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81-583: The exact date of the foundation of the order is very uncertain. The traditional story involves serious chronological difficulties, and is based on a bull of Gregory VII , now known to be a forgery. The founder, St. Stephen of Muret (Étienne in French; also called 'of Thiers') was so impressed by the lives of the hermits whom he saw in Calabria that he desired to introduce the same manner of life into his native country. Stephen, being ordained, in 1073 obtained

162-866: A claim of sovereignty on the part of the Papacy, and to secure the recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession. On the ground of "immemorial usage", Corsica and Sardinia were assumed to belong to the Roman Church. Spain , Hungary and Croatia were also claimed as her property, and an attempt was made to induce the king of Denmark to hold his realm as a fief from the pope. In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical reform, Gregory did not stand alone, but found powerful support: in England Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury stood closest to him; in France his champion

243-414: A curtailment of the powers of bishops. Since these refused to submit voluntarily and tried to assert their traditional independence, his papacy is full of struggles against the higher ranks of the clergy. Pope Gregory VII was critical in promoting and regulating the concept of modern university as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into

324-642: A dispersion of his strength in the conflict soon to break out in Germany. Pope Gregory attempted to organize a crusade into Al-Andalus , led by Count Ebles II of Roucy . Gregory, in fact, established some sort of relations with every country in Christendom; though these relations did not invariably realize the ecclesiastico-political hopes connected with them. His correspondence extended to Poland , Kievan Rus' and Bohemia . He unsuccessfully tried to bring Armenia into closer contact with Rome. Gregory

405-546: A general chapter, the first for 134 years, at which Charles Frémon was authorised to found the Strict Observance of the Order of Grandmont. This new branch, which remained under the jurisdiction of the abbot, was conspicuous for the primitive austerity of its observance, but never numbered more than eight houses. By the beginning of the eighteenth century the two Observances together numbered only about 150 members, but

486-514: A list of accusations against the pope before the assembly, which resolved that Gregory had forfeited the papacy. In one document full of accusations, the bishops renounced their allegiance to Gregory. In another, Henry pronounced him deposed, and required the Romans to choose a new pope. The council sent two bishops to Italy, who then procured a similar act of deposition from the Lombard bishops at

567-488: A man mighty in human and divine knowledge, a distinguished lover of equity and justice, a man firm in adversity and temperate in prosperity, a man, according to the saying of the Apostle, of good behavior, blameless, modest, sober, chaste, given to hospitality, and one that ruleth well his own house; a man from his childhood generously brought up in the bosom of this Mother Church, and for the merit of his life already raised to

648-471: A number of lives of St. Stephen, the most important work issuing from Grandmont was Gérard Ithier's treatise "De institutione novitiorum"—a favourite spiritual work in the Middle Ages, usually but erroneously attributed to Hugh of St. Victor . The original habit of Grandmont was a coarse tunic with scapular and hood, brown in the early days but changed later to black. The monks gradually laid aside

729-545: A reputation for simplicity of life and generosity to the poor, along with an emphasis on hospitality. They acquired the nickname the Bonshommes . After the founder's death in 1124, sometime around 1150, having been compelled to leave Muret due to disputed ownership, the hermits settled in the neighboring desert of Grandmont , whence the order derived its name. The influence of the Grandmontines reached its height in

810-693: A slight recovery, but in spite of the vigilance of the Holy See and the good administration of the first abbots, the improvement was of short duration. The order suffered severely during the Hundred Years' War . From 1471 until 1579 Grandmont was held by commendatory abbots ; shortly after the latter date there were only eight monks in the monastery. On one occasion, the abbey was seized by the Huguenots , but in 1604 these were expelled by Abbot Rigaud de Lavaur. In 1643 Abbot Georges Barny (1635–1654) held

891-625: A very irregular fashion, contrary to the Constitution of the Pope of 607. This ecclesiastical statute forbade a papal election to begin until the third day after a pope's burial. Cardinal Ugo's intervention was contrary to the Constitution of Nicholas II, which affirmed the exclusive right to name candidates to Cardinal Bishops; finally, it ignored the Constitution's requirement that the Holy Roman Emperor be consulted. However, Gregory

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972-456: The imperium . But at no period would he have dreamed of putting the two powers on an equal footing; the superiority of church to state was to him a fact which admitted of no discussion and which he had never doubted. He wished to see all important matters of dispute referred to Rome; appeals were to be addressed to himself; the centralization of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally involved

1053-687: The Archdeacon!" Hildebrand immediately fled, and hid himself for some time, thereby making it clear that he had refused the uncanonical election in the Liberian Basilica. He was finally found at the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli , to which a famous monastery was attached, and elected pope by the assembled cardinals, with the due consent of the Roman clergy, amid the repeated acclamations of

1134-409: The Church to annihilate not merely a single state, but all states. Thus Gregory VII, as a politician wanting to achieve some result, was driven in practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged the existence of the state as a dispensation of providence , described the coexistence of church and state as a divine ordinance, and emphasized the necessity of union between the sacerdotium and

1215-456: The Church. In the two years following Gregory's election, the Saxon rebellion fully occupied Henry and forced him to come to terms with the pope at any cost. In May 1074 Henry did penance at Nuremberg —in the presence of the papal legates—to atone for his continued friendship with the members of his council who had been banned by Gregory; he took an oath of obedience, and promised his support in

1296-739: The County of Grosseto , now southern Tuscany , the son of a blacksmith . As a youth he was sent to study in Rome at the monastery of St. Mary on the Aventine , where his uncle was reportedly abbot of a monastery on the Aventine Hill . Among his masters were the erudite Lawrence, archbishop of Amalfi , and Johannes Gratianus, the future Pope Gregory VI . When the latter was deposed at the Council of Sutri in December of 1046, with approval of

1377-526: The German princes that he would expect their escort on 8 January 1077 to Mantua . This escort had not appeared when he received the news of Henry's arrival at Canossa , where Gregory had taken refuge under the protection of his close ally, Matilda of Tuscany . Henry had travelled through Burgundy , greeted with enthusiasm by the Lombards, but he resisted the temptation to employ force. In an astonishing turn,

1458-433: The German princes. Contemporary evidence suggests that the excommunication of Henry made a profound impression both in Germany and Italy. Thirty years before, Henry III had deposed three unworthy claimants to the papacy, a service acknowledged by the Church and public opinion. When Henry IV again attempted this procedure he lacked support. In Germany there was a rapid and general feeling in favor of Gregory, strengthening

1539-431: The Grandmontines always maintained that they were hermits. They tended to seek out woodlands and uplands to situate their monasteries. The architecture of the order of Grandmont is notable for its simplicity. A single barrel vaulted nave with a slightly wider apse. Three windows at the east and one at the west. The entry to the church, in most surviving cases, is in the northwest side. The so-called "Rule of St. Stephen"

1620-436: The Grandmontines regarding simoniacal entry that in the customary composed about 1170, it was forbidden to ask a candidate seeking to join, about bringing money, or buying clothes, or equipment for a horse. Begging was only permitted when there was no food in the house, and even then the local bishop was first to be informed of their state. Although discipline was severe, the rule of silence was relatively lenient. They developed

1701-661: The Holy Roman Emperor Henry III and exiled to Germany , Hildebrand followed him to Cologne . According to some chroniclers, Hildebrand moved to Cluny after Gregory VI's death, which occurred in 1048; though his declaration to have become a monk at Cluny is disputed. He then accompanied Cluny's Abbot Bruno of Toul to Rome; there, Bruno was elected pope, choosing the name Leo IX , and named Hildebrand as deacon and papal administrator. In 1054 Leo sent Hildebrand as his legate to Tours in France in

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1782-411: The Holy See when the long-standing case of the right of Dol to be a metropolitan and use the pallium was finally decided. King William felt himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the management of the church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome, made appointments to bishoprics and abbeys , and showed little anxiety when the pope lectured him on the different principles which he had as to

1863-547: The Norman duke Robert Guiscard . Gregory VII replied with a harsh letter dated 8 December 1075, in which he accused Henry of breaching his word and of continuing to support excommunicated councillors. At the same time, the pope sent a verbal message threatening not only the ban of the Church against the emperor, but the deprivation of his crown. At the same time, Gregory was menaced by Cencio I Frangipane , who on Christmas night surprised him in church and kidnapped him, though he

1944-613: The Pope could appoint or depose bishops or move them from see to see, an act which was later to cause the Investiture Controversy . Gregory VII's main political project was his relationship with the Holy Roman Empire. Since the death of Holy Roman Emperor Henry III, the strength of the German monarchy had been seriously weakened, and his untried son Henry IV had to contend with great internal difficulties, presenting an opportunity for Gregory to strengthen

2025-456: The Pope's permission to establish an order. He is said to have settled in Muret near Limoges in 1076, where he made himself a hut of branches of trees and lived there for some time in complete solitude. A few disciples gathered round him, and a community was formed. The Order of Grandmont has been claimed by both Benedictines and Canons Regular as a branch of their respective institutes, although

2106-495: The archidiaconal dignity. [...] We choose then our Archdeacon Hildebrand to be pope and successor to the Apostle, and to bear henceforward and forever the name of Gregory" (22 April 1073). Gregory VII's first attempts in foreign policy were towards a reconciliation with the Normans of Robert Guiscard ; in the end the two parties did not meet. After a failed call for a crusade to the princes of northern Europe, and after obtaining

2187-415: The arrangement did not work well. The golden age of Grandmont however lasted only sixty years after the founder's death. After then, the history of the order is an almost uninterrupted series of disputes, as quarrels between two categories of monks were a constant source of dissension. Even in the twelfth century, the ill-defined position of the lay brothers caused troubles. They were far more numerous than

2268-459: The ban on the anniversary of his excommunication, his throne should be considered vacant. At the same time invited Gregory to Augsburg to decide the conflict. Unable to oppose his princes and the pope together, Henry saw that he must secure absolution from Gregory before the period named. At first he attempted this through an embassy, but when Gregory rejected his overtures he went to Italy in person. The pope had already left Rome and had informed

2349-521: The campaign against priestly marriage and that against simony provoked widespread resistance. His writings treat mainly of the principles and practice of Church government. They may be found in Mansi's collection under the title "Gregorii VII registri sive epistolarum libri". Most of his surviving letters are preserved in his Register, which is now stored in the Vatican Archives. Gregory VII

2430-483: The castle of Salerno by the sea, where he died on 25 May 1085. He was probably a prisoner of the Normans in Salerno. Three days before his death, he withdrew all the censures of excommunication that he had pronounced, except those against the two chief offenders—Henry and Guibert. In 1076, Gregory appointed Dol Euen, a monk of Saint-Melaine of Rennes, as bishop of Dol , rejecting both the incumbent, Iuthael, who had

2511-505: The choir-monks, and were given entire control of all temporalities so the latter might be free to carry on spiritual duties. Gradual relaxation of the rules of poverty led to great possessions, and thus increased the importance of the lay brothers, who now claimed equality with the choir-monks. This led to scandalous scenes. The political situation embittered these dissensions, the order being divided into two parties, French and English. Successive popes tried to restore peace, but in vain. In 1219

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2592-512: The clergy and laity to elect a new archbishop in place of the "mad" and "tyrannical" schismatic Wibert. In 1081, Henry opened the conflict against Gregory in Italy. The emperor was now in the stronger position, as thirteen cardinals had deserted the pope, and the rival emperor Rudolf of Swabia died on 16 October. A new imperial claimant, Hermann of Luxembourg , was put forward in August 1081, but he

2673-574: The election of Anselm of Lucca the Elder as Pope Alexander II in the papal election of October 1061 . The new pope put forward the reform program devised by Hildebrand and his followers. In his years as papal advisor, Hildebrand had an important role in the reconciliation with the Norman kingdom of southern Italy , in the anti-German alliance with the Pataria movement in northern Italy and, above all, in

2754-416: The emperor mortified his pride and abased himself in the snow to do penance before the pope. This immediately reversed the moral situation, forcing Gregory to grant Henry absolution. The Walk to Canossa soon became legendary. The reconciliation was only effected after prolonged negotiations and definite pledges on the part of Henry, and it was with reluctance that Gregory VII at length gave way, considering

2835-544: The excommunication and deposition of Henry on 7 March 1080. The papal censure now got a very different reception from the one four years before. It was widely felt to be unjustly pronounced on frivolous grounds, and its authority came in question. The emperor, now more experienced, vigorously denounced the ban as illegal. He summoned a council at Brixen , and on 25 June 1080 thirty bishops present pronounced Gregory deposed, electing archbishop Guibert (Wibert) of Ravenna as his successor. Gregory countered on 15 October, ordering

2916-407: The expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory VII was hard pressed by Henry IV, Robert Guiscard left him to his fate, and only intervened when he himself was threatened with German arms. Then, on the capture of Rome, he abandoned the city to his troops, and the popular indignation evoked by his act brought about Gregory's exile. In the case of several countries, Gregory VII tried to establish

2997-582: The first European universities. This battle for the foundation of papal supremacy is connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy among the clergy and his attack on simony . Gregory VII did not introduce the celibacy of the priesthood into the Church, but he took up the struggle with greater energy than his predecessors. In 1074, he published an encyclical , absolving the people from their obedience to bishops who allowed married priests. The next year he enjoined them to take action against married priests, and deprived these clerics of their revenues. Both

3078-576: The following years, balancing the two parties of fairly equal strength, each trying to gain the upper hand by getting the pope on their side. In the end, his non-commitment largely lost the confidence of both parties. Finally he decided for Rudolf of Swabia after his victory at the Battle of Flarchheim on 27 January 1080. Under pressure from the Saxons, and misinformed as to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his waiting policy and again pronounced

3159-426: The fourteenth century only 800. Moreover, a relaxation of the rule (1224) led finally to the cessation of all observance. In 1317 Pope John XXII , sometimes said to have been a Grandmontine monk, issued the papal bull Exigente debito to save the order from complete destruction. Its organization was altered and certain mitigations were approved. The number of houses was reduced from 149 to 39. The prior of Grandmont

3240-581: The humble scapular and hood in favour of rochet and biretta . The original habit was resumed by the Strict Observance. The founder had expressly forbidden the reception into the order of houses of religious women, nevertheless four small monasteries of women in the Diocese of Limoges were admitted. Outside France the order only possessed five houses: two in Navarre (Spain) and three cells in England up to

3321-487: The introduction of an ecclesiastic law which gave the cardinals exclusive rights concerning the election of a new pope. Pope Gregory VII was one of the few popes elected by acclamation . On the death of Alexander II on 21 April 1073, as the obsequies were being performed in the Lateran Basilica , there arose a loud outcry from the clergy and people: "Let Hildebrand be pope!", "Blessed Peter has chosen Hildebrand

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3402-520: The latter promised to hand over Guibert as a prisoner, if the sovereign pontiff would only consent to crown him emperor. Gregory, however, insisted that Henry appear before a council and do penance. The emperor, while pretending to submit to these terms, tried hard to prevent the meeting of the council. A small number of bishops assembled nonetheless, and Gregory again excommunicated Henry. Henry, upon receipt of this news, again entered Rome on 21 March to see that his supporter, Archbishop Guibert of Ravenna,

3483-527: The main question between pope and emperor: that of investiture . A new conflict was inevitable. Obedience to the excommunication of Henry IV was used as a pretext to legitimize the rebellion of the German nobles, which did not end with his absolution. To the contrary, at Forchheim in March 1077 they elected a rival ruler in the person of Duke Rudolf of Swabia , with the papal legates declaring their neutrality. Pope Gregory sought to maintain this attitude during

3564-518: The matter of clerical appointments became a more and more contentious issue. He sought as well to compel the episcopacy to look to Rome for validation and direction, demanding the regular attendance of prelates in Rome. Gregory had no power to compel the English king to an alteration in his ecclesiastical policy, so he was compelled to ignore what he could not approve, and even considered it advisable to assure King William of his particular affection. On

3645-536: The middle of the 15th century. These latter were Alberbury , Craswall and Grosmont Priories, and as usual in Grandmontine monasteries, were occupied by a very small number of monks. Later centuries witnessed mitigations and reforms in the life, and at last the order was suppressed just before the French Revolution . In 1979 the former Grandmontine priory of Sainte-Trinité de Grandmont of Villiers

3726-402: The mode of his election was highly criticized by his opponents. Many of the accusations against him may have been expressions of personal dislike, liable to suspicion from the very fact that they were not raised to attack his promotion until several years later. But it is clear from Gregory's own account of the circumstances of his election, in his Epistle 1 and Epistle 2, that it was conducted in

3807-656: The monastery rebuilt, and King St. Louis IX of France erected a Grandmontine house at Vincennes near Paris . There were three Grandmontine monasteries in England: Alberbury in Shropshire, Craswall in Herefordshire, and Grosmont Priory in North Yorkshire. The system of lay brothers was introduced on a large scale, and the management of the temporals was in great measure left in their hands;

3888-458: The new canon law governing the election of the pope by the College of Cardinals . He was also at the forefront of developments in the relationship between the emperor and the papacy during the years before he became pope. He was the first pope to introduce a policy of obligatory celibacy for the clergy, which had until then commonly married, and also attacked the practice of simony . During

3969-410: The people. It was debated, at the time and since, whether this extraordinary outburst in favour of Hildebrand by clergy and people was wholly spontaneous, or could have been pre-arranged. According to Benizo, Bishop of Sutri, a supporter of Hildebrand, the outcry was begun by Cardinal Ugo Candidus, Cardinal Priest of S. Clemente, who rushed into a pulpit and began to declaim to the people. Certainly,

4050-455: The political implications. If Gregory VII granted absolution, the diet of princes in Augsburg, which had called on him as arbitrator, would be rendered impotent. It was impossible, however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the Church, and Gregory VII's Christian duty overrode his political interests. The removal of the ban did not imply a genuine settlement, as there was no mention of

4131-494: The power struggles between the papacy and the Empire , Gregory excommunicated Henry IV three times, and Henry appointed Antipope Clement III to oppose him. Though Gregory was hailed as one of the greatest of the Roman pontiffs after his reforms proved successful, during his own reign he was denounced by some for his autocratic use of papal powers. In later times, Gregory VII became an exemplar of papal supremacy , and his memory

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4212-416: The princes against their feudal lord Henry. When at Whitsun the emperor summoned a council of nobles to oppose the pope, only a few responded. Meanwhile, the Saxons snatched the opportunity to renew their rebellion, and the anti-royalist party grew in strength from month to month. Henry now faced ruin. As a result of the agitation, which was zealously fostered by the papal legate Bishop Altmann of Passau ,

4293-510: The princes met in October at Trebur to elect a new German ruler. Henry, who was stationed at Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine , was only saved from the loss of his throne by the failure of the assembled princes to agree on his successor. Their dissension, however, merely postponed the verdict. Henry, they declared, must make reparation and obeisance to Gregory; and if he were still under

4374-461: The prior of Grandmont and forty monks were again expelled by the rebellious lay brothers. In 1244 the papal delegates advised a union of the order with the Cistercians as a means of ending the disputes. This threat and the expulsion of a large number of monks produced a certain degree of peace. Numbers, however, declined; about 1150, the order had over 1200 members, but towards the beginning of

4455-612: The project of a great military expedition and exhorted the faithful to participate in recovering the Church of the Holy Sepulchre —foreshadowing the First Crusade . In his efforts to recruit for the expedition, he emphasized the suffering of eastern Christians, arguing western Christians had a moral obligation to go to their aid. His lifework was based on his conviction that the Church was founded by God and entrusted with

4536-471: The quarrels were as frequent and as bitter as ever. Grandmont was one of the first victims of the Commission des Réguliers. The monks of the Strict Observance were dispersed in 1780, but the struggle for existence was prolonged until 1787, when the last abbot died. The monastery was finally destroyed at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and nothing but a few fragments of wall now remains. Apart from

4617-443: The relationship of spiritual and temporal powers, or when he prohibited him from commerce or commanded him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. William was particularly annoyed at Gregory's insistence on dividing ecclesiastical England into two provinces, in opposition to William's need to emphasize the unity of his newly acquired kingdom. Gregory's increasing insistence on church independence from secular authority in

4698-514: The support of William the Conqueror , who had recently been conducting military operations in north-eastern Brittany , and Gilduin, the candidate of the nobles in Dol opposing William. Gregory rejected Iuthael because he was notorious for simony and Guilden as too young. Gregory also bestowed on Dol Euen the pallium of a metropolitan archbishop, on the condition that he would submit to the judgment of

4779-496: The support of other Norman princes such as Landulf VI of Benevento and Richard I of Capua , Gregory VII was able to excommunicate Robert in 1074. In the same year Gregory VII summoned a council in the Lateran palace, which condemned simony and confirmed celibacy for the Church's clergy. These decrees were further stressed, under menace of excommunication, the next year (24–28 February). In particular, Gregory decreed that only

4860-597: The synod of Piacenza . Roland of Parma faced the pope with these decisions before the synod which had just assembled in the Lateran Basilica . For the moment the members were frightened, but there soon arose such a storm of indignation that only the calming words of Gregory saved the envoy's life. On the following day, 22 February 1076, Gregory solemnly pronounced a sentence of excommunication against Henry IV, divested him of his royal dignity, and absolved his subjects of their sworn allegiance. The effectiveness of this sentence depended entirely on Henry's subjects, above all on

4941-477: The task of embracing all mankind in a single society in which divine will is the only law; that, in its capacity as a divine institution, it is supreme over all human structures, especially the secular state; and that the pope, in his role as head of the Church, is the vice-regent of God on earth, so that disobedience to him implies disobedience to God: or, in other words, a defection from Christianity. But any attempt to interpret this in terms of action would have bound

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5022-542: The twelfth century. Under Étienne de Liciac the order spread rapidly, and in 1170 numbered sixty monasteries, mostly in Aquitaine , Anjou and Normandy . Under his successor, Bernard de Boschiac, eighty new foundations were made, and the "bons hommes" were to be found in nearly every diocese of France. Their holy austerity roused the admiration of all beholders, and the kings of England and France vied with one another in bestowing favours upon them. Henry II of England had

5103-495: The wake of the controversy created by Berengar of Tours . At Leo's death, the new pope, Victor II , confirmed him as legate, while Victor's successor Stephen IX sent him and Anselm of Lucca to Germany to obtain recognition from Empress Agnes . Stephen died before being able to return to Rome, but Hildebrand was successful; he was then instrumental in overcoming the crisis caused by the Roman aristocracy's election of an antipope, Benedict X , who, thanks also to Agnes's support,

5184-607: The whole, William's policy was of great benefit to the Church. The relationship of Gregory VII to other European states was strongly influenced by his German policy, since the Holy Roman Empire , by taking up most of his energies, often forced him to show to other rulers the very moderation which he withheld from the German king. The attitude of the Normans brought him a rude awakening. The great concessions made to them under Nicholas II were not only powerless to stem their advance into central Italy, but failed to secure even

5265-614: The words of the Redeemer, substantially changed into the true and proper and lifegiving flesh and blood of Jesus Christ our Lord, and that after the consecration they are the true body of Christ. This profession of faith began a "Eucharistic Renaissance" in the churches of Europe as of the 12th century. Pope Gregory VII died in exile in Salerno ; the epitaph on his sarcophagus in the city's Cathedral says: "I have loved justice and hated iniquity; therefore, I die in exile." Gregory VII

5346-600: The work of reforming the Church. However, as soon as Henry defeated the Saxons at the First Battle of Langensalza on 9 June 1075 ( Battle of Homburg or Hohenburg ), he tried to reassert his sovereign rights in northern Italy. Henry sent Count Eberhard to Lombardy to combat the Patarenes ; nominated the cleric Tedald to the archbishopric of Milan , settling a prolonged and contentious question; and made overtures to

5427-443: Was Bishop Hugh de Dié , who afterwards became Archbishop of Lyon . Philip I of France , by his practice of simony and the violence of his proceedings against the Church, provoked a threat of summary measures. Excommunication, deposition and the interdict appeared to be imminent in 1074. Gregory, however, refrained from translating his threats into actions, although the attitude of the king showed no change, for he wished to avoid

5508-469: Was compiled at the request of the fourth prior, Étienne de Liciac, by Hugh of Lacerta, and embodies the customs of Grandmont some twenty or thirty years after St. Stephen's death in 1124. The founder himself left no authentic writings. His maxim was "There is no rule save the Gospel of Christ"; as this was the basis of all rules, to practise its morality was to fulfil all the duties of a good religious. The life

5589-400: Was enthroned as Pope Clement III on 24 March 1084, who in turn crowned Henry as emperor. In the meantime Gregory had formed an alliance with Robert Guiscard , who marched on the city and compelled Henry to flee towards Civita Castellana . The pope was liberated, but after the Roman people became incensed by the excesses of his Norman allies, again withdrew to Monte Cassino , and later to

5670-620: Was eremitical and very severe in regard to silence, diet and bodily austerities; it was modelled after the rule of the Camaldolese , but various regulations were adopted from the Augustinian canons. The superior was called the Corrector . The early Grandmontines were noted for their extreme austerity. Poverty was most strictly observed; the rule forbade the possession of lands, cattle, revenue, or impropriate churches. So concerned were

5751-589: Was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 22 April 1073 to his death in 1085. He is venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church . One of the great reforming popes, he initiated the Gregorian Reform , and is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy , his dispute with Emperor Henry IV to establish the primacy of papal authority and

5832-704: Was invoked both positively and negatively, reflecting later writers' attitude to the Catholic Church and the papacy. Beno of Santi Martino e Silvestro , who opposed Gregory VII in the Investiture Controversy, accused him of necromancy, cruelty, tyranny, and blasphemy. This was eagerly repeated by later opponents of the Catholic Church, such as the English Protestant John Foxe . In contrast, the modern historian and Anglican priest H. E. J. Cowdrey writes, "[Gregory VII]

5913-431: Was made an abbot , and the superiors of the dependent houses, who had hitherto been known as "Correctors", were for the future to bear the title of Prior . The Abbot of Grandmont was to be elected by his own community, and not, as before, by the deputies of the whole order. A general chapter , to be attended by the prior and one monk from each dependent house, was to be held annually. These vigorous measures brought about

5994-718: Was particularly concerned with the East. The schism between Rome and the Byzantine Empire was a severe blow to him, and he worked hard to restore the former amicable relationship. Gregory successfully tried to get in touch with the emperor Michael VII . When the news of the Muslim attacks on the Christians in the East filtered through to Rome, and the political embarrassments of the Byzantine emperor increased, he conceived

6075-424: Was released the following day. The high-handed demands and threats of the pope infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily convened national synod of Worms on 24 January 1076. In the higher ranks of the German clergy, Gregory had many enemies, and the Roman cardinal Hugo Candidus , once on intimate terms with Gregory but now his opponent, hurried to Germany for the occasion. Candidus declaimed

6156-460: Was replaced by the Bishop of Florence , Nicholas II . With the help of 300 Norman knights sent by Richard of Aversa , Hildebrand personally led the conquest of the castle of Galeria Antica where Benedict had taken refuge. Between 1058 and 1059, he was made archdeacon of the Roman church, becoming the most important figure in the papal administration. He was again the most powerful figure behind

6237-541: Was seen by Pope Paul VI as instrumental in affirming the tenet that Christ is present in the Blessed Sacrament . Gregory's demand that Berengarius perform a confession of this belief was quoted in Pope Paul VI's historic 1965 encyclical Mysterium fidei : I believe in my heart and openly profess that the bread and wine that are placed on the altar are, through the mystery of the sacred prayer and

6318-400: Was surprisingly flexible, feeling his way and therefore perplexing both rigorous collaborators ... and cautious and steady-minded ones ... His zeal, moral force, and religious conviction, however, ensured that he should retain to a remarkable degree the loyalty and service of a wide variety of men and women." Gregory was born Hildebrand ( Italian : Ildebrando ) in the town of Sovana , in

6399-575: Was then confirmed by a second election at S. Pietro in Vincoli. Gregory VII's earliest pontifical letters clearly acknowledged these events, and thus helped defuse doubts about his election and popularity. On 22 May 1073, the Feast of Pentecost , he received ordination as a priest , and he was consecrated a bishop and enthroned as pope on 29 June, the Feast of St. Peter's Chair. In the decree of election, his electors proclaimed Gregory VII: "a devout man,

6480-543: Was to become the home of a small group intent on restoring the Grandmontine life style; with the permission of the local bishop they began to attempt the restoration of the principles of S. Stephen's monastic life, in the modern world.(Hutchison, Carole A.) The Grandmontines featured in an episode of the popular BBC TV drama Bonekickers entitled Army of God . Pope Gregory VII Pope Gregory VII ( Latin : Gregorius VII ; c. 1015 – 25 May 1085), born Hildebrand of Sovana ( Italian : Ildebrando di Soana ),

6561-611: Was unable to rally the papal party in Germany, and the power of Henry IV was at its peak. The pope's chief military supporter, Matilda of Tuscany , blocked Henry's armies from the western passages over the Apennines , so he had to approach Rome from Ravenna . Rome surrendered to the German king in 1084, and Gregory thereupon retired into the exile of the Castel Sant'Angelo . Gregory refused to entertain Henry's overtures, although

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