the Greek historian Polybius ( The Histories III, 35, 1), who describes the Andosins, an Iberian Pre-Roman tribe , as historically located in
9855-454: The country has seen the need to reform Andorran institutions due to anachronisms in sovereignty, human rights and the balance of powers as well as the need to adapt legislation to modern demands. In 1982 a first separation of powers took place when instituting the Govern d'Andorra, under the name of the executive board (Consell Executiu), chaired by the first prime minister Òscar Ribas Reig with
9990-523: The country was characterized by the social system of prohoms (wealthy society) and casalers (rest of the population with smaller economic acquisition), deriving from the tradition of pubilla and hereu . Three centuries after its foundation, the Consell de la Terra located its headquarters and the Tribunal de Corts in Casa de la Vall in 1702. The manor house built in 1580 served as a noble fortress of
10125-441: The cut-off Carthaginian troops on Sicily to negotiate for peace. The Treaty of Lutatius was agreed by which Carthage paid 3,200 talents of silver in reparations and Sicily was annexed as a Roman province . Polybius regarded the war as "the longest, most continuous and most severely contested war known to us in history". Henceforth Rome considered itself the leading military power in the western Mediterranean and increasingly
10260-632: The end of the 11th century, the first iron foundries began to appear in Northern Parishes like Ordino , much appreciated by the master artisans who developed the art of the forges, an important economic activity in the country from the 15th century. In 1601 the Tribunal de Corts (High Court of Justice) was created as a result of Huguenot rebellions in France , Inquisition courts coming from Spain and witchcraft-related beliefs native to
10395-470: The ethnic Greek and Italic states. The Romans, panicked by these heavy defeats, appointed Quintus Fabius as dictator , with sole charge of the war effort. Fabius introduced the Fabian strategy of avoiding open battle with his opponent, but constantly skirmishing with small detachments of the enemy. This was not popular with parts of the Roman army, public and senate, since he avoided battle while Italy
10530-428: The events he wrote about. Modern historians consider Polybius to have treated the relatives of Scipio Aemilianus , his patron and friend, unduly favourably, but the consensus is to accept his account largely at face value. The modern historian Andrew Curry sees Polybius as being "fairly reliable"; Craige Champion describes him as "a remarkably well-informed, industrious, and insightful historian". The details of
10665-623: The extreme south of Italy and many of the cities and territories which had joined the Carthaginian cause had returned to their Roman allegiance. During 216 BC the Macedonian king, Philip V , pledged his support to Hannibal, initiating the First Macedonian War against Rome in 215 BC. In 211 BC Rome contained this threat by allying with the Aetolian League , a coalition of Greek city states which
10800-435: The extreme west. Repeated attempts to storm Lilybaeum's strong walls failed, as did attempts to block access to its harbour, and the Romans settled down to a siege which was to last nine years. They launched a surprise attack on the Carthaginian fleet, but were defeated at the battle of Drepana ; Carthage's greatest naval victory of the war. Carthage turned to the maritime offensive, inflicting another heavy naval defeat at
10935-561: The far south of the peninsula. Mago marched his reinforced army towards the lands of Carthage's main Gallic allies in the Po Valley , but was checked by a large Roman army and defeated at the battle of Insubria in 203 BC. After Publius Cornelius Scipio invaded the Carthaginian homeland in 204 BC, defeating the Carthaginians in two major battles and winning the allegiance of the Numidian kingdoms of North Africa, Hannibal and
11070-401: The foot of the Alps by late autumn and crossed them in 15 days, surmounting the difficulties of climate, terrain and the guerrilla tactics of the native tribes. Hannibal arrived with 20,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and an unknown number of elephants – the survivors of the 37 with which he left Iberia – in what is now Piedmont , northern Italy in early November;
11205-459: The four-year-long revolt against Carthage which started in 241 BC. Each war involved immense materiel and human losses on both sides. The First Punic War broke out on the Mediterranean island of Sicily in 264 BC as Rome's expansion began to encroach on Carthage's sphere of influence on the island. At the start of the war Carthage was the dominant power of the western Mediterranean, with an extensive maritime empire , while Rome
11340-606: The geographic difficulty of direct rule. Other theories suggest that the term derives from the Navarro-Aragonese "andurrial", which means "land covered with bushes" or "scrubland". The folk etymology holds that Charlemagne had named the region as a reference to the Biblical Canaanite valley of Endor or Andor (where the Midianites had been defeated), a name bestowed by his heir and son Louis
11475-417: The infantry – poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard legionary – served as javelin -armed skirmishers known as velites ; they each carried several javelins, which would be thrown from a distance, as well as a short sword and a 90-centimetre (3 ft) shield. The rest of the soldiers were equipped as heavy infantry , with body armour ,
11610-399: The introduction of tobacco circa 1692 and import trade. In 1371 and 1448, the co-princes ratified the fair of Andorra la Vella, the most important annual national festival commercially ever since. The country had a unique and experienced guild of weavers, Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors, in Escaldes-Engordany . Founded in 1604, it took advantage of the local thermal waters. By this time,
11745-480: The island, Agrigentum , in 210 BC and the city was betrayed to the Romans by a discontented Carthaginian officer. The remaining Carthaginian-controlled towns then surrendered or were taken through force or treachery and the Sicilian grain supply to Rome and its armies was secured. In the spring of 207 BC Hasdrubal Barca repeated the feat of his elder brother by marching an army of 35,000 men across
11880-421: The large city of Capua and the major port city of Tarentum (modern Taranto ). Two of the major Samnite tribes also joined the Carthaginian cause. By 214 BC the bulk of southern Italy had turned against Rome, although there were many exceptions. The majority of Rome's allies in central Italy remained loyal. All except the smallest towns were too well fortified for Hannibal to take by assault and blockade could be
12015-506: The leadership of Spendius and Matho ; 70,000 Africans from Carthage's oppressed dependant territories flocked to join the mutineers, bringing supplies and finance. War-weary Carthage fared poorly in the initial engagements, especially under the generalship of Hanno . Hamilcar Barca , a veteran of the campaigns in Sicily, was given joint command of the army in 240 BC and supreme command in 239 BC. He campaigned successfully, initially demonstrating leniency in an attempt to woo
12150-463: The legions from behind. As a result, the Roman infantry was surrounded with no means of escape. At least 67,500 Romans were killed or captured. The historian Richard Miles describes Cannae as "Rome's greatest military disaster". Toni Ñaco del Hoyo describes the Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae as the three "great military calamities" suffered by the Romans in the first three years of the war. Brian Carey writes that these three defeats brought Rome to
12285-637: The local tribes. A rushed Carthaginian attack in late 218 BC was beaten back at the battle of Cissa . In 217 BC 40 Carthaginian and Iberian warships were defeated by 55 Roman and Massalian vessels at the battle of Ebro River , with 29 Carthaginian ships lost. The Romans' lodgement between the Ebro and the Pyrenees blocked the route from Iberia to Italy and greatly hindered the despatch of reinforcements from Iberia to Hannibal. The Carthaginian commander in Iberia, Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, marched into this area in 215 BC, offered battle and
12420-572: The medieval bridges of Margineda and Escalls among many others. The Catalan Pyrenees were embryonic of the Catalan language at the end of the 11th century. Andorra was influenced by this language, which was adopted locally decades before it expanded to the rest of the Crown of Aragon. The local economy during the Middle Ages was based on livestock, agriculture, furs and weavers. Later, at
12555-409: The most common operations. When armies were campaigning, surprise attacks, ambushes and stratagems were common. More formal battles were usually preceded by the two armies camping two–twelve kilometres (1–7 miles) apart for days or weeks; sometimes both forming up in battle order each day. If either commander felt at a disadvantage, they might march off without engaging. In such circumstances it
12690-703: The national consciousness of the valleys was exposed in the romantic work during the Peninsular War. In 1933 France occupied Andorra following social unrest which occurred before elections due to the Revolution of 1933 and the FHASA strikes (Vagues de FHASA); the revolt led by Joves Andorrans (a labour union group related to the Spanish CNT and FAI ) called for political reforms, the universal suffrage vote of all Andorrans and acted in defense of
12825-526: The official language, Catalan. Romantic authors from France and Spain reported the awakening of the national consciousness of the country. Jacint Verdaguer lived in Ordino during the 1880s where he wrote and shared works related to the Renaixença with writer and photographer Joaquim de Riba . In 1848, Fromental Halévy had premiered the opera Le val d'Andorre to great success in Europe, where
12960-426: The open plain near Cannae . In the battle of Cannae the Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's deliberately weak centre, but Libyan heavy infantry on the wings swung around their advance, menacing their flanks. Hasdrubal led the Carthaginian cavalry on the left wing and routed the Roman cavalry opposite, then swept around the rear of the Romans to attack the cavalry on the other wing. He then charged into
13095-671: The parish of Canillo , about the rituals of funerals, ancient scripture and engraved stone murals . The inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with the Iberians and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe Andosins or Andosini ( Ἀνδοσίνους ) during the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. Influenced by the Aquitanian , Basque and Iberian languages , the locals developed some current toponyms. Early writings and documents relating to this group of people goes back to
13230-614: The populace was divided over the Qüestió d'Andorra – the "Andorran Question" in relation to the Eastern Question . The struggles continued between pro-bishops, pro-French, and nationalists based on the troubles of Canillo in 1882 and 1885. Andorra participated in the cultural movement of the Catalan Renaixença . Between 1882 and 1887, the first academic schools were formed where trilingualism coexisted with
13365-430: The port city of Locri defected to Carthage in the summer of 215 BC it was immediately used to reinforce the Carthaginian forces in Italy with soldiers, supplies and war elephants. It was the only time during the war that Carthage reinforced Hannibal. A second force, under Hannibal's youngest brother Mago , was meant to land in Italy in 215 BC but was diverted to Iberia after the Carthaginian defeat there at
13500-576: The preparation of this force an act of war and demanded Carthage cede Sardinia and Corsica and pay an additional 1,200-talent indemnity. Weakened by 30 years of war, Carthage agreed rather than again enter into conflict with Rome. Polybius considered this "contrary to all justice" and modern historians have variously described the Romans' behaviour as "unprovoked aggression and treaty-breaking", "shamelessly opportunistic" and an "unscrupulous act". These events fuelled resentment of Rome in Carthage, which
13635-421: The previous forty-five years and a staunch Roman ally, died in that year and his successor Hieronymus was discontented with his situation. Hannibal negotiated a treaty whereby Syracuse defected to Carthage, in exchange for making the whole of Sicily a Syracusan possession. The Syracusan army proved no match for a Roman army led by Claudius Marcellus and by spring 213 BC Syracuse was besieged . The siege
13770-408: The previously traditional tactic of ramming . All warships were equipped with rams, a triple set of 60-centimetre-wide (2 ft) bronze blades weighing up to 270 kilograms (600 lb) positioned at the waterline. In the century prior to the Punic Wars, boarding had become increasingly common and ramming had declined, as the larger and heavier vessels adopted in this period increasingly lacked
13905-404: The principality its territory and political form. A second paréage was signed in 1288 after a dispute when the count of Foix ordered the construction of a castle in Roc d'Enclar. The document was ratified by the noble notary Jaume Orig of Puigcerdà , and construction of military structures in the country was prohibited. In 1364, the political organization of the country named the figure of
14040-509: The proposed terms were so harsh they decided to fight on. At the battle of Tunis in spring 255 BC a combined force of infantry, cavalry and war elephants under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus crushed the Romans. The Romans sent a fleet to evacuate their survivors and the Carthaginians opposed it at the battle of Cape Hermaeum (modern Cape Bon ); the Carthaginians were again heavily defeated. The Roman fleet, in turn,
14175-878: The protection of its sovereignty. Andorra was relatively unscathed by the two world wars and the Spanish Civil War. Certain groups formed to help victims of oppression in Nazi -occupied countries, while participating in smuggling to help Andorra survive. Among the most prominent was the Hostal Palanques Evasion Network Command, which, in contact with the British MI6 , helped almost 400 fugitives, among whom were Allied military personnel. The Command remained active between 1941 and 1944, although there were struggles with pro-Axis informers and Gestapo agents in Andorra. In
14310-444: The rebels over. To prevent this, in 240 BC Spendius tortured 700 Carthaginian prisoners to death and henceforth the war was pursued with great brutality. By early 237 BC, after numerous setbacks, the rebels were defeated and their cities brought back under Carthaginian rule. An expedition was prepared to reoccupy Sardinia, where mutinous soldiers had slaughtered all Carthaginians. The Roman Senate stated they considered
14445-448: The remnants of his army were recalled. They sailed from Croton and landed at Carthage with 15,000–20,000 experienced veterans. Mago was also recalled; he died of wounds on the voyage and some of his ships were intercepted by the Romans, but 12,000 of his troops reached Carthage. The Roman fleet continued on from Massala in the autumn of 218 BC, landing the army it was transporting in north-east Iberia, where it won support among
14580-675: The rights of local and foreign workers during the construction of FHASA's hydroelectric power station in Encamp . On 5 April 1933 Joves Andorrans seized the Andorran Parliament. These actions were preceded by the arrival of Colonel René-Jules Baulard with 50 gendarmes and the mobilization of 200 local militias or sometent led by the Síndic Francesc Cairat. On 6 July 1934, adventurer and nobleman Boris Skossyreff , with his promise of freedoms and modernization of
14715-856: The second century BC by the Greek writer Polybius in his Histories during the Punic Wars . Some of the most significant remains of this era are the Castle of the Roc d'Enclar (part of the early Marca Hispanica ), l'Anxiu in Les Escaldes and Roc de L'Oral in Encamp . The presence of Roman influence is recorded from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. The places with the most Roman presence are in Camp Vermell (Red Field) in Sant Julià de Lòria , and in some places in Encamp and in
14850-477: The ship was to be handled effectively. As a result, the Romans were initially at a disadvantage against the more experienced Carthaginians. To counter this, the Romans introduced the corvus , a bridge 1.2 metres (4 feet) wide and 11 metres (36 feet) long, with a heavy spike on the underside, which was designed to pierce and anchor into an enemy ship's deck. This allowed Roman legionaries acting as marines to board enemy ships and capture them, rather than employing
14985-566: The siege, but was then ambushed and besieged itself. An army had previously been created by the Romans to campaign in Iberia and the Roman Senate detached one Roman and one allied legion from it to send to north Italy. Raising fresh troops to replace these delayed the army's departure for Iberia until September. Meanwhile, Hannibal assembled a Carthaginian army in New Carthage (modern Cartagena ) in Iberia and led it northwards along
15120-406: The sometent (popular militia or army) to deal with the rise of bandolerisme ( brigandage ) and the Consell de la Terra was defined and structured in terms of its composition, organization and competences current today. Andorra continued with the same economic system that it had during the 12th–14th centuries with a large production of metallurgy (fargues, a system similar to Farga Catalana) and with
15255-434: The southern coast of Sicily. The Carthaginian's superior seamanship was not as effective as they had hoped, while the Romans' corvus gave them an edge as the battle degenerated into a shapeless brawl. The Carthaginians were again beaten; this was possibly the largest naval battle in history by the number of combatants involved. The invasion initially went well and in 255 BC the Carthaginians sued for peace ;
15390-433: The speed and manoeuvrability necessary to ram effectively, while their sturdier construction reduced a ram's effect on them even in case of a successful attack. The Roman adaptation of the corvus was a continuation of this trend and compensated for their initial disadvantage in ship-manoeuvring skills. The added weight in the prow compromised both the ship's manoeuvrability and its seaworthiness, and in rough sea conditions
15525-559: The survivors withdrew. There was also extensive fighting in Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal), Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa. The successful Roman invasion of the Carthaginian homeland in Africa in 204 BC led to Hannibal's recall. He was defeated in the battle of Zama in 202 BC and Carthage sued for peace . A treaty was agreed in 201 BC which stripped Carthage of its overseas territories and some of its African ones, imposed
15660-501: The two powers to stumble into war more by accident than design. The spark that ignited the First Punic War in 264 BC was the issue of control of the independent Sicilian city state of Messana (modern Messina ). Most male Roman citizens were liable for military service and would serve as infantry, with a better-off minority providing a cavalry component. Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two legions , each of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 members of
15795-602: The valleys for 200 years, during which time Christianity spread. When the Muslim Empire of Al-Andalus replaced the ruling Visigoths in most of the Iberian Peninsula, Andorra was sheltered from these Arab invaders by the Franks . Tradition holds that Charles the Great (Charlemagne) granted a charter to the Andorran people for a contingent of 5,000 soldiers under the command of Marc Almugaver, in return for fighting against
15930-511: The valleys of Andorra and facing the Carthaginian army in its passage through the Pyrenees during the Punic Wars . The word Andosini or Andosins ( Ἀνδοσίνοι ) may derive from the Basque handia , meaning "big" or "giant". The Andorran toponymy shows evidence of Basque language in the area. Another theory suggests that the word Andorra may derive from the old word Anorra that contains
16065-428: The war in modern sources are largely based on interpretations of Polybius's account. The account of the Roman historian Livy is commonly used by modern historians where Polybius's account is not extant. Livy relied heavily on Polybius, but wrote in a more structured way, with more details about Roman politics, as well as being openly pro-Roman. His accounts of military encounters are often demonstrably inaccurate;
16200-410: The war shifted to the sea, where the Romans had little experience; on the few occasions they had previously felt the need for a naval presence they had usually relied on small squadrons provided by their Latin or Greek allies. The Romans built a navy to challenge Carthage's, and using the corvus inflicted a major defeat at the battle of Mylae in 260 BC. A Carthaginian base on Corsica
16335-438: The workhorses of the Roman and Carthaginian fleets throughout the Punic Wars. So ubiquitous was the type that Polybius uses it as a shorthand for "warship" in general. A quinquereme carried a crew of 300: 280 oarsmen and 20 deck crew and officers. It would also normally carry a complement of 40 marines; if battle was thought to be imminent this would be increased to as many as 120. In 260 BC Romans set out to construct
16470-513: Was defeated at Dertosa , although both sides suffered heavy casualties. The Carthaginians suffered a wave of defections of local Celtiberian tribes to Rome. The Roman commanders captured Saguntum in 212 BC and in 211 BC hired 20,000 Celtiberian mercenaries to reinforce their army. Observing that the three Carthaginian armies were deployed apart from each other, the Romans split their forces. This strategy resulted in two separate battles in 211 BC, usually referred to jointly as
16605-570: Was a rapidly expanding power in Italy , with a strong army but no navy. The fighting took place primarily on Sicily and its surrounding waters, as well as in North Africa , Corsica , and Sardinia . It lasted 23 years, until 241 BC, when the Carthaginians were defeated. By the terms of the Treaty of Lutatius (241, amended 237 BC), Carthage paid large reparations and Sicily was annexed as
16740-409: Was already at war against Macedonia. In 205 BC this war ended with a negotiated peace . A rebellion in support of the Carthaginians broke out on Sardinia in 213 BC, but it was quickly put down by the Romans. Up to 215 BC Sicily remained firmly in Roman hands, blocking the ready seaborne reinforcement and resupply of Hannibal from Carthage. Hiero II , the tyrant of Syracuse for
16875-426: Was an important smuggling route between Vichy France and Francoist Spain. Many Andorrans criticized the passivity of the General Council for impeding both the entry and expulsion of foreigners and refugees, committing economic crimes, reducing the rights of citizens and sympathy with Francoism . General Council members justified the council's political and diplomatic actions as necessary for Andorra's survival and
17010-548: Was arrested by the Co-Prince and Bishop Justí Guitart i Vilardebó and their authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled from Spain . From 1936 until 1940, a French military detachment of Garde Mobile led by well-known Colonel René-Jules Baulard was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from the Spanish Civil War and Francoist Spain and also face the rise of Republicanism in
17145-519: Was being devastated by the enemy. Hannibal marched through the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping the devastation would draw Fabius into battle, but Fabius refused. In the 216 BC elections Gaius Varro and Lucius Paullus were elected as consuls; both were more aggressive-minded than Fabius. The Roman Senate authorised the raising of a force of 86,000 men, the largest in Roman history to that point. Paullus and Varro marched southward to confront Hannibal, who accepted battle on
17280-456: Was devastated by a storm while returning to Italy, losing most of its ships and more than 100,000 men. It is possible that the presence of the corvus, making the Roman ships unusually unseaworthy , contributed to this disaster; there is no record of them being used again. The war continued, with neither side able to gain a decisive advantage. The Carthaginians attacked and recaptured Akragas in 255 BC, but not believing they could hold
17415-512: Was difficult to force a battle if the other commander was unwilling to fight. Forming up in battle order was a complicated and premeditated affair, which took several hours. Infantry were usually positioned in the centre of the battle line, with light infantry skirmishers to their front and cavalry on each flank. Many battles were decided when one side's infantry force was attacked in the flank or rear and they were partially or wholly enveloped . Quinqueremes , meaning "five-oarsmen", provided
17550-568: Was fought entirely on Carthage's territories in what is now Tunisia and centred on the siege of Carthage . In 146 BC, the Romans stormed the city of Carthage , sacked it, slaughtered or enslaved most of its population, and completely demolished the city. The Carthaginian territories were taken over as the Roman province of Africa . The ruins of the city lie east of modern Tunis on the North African coast. The most reliable source for
17685-422: Was marked by the ingenuity of Archimedes in inventing war machines to counteract the traditional siege warfare methods of the Romans. A large Carthaginian army led by Himilco was sent to relieve the city in 213 BC. It captured several Roman-garrisoned towns on Sicily; many Roman garrisons were either expelled or massacred by Carthaginian partisans. In spring 212 BC the Romans stormed Syracuse in
17820-488: Was not reconciled to Rome's perception of its situation. This breach of the recently signed treaty is considered by modern historians to be the single greatest cause of war with Carthage breaking out again in 218 BC in the Second Punic War . With the suppression of the rebellion, Hamilcar understood that Carthage needed to strengthen its economic and military base if it were to again confront Rome. After
17955-640: Was ruled by the count of Urgell until 988, when it was transferred to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell . The present principality was formed by a charter in 1278 . It is currently headed by two co-princes: the Bishop of Urgell in Catalonia , Spain, and the president of France . Its capital and largest city is Andorra la Vella . Andorra is the sixth-smallest state in Europe , with an area of 468 square kilometres (181 sq mi) and
18090-400: Was seized, but an attack on Sardinia was repulsed; the base on Corsica was then lost. In 258 BC a Roman fleet defeated a smaller Carthaginian fleet at the battle of Sulci off the western coast of Sardinia. Taking advantage of their naval victories the Romans launched an invasion of North Africa in 256 BC, which the Carthaginians intercepted at the battle of Cape Ecnomus off
18225-728: Was the promotion of Catalan writings in Andorra, with cultural works such as the Book of Privileges ( Llibre de Privilegis de 1674 ), Manual Digest (1748) by Antoni Fiter i Rossell or the Polità andorrà (1763) by Antoni Puig. After the French Revolution , Napoleon I reestablished the Co-Principate in 1809 and removed the French medieval title. In 1812–1813, the First French Empire annexed Catalonia during
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