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162-490: The guinea pig or domestic guinea pig ( Cavia porcellus ), also known as the cavy or domestic cavy ( / ˈ k eɪ v i / KAY -vee ), is a species of rodent belonging to the genus Cavia , family Caviidae . Breeders tend to use the name "cavy" for the animal, but "guinea pig" is more commonly used in scientific and laboratory contexts. Despite their name, guinea pigs are not native to Guinea , nor are they closely related to pigs . Instead, they originated in
324-921: A legume rather than a grass hay, alfalfa consumed in large amounts may lead to obesity , as well as bladder stones from the excess calcium in all animals except for pregnant and very young guinea pigs. However, published scientific sources mention alfalfa as a food source that can replenish protein, amino acids , and fiber. Like humans, but unlike most other mammals , guinea pigs cannot synthesize vitamin C and must obtain this vital nutrient from food. If guinea pigs do not ingest enough vitamin C, they can suffer from potentially fatal scurvy . They require about 10 mg of vitamin C daily (20 mg if pregnant), which can be obtained through fresh, raw fruits and vegetables (such as broccoli, apple, cabbage, carrot, celery, and spinach) or dietary supplements or by eating fresh pellets designed for guinea pigs, if they have been handled properly. Healthy diets for guinea pigs require
486-420: A "broad" definition: "a coevolutionary process that arises from a mutualism, in which one species (the domesticator) constructs an environment where it actively manages both the survival and reproduction of another species (the domesticate) in order to provide the former with resources and/or services." He comments that this adds niche construction to the activities of the domesticator. Domestication syndrome
648-417: A boar's neuroendocrine stress response to a strange environment is significantly lowered in the presence of a bonded female but not with unfamiliar females. Groups of boars may also get along, provided their cage has enough space, they are introduced at an early age, and no females are present. In Switzerland, where owning a single guinea pig is considered harmful to its well-being, keeping a guinea pig without
810-414: A burrow and one male defending a territory around the burrow. At high population densities, this system breaks down and males show a hierarchical system of dominance with overlapping ranges. Female offspring remain in the colony while male young disperse. The prairie vole is monogamous and forms a lifelong pair bond. Outside the breeding season, prairie voles live with others in small colonies. A male
972-549: A cage. However, rabbits have different nutritional requirements; as lagomorphs , they synthesize their own Vitamin C , so the two species will not thrive if fed the same food when housed together. Rabbits may also harbor diseases (such as respiratory infections from Bordetella and Pasteurella ), to which guinea pigs are susceptible. Housing guinea pigs with other rodents such as gerbils and hamsters may increase instances of respiratory and other infections, and such rodents may act aggressively toward guinea pigs. Vocalization
1134-491: A colony of their own. Rodents use scent marking in many social contexts including inter- and intra-species communication, the marking of trails and the establishment of territories. Their urine provides genetic information about individuals including the species, the sex and individual identity, and metabolic information on dominance, reproductive status and health. Compounds derived from the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are bound to several urinary proteins. The odor of
1296-623: A common cause of hair loss, and other symptoms may also include excessive scratching, unusually aggressive behavior when touched (due to pain), and, in some instances, seizures. Guinea pigs may also suffer from "running lice" ( Gliricola porcelli ), a small, white insect that can be seen moving through the hair; their eggs, which appear as black or white specks attached to the hair, are sometimes referred to as "static lice." Other causes of hair loss can be hormonal upsets caused by underlying medical conditions such as ovarian cysts . Foreign bodies, especially tiny pieces of hay or straw, can become lodged in
1458-473: A companion is illegal. There is a service to rent guinea pigs, to temporarily replace a dead cage-mate. Sweden has similar laws against keeping a guinea pig by itself. The guinea pig's natural diet is grass ; their molars are particularly suited for grinding plant matter and grow continuously throughout their life. Most mammals that graze are large and have a long digestive tract. Guinea pigs have much longer colons than most rodents. Easily digestible food
1620-461: A complex balance of calcium, magnesium , phosphorus , potassium , and hydrogen ions ; but adequate amounts of vitamins A , D , and E are also necessary. Poor diets for guinea pigs have been associated with muscular dystrophy , metastatic calcification , difficulties with pregnancy, vitamin deficiencies , and teeth problems. Guinea pigs tend to be fickle eaters when it comes to fresh fruits and vegetables after having learned early in life what
1782-406: A distinct "chirping", has been likened to laughter , and is interpreted as an expectation of something rewarding. In clinical studies, the chirping is associated with positive emotional feelings, and social bonding occurs with the tickler, resulting in the rats becoming conditioned to seek the tickling. However, as the rats age, the tendency to chirp declines. Like most rat vocalizations, the chirping
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#17327909236491944-586: A domestic guinea pig is a painting (artist unknown) in the collection of the National Portrait Gallery in London, dated to 1580, which shows a girl in a typical Elizabethan dress holding a tortoise-shell guinea pig in her hands. She is flanked by her two brothers, one of whom holds a pet bird. The picture dates from the same period as the oldest recorded guinea pig remains in England, which are
2106-485: A few are predators. The field vole is a typical herbivorous rodent and feeds on grasses, herbs, root tubers, moss, and other vegetation, and gnaws on bark during the winter. It occasionally eats invertebrates such as insect larvae. The plains pocket gopher eats plant material found underground during tunneling, and also collects grasses, roots, and tubers in its cheek pouches and caches them in underground larder chambers. The Texas pocket gopher avoids emerging onto
2268-588: A few have become specialized to rely on a diet of animal matter. A functional-morphological study of the rodent tooth system supports the idea that primitive rodents were omnivores rather than herbivores. Studies of the literature show that numerous members of the Sciuromorpha and Myomorpha, and a few members of the Hystricomorpha, have either included animal matter in their diets or been prepared to eat such food when offered it in captivity. Examination of
2430-860: A few have been domesticated, including squid , cuttlefish and octopus , all used in research on behaviour and neurology . Terrestrial snails in the genera Helix are raised for food. Several parasitic or parasitoidal insects, including the fly Eucelatoria , the beetle Chrysolina , and the wasp Aphytis are raised for biological control. Conscious or unconscious artificial selection has many effects on species under domestication; variability can readily be lost by inbreeding, selection against undesired traits, or genetic drift, while in Drosophila , variability in eclosion time (when adults emerge) has increased. Humans foraged for wild cereals, seeds, and nuts thousands of years before they were domesticated; wild wheat and barley, for example, were gathered in
2592-498: A guinea pig typically urinates and drags its lower body across the floor of the cage to mark its territory . Male guinea pigs may mark their territory in this way when they are put back into their cages after being taken out. Guinea pigs thrive in groups of two or more; groups of sows or groups of one or more sows and a neutered boar are common combinations, but boars can sometimes live together. Guinea pigs learn to recognize and bond with other individual guinea pigs, and tests show that
2754-444: A high-fiber diet; their molars have no roots and grow continuously like their incisors. In many species, the molars are relatively large, intricately structured, and highly cusped or ridged. Rodent molars are well equipped to grind food into small particles. The jaw musculature is strong. The lower jaw is thrust forward while gnawing and is pulled backwards during chewing. Gnawing uses incisors and chewing uses molars, however, due to
2916-484: A means of communication between far-flung places through the exploitation of the pigeon's homing instinct; research suggests it was domesticated as early as 10,000 years ago. Chicken fossils in China have been dated to 7,400 years ago. The chicken's wild ancestor is Gallus gallus , the red junglefowl of Southeast Asia. The species appears to have been kept initially for cockfighting rather than for food. Two insects ,
3078-456: A means of confusing predators. When happily excited, guinea pigs may (often repeatedly) perform little hops in the air (a movement known as "popcorning"), analogous to the ferret 's war dance or rabbit happy hops (binkies). Guinea pigs are also good swimmers, although they do not like being wet and infrequently need bathing. Like many rodents, guinea pigs sometimes participate in social grooming and regularly self-groom. A milky-white substance
3240-539: A means of intra-specific communication during courtship among the Cape mole rat . Footdrumming has been reported to be involved in male-male competition; the dominant male indicates its resource holding potential by drumming, thus minimizing physical contact with potential rivals. Some species of rodent are monogamous, with an adult male and female forming a lasting pair bond . Monogamy can come in two forms; obligate and facultative. In obligate monogamy, both parents care for
3402-686: A part in social communication between dormice and are used when the individuals are out of sight of each other. House mice use both audible and ultrasonic calls in a variety of contexts. Audible vocalizations can often be heard during agonistic or aggressive encounters, whereas ultrasound is used in sexual communication and also by pups when they have fallen out of the nest. Laboratory rats (which are brown rats, Rattus norvegicus ) emit short, high frequency, ultrasonic vocalizations during purportedly pleasurable experiences such as rough-and-tumble play, when anticipating routine doses of morphine , during mating, and when tickled. The vocalization, described as
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#17327909236493564-512: A partial cavy skeleton found at Hill Hall , an Elizabethan manor house in Essex , and dated to around 1575. The scientific name of the common species is Cavia porcellus , with porcellus being Latin for " little pig". Cavia is Neo-Latin ; it is derived from cabiai , the animal's name in the language of the Galibi tribes once native to French Guiana . Cabiai may be an adaptation of
3726-468: A population bottleneck where genetic drift is enhanced by the small population size. Mutations can also be fixed in a population by a selective sweep . Mutational load can be increased by reduced selective pressure against moderately harmful traits when reproductive fitness is controlled by human management. However, there is evidence against a bottleneck in crops, such as barley, maize, and sorghum, where genetic diversity slowly declined rather than showing
3888-458: A predator depresses scent-marking behavior. Rodents are able to recognize close relatives by smell and this allows them to show nepotism (preferential behavior toward their kin) and also avoid inbreeding. This kin recognition is by olfactory cues from urine, feces and glandular secretions. The main assessment may involve the MHC, where the degree of relatedness of two individuals is correlated to
4050-499: A predator warning or defensive action. It is used primarily by fossorial or semi-fossorial rodents. The banner-tailed kangaroo rat produces several complex footdrumming patterns in a number of different contexts, one of which is when it encounters a snake. The footdrumming may alert nearby offspring but most likely conveys that the rat is too alert for a successful attack, thus preventing the snake's predatory pursuit. Several studies have indicated intentional use of ground vibrations as
4212-779: A predictable supply of a resource, resulting in mutual benefits . She noted further that it is not synonymous with agriculture since agriculture depends on domesticated organisms but does not automatically result from domestication. Michael D. Purugganan notes that domestication has been hard to define, despite the "instinctual consensus" that it means "the plants and animals found under the care of humans that provide us with benefits and which have evolved under our control." He comments that insects such as termites , ambrosia beetles , and leafcutter ants have domesticated some species of fungi , and notes further that other groups such as weeds and commensals have wrongly been called domesticated. Starting from Zeder's definition, Purugganan proposes
4374-425: A protracted coevolutionary process with multiple stages along different pathways. There are three proposed major pathways that most mammal domesticates followed into domestication: Humans did not intend to domesticate mammals from either the commensal or prey pathways, or at least they did not envision a domesticated animal would result from it. In both of those cases, humans became entangled with these species as
4536-575: A rapid initial fall at the point of domestication. Further, the genetic diversity of these crops was regularly replenished from the natural population. Similar evidence exists for horses, pigs, cows, and goats. At least three groups of insects, namely ambrosia beetles, leafcutter ants, and fungus-growing termites, have domesticated species of fungi . Ambrosia beetles in the weevil subfamilies Scolytinae and Platypodinae excavate tunnels in dead or stressed trees into which they introduce fungal gardens, their sole source of nutrition. After landing on
4698-403: A single female monopolizes mating from at least three males. In most rodent species, such as brown rats and house mice, ovulation occurs on a regular cycle while in others, such as voles, it is induced by mating . During copulation, males of some rodent species deposit a mating plug in the female's genital opening, both to prevent sperm leakage and to protect against other males inseminating
4860-412: A single upper and lower pair of ever-growing incisors. Well-known rodents include mice , rats , squirrels , prairie dogs , porcupines , beavers , guinea pigs , and hamsters . However, rabbits , hares , and pikas , which also have incisors that grow continuously (but have two pairs of upper incisors instead of one), were once included with rodents, but are now considered to be in a separate order,
5022-549: A small part of its diet is plant material. It has a chunky body with short legs and tail, but is agile and can easily overpower prey as large as itself. Rodents exhibit a wide range of types of social behavior ranging from the mammalian caste system of the naked mole-rat , the extensive "town" of the colonial prairie dog , through family groups to the independent, solitary life of the edible dormouse . Adult dormice may have overlapping feeding ranges, but they live in individual nests and feed separately, coming together briefly in
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5184-402: A suitable tree, an ambrosia beetle excavates a tunnel in which it releases its fungal symbiont . The fungus penetrates the plant's xylem tissue, extracts nutrients from it, and concentrates the nutrients on and near the surface of the beetle gallery. Ambrosia fungi are typically poor wood degraders and instead utilize less demanding nutrients. Symbiotic fungi produce and detoxify ethanol, which
5346-474: A working animal. Among invertebrates , the silkworm and the western honey bee were domesticated over 5,000 years ago for silk and honey , respectively. The domestication of plants began around 13,000–11,000 years ago with cereals such as wheat and barley in the Middle East , alongside crops such as lentil , pea , chickpea , and flax . Beginning around 10,000 years ago, Indigenous peoples in
5508-401: A year, but six is theoretically possible. Unlike the offspring of most rodents , which are altricial at birth, newborn cavy pups are precocial , and are well-developed with hair, teeth, claws, and partial eyesight. The pups are immediately mobile and begin eating solid food immediately, though they continue to suckle . Sows can once again become pregnant 6–48 hours after giving birth, but it
5670-711: Is Meerschweinchen , literally "little sea pig", in Polish they are called świnka morska , in Hungarian as tengerimalac , and in Russian : морская свинка , romanized : morskaya svinka . The German word derives from the Middle High German name Merswin . This word originally meant " dolphin " and was used because of the animals' grunting sounds (which were thought to be similar). Many other, possibly less scientifically based, explanations of
5832-769: Is モルモット ( morumotto ), which derives from the name of another mountain-dwelling rodent, the marmot . This word is how the guinea pigs were called by Dutch traders, who first brought them to Nagasaki in 1843. The other, and less common, Japanese word for guinea pig, using kanji, is 天竺鼠 (てんじくねずみ or tenjiku-nezumi ), which translates as "India rat". Guinea pigs are relatively large for rodents. In pet breeds, adults typically weigh between 700 and 1,200 g (1.5 and 2.6 lb) and measure between 20 and 25 cm (8 and 10 in) in length. Some livestock breeds weigh 3 kg (6.6 lb) when full grown. Pet breeds live an average of four to five years but may live as long as eight years. According to Guinness World Records , as of 2006,
5994-499: Is a common problem and kills many pregnant females. Signs of toxemia include anorexia (loss of appetite), lack of energy , excessive salivation , a sweet or fruity breath odor due to ketones , and seizures in advanced cases. Pregnancy toxemia appears to be most common in hot climates. Other serious complications during pregnancy can include a prolapsed uterus , hypocalcaemia , and mastitis . Females that do not give birth may develop an irreversible fusing or calcified cartilage of
6156-525: Is a multi-generational mutualistic relationship in which an animal species, such as humans or leafcutter ants , takes over control and care of another species, such as sheep or fungi, to obtain from them a steady supply of resources, such as meat, milk, or labor. The process is gradual and geographically diffuse, based on trial and error. Domestication affected genes for behavior in animals, making them less aggressive. In plants, domestication affected genes for morphology, such as increasing seed size and stopping
6318-453: Is also common among same-sex groups. Guinea pig eyesight is not as good as that of a human in terms of distance and color, but they have a wider angle of vision (about 340°) and see in partial color ( dichromacy ). They have well-developed senses of hearing, smell , and touch. Guinea pigs have developed a different biological rhythm from their wild counterparts and have longer periods of activity followed by short sleep in between. Activity
6480-405: Is an attractant for ambrosia beetles and likely prevents the growth of antagonistic pathogens and selects for other beneficial symbionts. Ambrosia beetles mainly colonise wood of recently dead trees. The leafcutter ants are any of some 47 species of leaf-chewing ants in the genera Acromyrmex and Atta . The ants carry the discs of leaves that they have cut back to their nest, where they feed
6642-788: Is and is not appropriate to consume. Their eating habits may be difficult to change after maturity. They do not respond well to sudden changes in their diet, and they may stop eating and starve rather than accept new food types. A constant supply of hay is generally recommended, as guinea pigs feed continuously and may develop bad habits if food is not present, such as chewing on their hair. Being rodents, as their teeth grow constantly (as do their nails, like humans), they routinely gnaw on things, lest their teeth become too large for their jaw (a common problem in rodents ). Guinea pigs chew on cloth, paper, plastic, and rubber if available. Guinea pig owners may "Guinea Pig proof" their household, especially if they are free to roam, to avoid any destruction or harm to
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6804-404: Is at frequencies too high for humans to hear without special equipment, so bat detectors have been used for this purpose. Rodents, like all placental mammals except primates, have just two types of light receptive cones in their retina, a short wavelength "blue-UV" type and a middle wavelength "green" type. They are therefore classified as dichromats ; however, they are visually sensitive into
6966-432: Is domesticated wheat, which relies on farmers for its reproduction and dissemination. Domesticated plants differ from their wild relatives in many ways, including Plant defenses against herbivory , such as thorns, spines, and prickles , poison, protective coverings, and sturdiness may have been reduced in domesticated plants. This would make them more likely to be eaten by herbivores unless protected by humans, but there
7128-641: Is evident in particular subgroups of rodents like kangaroo rats , hamsters, chipmunks and gophers which have two bags that may range from the mouth to the front of the shoulders. True mice and rats do not contain this structure but their cheeks are elastic due to a high degree of musculature and innervation in the region. While the largest species, the capybara , can weigh as much as 66 kg (146 lb), most rodents weigh less than 100 g (3.5 oz). Rodents have wide-ranging morphologies, but typically have squat bodies and short limbs. The fore limbs usually have five digits, including an opposable thumb, while
7290-428: Is harder for predators to spot them. Male and female guinea pigs do not significantly differ in appearance apart from general size. The position of the anus is very close to the genitals in both sexes. Sexing animals at a young age must be done by someone trained in the differences. Female genitals are distinguished by a Y-shaped configuration formed from a vulvar flap . While male genitals may look similar, with
7452-402: Is mostly driven by the brain stem, which is itself provoked by the cortex. However Legg et al. 1989 find an alternate circuit between the cortex and whiskers through the cerebellar circuits, and Hemelt & Keller 2008 the superior colliculus. Some rodents have cheek pouches , which may be lined with fur. These can be turned inside out for cleaning. In many species, the tongue cannot reach past
7614-438: Is normally considered poisonous, as well as ivy and oak tree leaves. Common ailments in domestic guinea pigs include respiratory tract infections , diarrhea , scurvy (vitamin C deficiency, typically characterized by sluggishness), abscesses due to infection (often in the neck, due to hay embedded in the throat, or from external scratches), and infections by lice , mites , or fungus . Mange mites ( Trixacarus caviae ) are
7776-915: Is not aggressive towards other males until he has mated, after which time he defends a territory, a female, and a nest against other males. The pair huddles together, grooms one another, and shares nesting and pup-raising responsibilities. Among the most social of rodents are the ground squirrels, which typically form colonies based on female kinship, with males dispersing after weaning and becoming nomadic as adults. Cooperation in ground squirrels varies between species and typically includes making alarm calls, defending territories, sharing food, protecting nesting areas, and preventing infanticide. The black-tailed prairie dog forms large towns that may cover many hectares. The burrows do not interconnect, but are excavated and occupied by territorial family groups known as coteries. A coterie often consists of an adult male, three or four adult females, several nonbreeding yearlings, and
7938-415: Is not found naturally in the wild; it is likely descended from closely related species of cavies , such as C. aperea , C. fulgida , and C. tschudii . These closely related species are still commonly found in various regions of South America. Studies from 2007 to 2010 applying molecular markers , and morphometric studies on the skull and skeletal morphology of current and mummified animals revealed
8100-430: Is not healthy for a female to be constantly pregnant. The gestation period lasts from 59–72 days (1.9–2.4 months), with an average of 63–68 days (2.1–2.2 months). Because of the long gestation period and the large size of the pups, pregnant sows may become large and eggplant -shaped, although the change in size and shape varies depending upon the size of the litter. Litter size ranges from one to six, with three being
8262-400: Is not understood why this pattern occurs, but in the case of yellow-pine chipmunks , males may have selected larger females due to their greater reproductive success. In some species, such as voles , sexual dimorphism can vary from population to population. In bank voles , females are typically larger than males, but male-bias sexual dimorphism occurs in alpine populations, possibly because of
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#17327909236498424-669: Is only weak support for most of this. Farmers did select for reduced bitterness and lower toxicity and for food quality, which likely increased crop palatability to herbivores as to humans. However, a survey of 29 plant domestications found that crops were as well-defended against two major insect pests ( beet armyworm and green peach aphid ) both chemically (e.g. with bitter substances) and morphologically (e.g. with toughness) as their wild ancestors. During domestication, crop species undergo intense artificial selection that alters their genomes, establishing core traits that define them as domesticated, such as increased grain size. Comparison of
8586-451: Is processed in the gastrointestinal tract and expelled as regular feces. But to get nutrients out of hard-to-digest fiber, guinea pigs ferment fiber in the cecum (in the GI tract) and then expel the contents as cecotropes , which are reingested ( cecotrophy ). The cecotropes are then absorbed in the small intestine to utilize the nutrients. The cecotropes are eaten directly from the anus unless
8748-472: Is scattered randomly throughout the day; aside from an avoidance of intense light, no regular circadian patterns are apparent. Guinea pigs do not generally thrive when housed with other species. Larger animals may regard guinea pigs as prey , though some dogs and cats can be trained to accept them. Opinion is divided over the cohousing of guinea pigs and rabbits . Some published sources say that guinea pigs and rabbits complement each other well when sharing
8910-407: Is secreted from their eyes and rubbed into the hair during the grooming process. Groups of boars often chew each other's hair, but this is a method of establishing hierarchy within a group, rather than a social gesture. Dominance is also established through biting (especially of the ears), piloerection , aggressive noises, head thrusts, and leaping attacks. Non-sexual simulated mounting for dominance
9072-538: Is some question as to whether these mothers can distinguish which young are theirs. In the Patagonian mara , young are also placed in communal warrens, but mothers do not permit youngsters other than their own to nurse. Infanticide exists in numerous rodent species and may be practiced by adult conspecifics of either sex. Several reasons have been proposed for this behavior, including nutritional stress, resource competition, avoiding misdirecting parental care and, in
9234-401: Is the primary means of communication between members of the species. These are the most common sounds made by the guinea pig: Males (boars) reach sexual maturity in 3–5 weeks. Similarly, females (sows) can be fertile as early as four weeks old and carry litters before becoming fully grown adults. A sow can breed year-round (with spring being the peak). A sow can have as many as five litters in
9396-668: Is the suite of phenotypic traits that arose during the initial domestication process and which distinguish crops from their wild ancestors . It can also mean a set of differences now observed in domesticated mammals, not necessarily reflecting the initial domestication process. The changes include increased docility and tameness, coat coloration, reductions in tooth size, craniofacial morphology, ear and tail form (e.g., floppy ears), estrus cycles, levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone and neurotransmitters, prolongations in juvenile behavior, and reductions in brain size and of particular brain regions. The domestication of animals and plants
9558-725: Is today Baluchistan in Pakistan. In East Asia 8,000 years ago, pigs were domesticated from wild boar genetically different from those found in the Fertile Crescent. The cat was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, perhaps 10,000 years ago, from European wildcats , possibly to control rodents that were damaging stored food. The domestication of vertebrate animals is the relationship between non-human vertebrates and humans who have an influence on their care and reproduction. In his 1868 book The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication , Charles Darwin recognized
9720-651: Is variously referred to as cobaia , from the Tupi word via its Latinization, or as porquinho da Índia (little Indian pig). This association with pigs is not universal among European terms; for example, the common word in Spanish is conejillo de Indias (little rabbit of the Indies). The Chinese refer to the animal as 豚鼠 ( túnshǔ , "pig mouse"), and sometimes as 荷蘭豬 ( hélánzhū , 'Netherlands pig') or 天竺鼠 ( tiānzhúshǔ , "Indian mouse"). The Japanese word for guinea pig
9882-636: Is widely grown for food. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been used for thousands of years to ferment beer and wine , and to leaven bread . Mould fungi including Penicillium are used to mature cheeses and other dairy products, as well as to make drugs such as antibiotics . Selection of animals for visible traits may have undesired consequences for the genetics of domestic animals. A side effect of domestication has been zoonotic diseases. For example, cattle have given humanity various viral poxes , measles , and tuberculosis ; pigs and ducks have contributed influenza ; and horses have brought
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#173279092364910044-535: The Andes region of South America , where wild guinea pigs can still be found today. Studies based on biochemistry and DNA hybridization suggest they are domesticated animals that do not exist naturally in the wild, but are descendants of a closely related cavy species such as C. tschudii . Originally, they were domesticated as livestock (source of meat) in the Andean region and are still consumed in some parts of
10206-813: The Andes Mountains , where it is known as cuy . Lately, marketers tried to increase their consumption outside South America. Biological experimentation on domestic guinea pigs has been carried out since the 17th century. The animals were used so frequently as model organisms in the 19th and 20th centuries that the epithet guinea pig came into use to describe a human test subject . Since that time, they have mainly been replaced by other rodents, such as mice and rats . However, they are still used in research, primarily as models to study such human medical conditions as juvenile diabetes , tuberculosis , scurvy (like humans, they require dietary intake of vitamin C ), and pregnancy complications . Cavia porcellus
10368-406: The Cape ground squirrel , the male's testes can be 20 percent of its head-body length. Several rodent species have flexible mating systems that can vary between monogamy, polygyny and promiscuity. Female rodents play an active role in choosing their mates. Factors that contribute to female preference may include the size, dominance and spatial ability of the male. In the eusocial naked mole rats,
10530-605: The Great Plains of North America, the burrowing activities of prairie dogs play important roles in soil aeration and nutrient redistribution, raising the organic content of the soil and increasing the absorption of water. They maintain these grassland habitats, and some large herbivores such as bison and pronghorn prefer to graze near prairie dog colonies due to the increased nutritional quality of forage. Extirpation of prairie dogs can also contribute to regional and local biodiversity loss , increased seed depredation, and
10692-718: The Indian Ocean and those in the Pacific Ocean . The coconut experienced a founder effect , where a small number of individuals with low diversity founded the modern population, permanently losing much of the genetic variation of the wild population. Population bottlenecks which reduced variation throughout the genome at some later date after domestication are evident in crops such as pearl millet , cotton , common bean and lima bean . In wheat, domestication involved repeated hybridization and polyploidy . These steps are large and essentially instantaneous changes to
10854-811: The Lagomorpha . Nonetheless, Rodentia and Lagomorpha are sister groups , sharing a single common ancestor and forming the clade of Glires . Most rodents are small animals with robust bodies, short limbs, and long tails. They use their sharp incisors to gnaw food, excavate burrows, and defend themselves. Most eat seeds or other plant material, but some have more varied diets. They tend to be social animals and many species live in societies with complex ways of communicating with each other. Mating among rodents can vary from monogamy , to polygyny , to promiscuity . Many have litters of underdeveloped, altricial young, while others are precocial (relatively well developed) at birth. The rodent fossil record dates back to
11016-634: The Levant at least 23,000 years ago. Neolithic societies in West Asia first began to cultivate and then domesticate some of these plants around 13,000 to 11,000 years ago. The founder crops of the West Asian Neolithic included cereals ( emmer , einkorn wheat , barley ), pulses ( lentil , pea , chickpea , bitter vetch ), and flax . Other plants were independently domesticated in 13 centers of origin (subdivided into 24 areas) of
11178-585: The Paleocene on the supercontinent of Laurasia . Rodents greatly diversified in the Eocene , as they spread across continents, sometimes even crossing oceans . Rodents reached both South America and Madagascar from Africa and, until the arrival of Homo sapiens , were the only terrestrial placental mammals to reach and colonize Australia. Rodents have been used as food, for clothing, as pets , and as laboratory animals in research. Some species, in particular,
11340-519: The Portuguese çavia (now savia ), which is itself derived from the Tupi word saujá , meaning rat. The origin of "guinea" in "guinea pig" is hard to explain. One proposed explanation is that the animals were brought to Europe by way of Guinea , leading people to think they had originated there. "Guinea" was also frequently used in English to refer generally to any far-off, unknown country, so
11502-408: The brown rat , the black rat , and the house mouse , are serious pests , eating and spoiling food stored by humans and spreading diseases. Accidentally introduced species of rodents are often considered to be invasive and have caused the extinction of numerous species, such as island birds, the dodo being an example, previously isolated from land-based predators. The distinguishing feature of
11664-619: The coding DNA of chromosome 8 in rice between fragrant and non-fragrant varieties showed that aromatic and fragrant rice, including basmati and jasmine , is derived from an ancestral rice domesticate that suffered a deletion in exon 7 which altered the coding for betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH2). Comparison of the potato genome with that of other plants located genes for resistance to potato blight caused by Phytophthora infestans . In coconut , genomic analysis of 10 microsatellite loci (of noncoding DNA ) found two episodes of domestication based on differences between individuals in
11826-502: The competitive breeding of guinea pigs have been formed worldwide. Through artificial selection , many specialized breeds with varying coat colors and textures have been selected by breeders. Livestock breeds of guinea pig play an important role in folk culture for many indigenous Andean peoples , especially as a food source. They are not only used in folk medicine and in community religious ceremonies but also raised for their meat. Guinea pigs are an important culinary staple in
11988-470: The domestication of wheat . Wild wheat shatters and falls to the ground to reseed itself when ripe, but domesticated wheat stays on the stem for easier harvesting. This change was possible because of a random mutation in the wild populations at the beginning of wheat's cultivation . Wheat with this mutation was harvested more frequently and became the seed for the next crop. Therefore, without realizing it, early farmers selected for this mutation. The result
12150-417: The domestication syndrome , traits presumed essential in the early stages of domestication, while others represent later improvement traits. Domesticated mammals in particular tend to be smaller and less aggressive than their wild counterparts; other common traits are floppy ears, a smaller brain, and a shorter muzzle. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during
12312-410: The eastern grey squirrel , have a large deep masseter , making them efficient at biting with the incisors. The Myomorpha , such as the brown rat, have enlarged temporalis and masseter muscles, making them able to chew powerfully with their molars. In rodents, masseter muscles insert behind the eyes and contribute to eye boggling that occurs during gnawing where the quick contraction and relaxation of
12474-785: The order Rodentia ( / r oʊ ˈ d ɛ n ʃ ə / roh- DEN -shə ), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws . About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are native to all major land masses except for Antarctica , and several oceanic islands, though they have subsequently been introduced to most of these land masses by human activity. Rodents are extremely diverse in their ecology and lifestyles and can be found in almost every terrestrial habitat, including human-made environments. Species can be arboreal , fossorial (burrowing), saltatorial /ricochetal (leaping on their hind legs), or semiaquatic. However, all rodents share several morphological features, including having only
12636-743: The penis and anus forming a similar shape, the penis will protrude if pressure is applied to the surrounding hair anterior to the genital region. The male's testes may also be visible externally from scrotal swelling. Guinea pigs can learn complex paths to food and can accurately remember a learned path for months. Their most robust problem-solving strategy is motion. While guinea pigs can jump small obstacles, they cannot jump very high. Most of them are poor climbers and are not particularly agile. They startle easily, and when they sense danger, they either freeze in place for long periods or run for cover with rapid, darting motions. Larger groups of startled guinea pigs " stampede ," running in haphazard directions as
12798-555: The pubic symphysis , a joint in the pelvis , which may occur after six months of age. If they become pregnant after this has happened, the birth canal may not widen sufficiently, which may lead to dystocia and death as they attempt to give birth. Domestic guinea pigs generally live in cages , although some owners of large numbers of cavies dedicate entire rooms to their pets. Wire mesh floors can cause injury and may be associated with an infection commonly known as bumblefoot (ulcerative pododermatitis), so cages with solid bottoms, where
12960-437: The rhinoviruses . Many parasites , too, have their origins in domestic animals. Alongside these, the advent of domestication resulted in denser human populations, which provided ripe conditions for pathogens to reproduce, mutate, spread, and eventually find a new host in humans. Scholars have expressed widely differing viewpoints on domestication's effects on society. Anarcho-primitivism critiques domestication as destroying
13122-605: The shattering of cereal seedheads. Such changes both make domesticated organisms easier to handle and reduce their ability to survive in the wild. The first animal to be domesticated by humans was the dog , as a commensal , at least 15,000 years ago. Other animals, including goats , sheep , and cows , were domesticated around 11,000 years ago. Among birds, the chicken was first domesticated in East Asia, seemingly for cockfighting, some 7,000 years ago. The horse came under domestication around 5,500 years ago in central Asia as
13284-436: The silkworm and the western honey bee , have been domesticated for over 5,000 years, often for commercial use. The silkworm is raised for the silk threads wound around its pupal cocoon; the western honey bee, for honey , and, from the 20th century, for pollination of crops. Several other invertebrates have been domesticated, both terrestrial and aquatic, including some such as Drosophila melanogaster fruit flies and
13446-611: The 1990s, a minority scientific opinion emerged proposing that caviomorphs such as guinea pigs, chinchillas , and degus are not actually rodents, and should be reclassified as a separate order of mammals (similar to the rodent-like lagomorphs which includes rabbits and hares). Subsequent research using wider sampling restored the consensus among mammalian biologists regarding the current classification of rodents, including guinea pigs, as monophyletic . Wild cavies are found on grassy plains and occupy an ecological niche similar to that of cattle . They are social animals, living in
13608-555: The Americas began to cultivate peanuts , squash , maize , potatoes , cotton , and cassava . Rice was first domesticated in China some about 9,000 years ago. In Africa, crops such as sorghum were domesticated. Agriculture developed in some 13 centres around the world, domesticating different crops and animals. Three groups of insects, namely ambrosia beetles , leafcutter ants , and fungus-growing termites have independently domesticated species of fungi, on which they feed. In
13770-535: The Americas, Africa, and Asia (the Middle East, South Asia, the Far East, and New Guinea and Wallacea); in some thirteen of these regions people began to cultivate grasses and grains. Rice was first cultivated in East Asia. Sorghum was widely cultivated in sub-Saharan Africa, while peanuts, squash, cotton, maize , potatoes , and cassava were domesticated in the Americas. Continued domestication
13932-790: The Caribbean around 500 BC by ceramic-making horticulturalists from South America. It was present in the Ostionoid period on Puerto Rico , for example, long before the advent of the Spaniards. The guinea pig was first described in the West in 1554 by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner . Its binomial scientific name was first used by Erxleben in 1777; it is an amalgam of Pallas ' generic designation (1766) and Linnaeus ' specific conferral (1758). The earliest-known European illustration of
14094-623: The German name exist. For example, sailing ships stopping to reprovision in the New World would pick up guinea pig stores, providing an easily transportable source of fresh meat. The French term is cochon d'Inde (Indian pig), or cobaye ; the Dutch called it Guinees biggetje (Guinean piglet), or cavia (in some Dutch dialects it is called Spaanse rat ); and in Portuguese, the guinea pig
14256-595: The Late Pleistocene. Domestication reduces genetic diversity of the domesticated population, especially of alleles of genes targeted by selection. One reason is a population bottleneck created by artificially selecting the most desirable individuals to breed from. Most of the domesticated strain is then born from just a few ancestors, creating a situation similar to the founder effect . Domesticated populations such as of dogs, rice, sunflowers, maize, and horses have an increased mutation load , as expected in
14418-621: The MHC genes they have in common. In non-kin communication, where more permanent odor markers are required, as at territorial borders, then non-volatile major urinary proteins (MUPs), which function as pheromone transporters, may also be used. MUPs may also signal individual identity, with each male house mouse ( Mus musculus ) excreting urine containing about a dozen genetically encoded MUPs. House mice deposit urine, which contains pheromones, for territorial marking, individual and group recognition, and social organization. Territorial beavers and red squirrels investigate and become familiar with
14580-441: The amount of UV that is reflected decreases with time, which in some circumstances can be disadvantageous; the common kestrel can distinguish between old and fresh rodent trails and has greater success hunting over more recently marked routes. Vibrations can provide cues to conspecifics about specific behaviors being performed, predator warning and avoidance, herd or group maintenance, and courtship. The Middle East blind mole rat
14742-571: The ancestor to be most likely C. tschudii . Some species of cavy, identified in the 20th century as C. anolaimae and C. guianae , may be domestic guinea pigs that have become feral by reintroduction into the wild. Regionally known as cuy (Spanish word derived from quechua quwi) , the guinea pig was first domesticated as early as 5000 BC for food by tribes in the Andean region of South America (the present-day southern part of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia), some thousands years after
14904-759: The animal walks directly on the bedding, are typically used. Large cages allow for adequate running space and can be constructed from wire grid panels and plastic sheeting, a style known as C&C, or "cubes and coroplast." Red cedar ( Eastern or Western ) and pine , both softwoods , were commonly used as bedding. Still, these materials are believed to contain harmful phenols (aromatic hydrocarbons) and oils. Bedding materials made from hardwoods (such as aspen ), paper products, and corn cobs are alternatives. Guinea pigs tend to be messy; they often jump into their food bowls or kick bedding and feces into them, and their urine sometimes crystallizes on cage surfaces, making it difficult to remove. After its cage has been cleaned,
15066-399: The average; the largest recorded litter size is 9. The guinea pig mother only has two nipples, but she can readily raise the more average-sized litters of 2 to 4 pups. In smaller litters, difficulties may occur during labour due to oversized pups. Large litters result in higher incidences of stillbirth , but because the pups are delivered at an advanced stage of development, lack of access to
15228-458: The beginning of the Holocene 11,700 years ago, a warmer climate and increasing human populations led to small-scale animal and plant domestication and an increased supply of food. The appearance of the domestic dog in the archaeological record, at least 15,000 years ago, was followed by domestication of livestock and of crops such as wheat and barley , the invention of agriculture , and
15390-524: The breeding season to mate. The pocket gopher is also a solitary animal outside the breeding season, each individual digging a complex tunnel system and maintaining a territory. Larger rodents tend to live in family units where parents and their offspring live together until the young disperse. Beavers live in extended family units typically with a pair of adults, this year's kits, the previous year's offspring, and sometimes older young. Brown rats usually live in small colonies with up to six females sharing
15552-713: The case of males, attempting to make the mother sexually receptive. The latter reason is well supported in primates and lions but less so in rodents. Infanticide appears to be widespread in black-tailed prairie dogs, including infanticide from invading males and immigrant females, as well as occasional cannibalism of an individual's own offspring. To protect against infanticide from other adults, female rodents may employ avoidance or direct aggression against potential perpetrators, multiple mating, territoriality or early termination of pregnancy. Feticide can also occur among rodents; in Alpine marmots , dominant females tend to suppress
15714-562: The case of the termites, the relationship is a fully obligate symbiosis on both sides. Domestication (not to be confused with the taming of an individual animal ), is from the Latin domesticus , 'belonging to the house'. The term remained loosely defined until the 21st century, when the American archaeologist Melinda A. Zeder defined it as a long-term relationship in which humans take over control and care of another organism to gain
15876-479: The cranial anatomy of rodents these feeding methods cannot be used at the same time and are considered to be mutually exclusive. Among rodents, the masseter muscle plays a key role in chewing, making up 60% – 80% of the total muscle mass among masticatory muscles and reflects rodents' herbivorous diet. Rodent groups differ in the arrangement of the jaw muscles and associated skull structures, both from other mammals and amongst themselves. The Sciuromorpha , such as
16038-412: The current year's offspring. Individuals within coteries are friendly with each other, but hostile towards outsiders. Perhaps the most extreme examples of colonial behavior in rodents are the eusocial naked mole rat and Damaraland mole rat . The naked mole rat lives completely underground and can form colonies of up to 80 individuals. Only one female and up to three males in the colony reproduce, while
16200-594: The degu less visible to predators. Ultraviolet light is abundant during the day but not at night. There is a large increase in the ratio of ultraviolet to visible light in the morning and evening twilight hours. Many rodents are active during twilight hours (crepuscular activity), and UV-sensitivity would be advantageous at these times. Ultraviolet reflectivity is of dubious value for nocturnal rodents. The urine of many rodents (e.g. voles, degus, mice, rats) strongly reflects UV light and this may be used in communication by leaving visible as well as olfactory markings. However,
16362-509: The domestication of animals involved violence against animals and damage to the environment. This, in turn, he argues, corrupted human ethics and paved the way for "conquest, extermination, displacement, repression, coerced and enslaved servitude, gender subordination and sexual exploitation, and hunger." Domesticated ecosystems provide food, reduce predator and natural dangers, and promote commerce, but their creation has resulted in habitat alteration or loss, and multiple extinctions commencing in
16524-605: The domestication of the South American camelids . The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals and often depicted the guinea pig in their art. Early accounts from Spanish settlers state that guinea pigs were the preferred sacrificial animal of the Inca people native to Peru. These claims are supported by archaeological digs and transcribed Quechua mythology, providing evidence that sacrificial rituals involving guinea pigs served many purposes in society such as appeasing
16686-515: The domestication syndrome; it is predicted that domestic animals are less resistant to parasites than their wild relatives. Domesticated birds principally mean poultry , raised for meat and eggs: some Galliformes ( chicken , turkey , guineafowl ) and Anseriformes (waterfowl: ducks , geese , and swans ). Also widely domesticated are cagebirds such as songbirds and parrots ; these are kept both for pleasure and for use in research. The domestic pigeon has been used both for food and as
16848-489: The establishment and spread of invasive shrubs. Burrowing rodents may eat the fruiting bodies of fungi and spread spores through their feces, thereby allowing the fungi to disperse and form symbiotic relationships with the roots of plants (which usually cannot thrive without them). As such, these rodents may play a role in maintaining healthy forests. In many temperate regions, beavers play an essential hydrological role. When building their dams and lodges, beavers alter
17010-419: The eyes of guinea pigs, resulting in excessive blinking, tearing, and, in some cases, an opaque film over the eye due to corneal ulcer . Hay or straw dust can also cause sneezing . While it is normal for guinea pigs to sneeze periodically, frequent sneezing may be a symptom of pneumonia , especially in response to atmospheric changes. Pneumonia may also be accompanied by torticollis and can be fatal. Because
17172-821: The female. Females can remove the plug and may do so either immediately or after several hours. Metabolism of thyroid hormones and iodine in the mediobasal hypothalamus changes in response to photoperiod . Thyroid hormones in turn induce reproductive changes. This is found by Watanabe et al. 2004 and 2007, Barrett et al. 2007, Freeman et al. 2007, and Herwig et al. 2009 in Siberian hamsters , Revel et al. 2006 and Yasuo et al. 2007 in Syrian hamsters , Yasuo et al. 2007 and Ross et al. 2011 in rats, and Ono et al. 2008 in mice. Rodents may be born either altricial (blind, hairless and relatively underdeveloped) or precocial (mostly furred, eyes open and fairly developed) depending on
17334-498: The females that live within the territories are known as "resident" females. In the case of marmots, resident males do not appear to ever lose their territories and always win encounters with invading males. Some species are also known to directly defend their resident females and the ensuing fights can lead to severe wounding. In species with non-defense polygyny, males are not territorial and wander widely in search of females to monopolize. These males establish dominance hierarchies, with
17496-517: The few animal groups that can break open the large capsules of the Brazil nut fruit. Too many seeds are inside to be consumed in one meal, so the agouti carries some off and caches them. This helps dispersal of the seeds as any that the agouti fails to retrieve are distant from the parent tree when they germinate. Other nut-bearing trees tend to bear a glut of fruits in the autumn. These are too numerous to be eaten in one meal and squirrels gather and store
17658-600: The finding that rodents entirely lack the ability to vomit. In many species, the penis contains a bone, the baculum ; the testes can be located either abdominally or at the groin. Sexual dimorphism occurs in many rodent species. In some rodents, males are larger than females, while in others the reverse is true. Male-bias sexual dimorphism is typical for ground squirrels , kangaroo rats, solitary mole rats and pocket gophers ; it likely developed due to sexual selection and greater male–male combat. Female-bias sexual dimorphism exists among chipmunks and jumping mice . It
17820-468: The fore to the hind limbs. The agouti is fleet-footed and antelope -like, being digitigrade and having hoof-like nails. The majority of rodents have tails, which can be of many shapes and sizes. Some tails are prehensile , as in the Eurasian harvest mouse , and the fur on the tails can vary from bushy to completely bald. The tail is sometimes used for communication, as when beavers slap their tails on
17982-447: The freshwater cnidarian Hydra for research into genetics and physiology. Few have a long history of domestication. Most are used for food or other products such as shellac and cochineal . The phyla involved are Cnidaria , Platyhelminthes (for biological pest control ), Annelida , Mollusca , Arthropoda (marine crustaceans as well as insects and spiders), and Echinodermata . While many marine mollusks are used for food, only
18144-810: The genome and the epigenome , enabling a rapid evolutionary response to artificial selection. Polyploidy increases the number of chromosomes, bringing new combinations of genes and alleles, which in turn enable further changes such as by chromosomal crossover . The microbiome , the collection of microorganisms inhabiting the surface and internal tissue of plants, is affected by domestication. This includes changes in microbial species composition and diversity. Plant lineage, including speciation , domestication, and breeding , have shaped plant endophytes ( phylosymbiosis ) in similar patterns as plant genes. Several species of fungi have been domesticated for use directly as food, or in fermentation to produce foods and drugs. The cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus
18306-566: The gods, accompanying the dead, or reading the future. From about 1200 to the Spanish conquest in 1532, the indigenous people used selective breeding to develop many varieties of domestic guinea pigs, forming the basis for some modern domestic breeds. They continue to be a food source in the region; many households in the Andean highlands raise the animal. In the early 1500s, Spanish , Dutch , and English traders took guinea pigs to Europe, where they quickly became popular as exotic pets among
18468-563: The guinea pig has a stout, compact body, it more easily tolerates excessive cold than excessive heat. Its normal body temperature is 38–40 °C (101–104 °F), so its ideal ambient air temperature range is similar to a human's, about 18–24 °C (65–75 °F). Consistent ambient temperatures in excess of 32 °C (90 °F) have been linked to hyperthermia and death, especially among pregnant sows. Guinea pigs are not well suited to environments that feature wind or frequent drafts, and respond poorly to extremes of humidity outside of
18630-416: The guinea pig is pregnant or obese. They share this behavior with lagomorphs (rabbits, hares, pikas) and some other animals. In geriatric boars or sows (rarely in young ones), the muscles which allow the cecotropes to be expelled from the anus can become weak. This creates a condition known as fecal impaction , which prevents the animal from redigesting cecotropes even though harder pellets may pass through
18792-430: The guinea pig itself. Some plants are poisonous to guinea pigs, including bracken , bryony , buttercup , charlock , deadly nightshade , foxglove , hellebore , hemlock , lily of the valley , mayweed , monkshood , privet , ragwort , rhubarb , speedwell , toadflax (both Linaria vulgaris and Linaria dalmatica ), and wild celery . Additionally, any plant which grows from a bulb (e.g., tulip or onion )
18954-444: The high-ranking males having access to the most females. This occurs in species like Belding's ground squirrels and some tree squirrel species. Promiscuity , in which both males and females mate with multiple partners, also occurs in rodents. In species such as the white-footed mouse, females give birth to litters with multiple paternities. Promiscuity leads to increased sperm competition and males tend to have larger testicles. In
19116-690: The hind limbs have three to five digits. The elbow gives the forearms great flexibility. The majority of species are plantigrade , walking on both the palms and soles of their feet, and have claw-like nails. The nails of burrowing species tend to be long and strong, while arboreal rodents have shorter, sharper nails. Rodent species use a wide variety of methods of locomotion including quadrupedal walking, running, burrowing, climbing, bipedal hopping ( kangaroo rats and hopping mice ), swimming and even gliding. Scaly-tailed squirrels and flying squirrels , although not closely related, can both glide from tree to tree using parachute-like membranes that stretch from
19278-532: The homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars into pigs, and created domestication islands in the genome. The same process may apply to other domesticated animals. The 2023 parasite-mediated domestication hypothesis suggests that endoparasites such as helminths and protozoa could have mediated the domestication of mammals. Domestication involves taming, which has an endocrine component; and parasites can modify endocrine activity and microRNAs . Genes for resistance to parasites might be linked to those for
19440-533: The impacted mass. The condition may be temporarily alleviated by a human carefully removing the impacted feces from the anus. Guinea pigs benefit from a diet of fresh grass hay , such as timothy hay , in addition to food pellets , which are often based on timothy hay. Alfalfa hay is also a popular food choice, and most guinea pigs will eat large amounts of alfalfa when offered it, though some controversy exists over offering alfalfa to adult guinea pigs. Some pet owners and veterinary organizations have advised that, as
19602-442: The incisors. Rodents have efficient digestive systems, absorbing nearly 80% of ingested energy. When eating cellulose , the food is softened in the stomach and passed to the cecum , where bacteria reduce it to its carbohydrate elements. The rodent then practices coprophagy , eating its own fecal pellets, so the nutrients can be absorbed by the gut. Rodents therefore often produce a hard and dry fecal pellet. Horn et al. 2013 makes
19764-534: The inherited genetic diseases of other breeds of animals (such as hip dysplasia in canines), some genetic abnormalities of guinea pigs have been reported. Most commonly, the roan coloration of Abyssinian guinea pigs is associated with congenital eye disorders and problems with the digestive system. Other genetic disorders include "waltzing disease" (deafness coupled with a tendency to run in circles), palsy, and tremor conditions. Rodent Rodents (from Latin rodere , 'to gnaw') are mammals of
19926-426: The initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations . Certain animal species, and certain individuals within those species, make better candidates for domestication because of their behavioral characteristics: The beginnings of mammal domestication involved
20088-818: The lack of predators and greater competition between males. One of the most widespread groups of mammals, rodents can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They are the only terrestrial placental mammals to have colonized Australia and New Guinea without human intervention. Humans have also allowed the animals to spread to many remote oceanic islands (e.g., the Polynesian rat ). Rodents have adapted to almost every terrestrial habitat, from cold tundra (where they can live under snow) to hot deserts. Some species such as tree squirrels and New World porcupines are arboreal , while some, such as gophers , tuco-tucos , and mole rats, live almost completely underground, where they build complex burrow systems. Others dwell on
20250-580: The leaf material to the fungi that they tend. Some of these fungi are not fully domesticated: the fungi farmed by Mycocepurus smithii constantly produce spores that are not useful to the ants, which eat fungal hyphae instead. The process of domestication by Atta ants, on the other hand, is complete; it took 30 million years. Some 330 fungus-growing termite species of the subfamily Macrotermitinae cultivate Termitomyces fungi to eat; domestication occurred exactly once, 25–40 mya . The fungi, described by Roger Heim in 1942, grow on 'combs' formed from
20412-502: The leaves, buds, and inner bark of growing trees, as well as aquatic plants. They store food for winter use by felling small trees and leafy branches in the autumn and immersing them in their pond, sticking the ends into the mud to anchor them. Here, they can access their food supply underwater even when their pond is frozen over. Although rodents have been regarded traditionally as herbivores, most small rodents opportunistically include insects, worms, fungi, fish, or meat in their diets and
20574-646: The longest-lived guinea pig was 14 years, 10 months, and 2 weeks old. Most guinea pigs have fur, but one laboratory breed adopted by some pet owners, the skinny pig , is mostly furless. In contrast, several breeds have long fur, such as the Peruvian , the Silkie , and the Texel . They have four front teeth and small back teeth. Their front teeth grow continuously, so guinea pigs chew on materials such as wood to wear them down to prevent them from becoming too long. In
20736-760: The males do not provide direct parental care and stay with one female because they cannot access others due to being spatially dispersed. Prairie voles appear to be an example of this form of monogamy, with males guarding and defending females within their vicinity. In polygynous species, males will try to monopolize and mate with multiple females. As with monogamy, polygyny in rodents can come in two forms; defense and non-defense. Defense polygyny involves males controlling territories that contain resources that attract females. This occurs in ground squirrels like yellow-bellied marmots , California ground squirrels , Columbian ground squirrels and Richardson's ground squirrels . Males with territories are known as "resident" males and
20898-447: The mother's milk has little effect on the mortality rate of newborns. Cohabitating females assist in mothering duties if lactating ; guinea pigs practice alloparental care , in which a sow may adopt the pups of another. This might take place if the original parents die or are, for some reason, separated from them. This behavior is common and is seen in many other animal species, such as the elephant. Toxemia of pregnancy (hypertension)
21060-451: The muscle causes the eyeballs to move up and down. The Hystricomorpha , such as the guinea pig, have larger superficial masseter muscles and smaller deep masseter muscles than rats or squirrels, possibly making them less efficient at biting with the incisors, but their enlarged internal pterygoid muscles may allow them to move the jaw further sideways when chewing. The cheek pouch is a specific morphological feature used for storing food and
21222-463: The name may be a colorful reference to the animal's exotic origins . Another hypothesis suggests the "guinea" in the name is a corruption of " Guiana ", an area in South America. A common misconception is that they were so named because they were sold for the price of a guinea coin . This hypothesis is untenable because the guinea was first struck in England in 1663, and William Harvey used
21384-521: The nature of the precise threat. The urgency of the threat is also conveyed by the acoustic properties of the call. Social rodents have a wider range of vocalizations than do solitary species. Fifteen different call-types have been recognized in adult Kataba mole rats and four in juveniles. Similarly, the common degu , another social, burrowing rodent, exhibits a wide array of communication methods and has an elaborate vocal repertoire comprising fifteen different categories of sound. Ultrasonic calls play
21546-675: The nest a few days after they have opened their eyes and initially keep returning regularly. As they get older and more developed, they visit the nest less often and leave permanently when weaned. In precocial species, the mothers invest little in nest building and some do not build nests at all. The female gives birth standing and the young emerge behind her. Mothers of these species maintain contact with their highly mobile young with maternal contact calls. Though relatively independent and weaned within days, precocial young may continue to nurse and be groomed by their mothers. Rodent litter sizes also vary and females with smaller litters spend more time in
21708-564: The nest than those with larger litters. Mother rodents provide both direct parental care, such as nursing, grooming, retrieving and huddling, and indirect parenting, such as food caching, nest building and protection to their offspring. In many social species, young may be cared for by individuals other than their parents, a practice known as alloparenting or cooperative breeding . This is known to occur in black-tailed prairie dogs and Belding's ground squirrels, where mothers have communal nests and nurse unrelated young along with their own. There
21870-437: The offspring and play an important part in their survival. This occurs in species such as California mice , oldfield mice , Malagasy giant rats and beavers. In these species, males usually mate only with their partners. In addition to increased care for young, obligate monogamy can also be beneficial to the adult male as it decreases the chances of never finding a mate or mating with an infertile female. In facultative monogamy,
22032-518: The paths of streams and rivers and allow for the creation of extensive wetland habitats. One study found that engineering by beavers leads to a 33 percent increase in the number of herbaceous plant species in riparian areas . Another study found that beavers increase wild salmon populations. Meanwhile, some rodents are seen as pests , due to their wide range. Most rodents are herbivorous , feeding exclusively on plant material such as seeds, stems, leaves, flowers, and roots. Some are omnivorous and
22194-476: The range of 30–70%. Guinea pigs are prey animals whose survival instinct is to mask pain and signs of illness, and many times, health problems may not be apparent until a condition is severe or in its advanced stages. Treatment of disease is made more difficult by the extreme sensitivity guinea pigs have to most antibiotics , including penicillin , which kill off the intestinal flora and quickly bring on episodes of diarrhea and in some cases, death. Similar to
22356-514: The relationship between them intensified, and humans' role in their survival and reproduction gradually led to formalized animal husbandry . Although the directed pathway for draft and riding animals proceeded from capture to taming, the other two pathways are not as goal-oriented, and archaeological records suggest that they took place over much longer time frames. Unlike other domestic species selected primarily for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. The dog
22518-503: The reproduction of subordinates by being antagonistic towards them while they are pregnant. The resulting stress causes the fetuses to abort. Rodents have advanced cognitive abilities. They can quickly learn to avoid poisoned baits, which makes them difficult pests to deal with. Guinea pigs can learn and remember complex pathways to food. Squirrels and kangaroo rats are able to locate caches of food by spatial memory , rather than just by smell. Domestication Domestication
22680-414: The rest of the members are smaller and sterile, and function as workers. Some individuals are of intermediate size. They help with the rearing of the young and can take the place of a reproductive if one dies. The Damaraland mole rat is characterized by having a single reproductively active male and female in a colony where the remaining animals are not truly sterile, but become fertile only if they establish
22842-408: The rodents is their pairs of continuously growing, razor-sharp, open-rooted incisors . These incisors have thick layers of enamel on the front and little enamel on the back. Because they do not stop growing, the animal must continue to wear them down so that they do not reach and pierce the skull. As the incisors grind against each other, the softer dentine on the rear of the teeth wears away, leaving
23004-798: The scents of their neighbors and respond less aggressively to intrusions by them than to those made by non-territorial "floaters" or strangers. This is known as the " dear enemy effect ". Many rodent species, particularly those that are diurnal and social, have a wide range of alarm calls that are emitted when they perceive threats. There are both direct and indirect benefits of doing this. A potential predator may stop when it knows it has been detected, or an alarm call can allow conspecifics or related individuals to take evasive action. Several species, for example prairie dogs, have complex anti-predator alarm call systems. These species may have different calls for different predators (e.g. aerial predators or ground-based predators) and each call contains information about
23166-441: The sharp enamel edge shaped like the blade of a chisel . Most species have up to 22 teeth with no canines or anterior premolars . A gap, or diastema , occurs between the incisors and the cheek teeth in most species. This allows rodents to suck in their cheeks or lips to shield their mouth and throat from wood shavings and other inedible material, discarding this waste from the sides of their mouths. Chinchillas and guinea pigs have
23328-459: The small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding in which humans directly select for desirable traits and unconscious selection, in which traits evolve as a by-product of natural selection or from selection on other traits. There is a difference between domestic and wild populations; some of these differences constitute
23490-516: The sounds they emit are very similar to those made by pigs, and they spend a large amount of time eating. They can survive for long periods in small quarters, like a "pig pen," and were easily transported by ship to Europe. Guinea pigs are called quwi or jaca in Quechua and cuy or cuyo (plural cuyes, cuyos ) in the Spanish of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. The animal's name alludes to pigs in many European languages. The German word for them
23652-422: The species. The altricial state is typical for squirrels and mice, while the precocial state usually occurs in species like guinea pigs and porcupines. Females with altricial young typically build elaborate nests before they give birth and maintain them until their offspring are weaned . The female gives birth sitting or lying down and the young emerge in the direction she is facing. The newborns first venture out of
23814-652: The stomach contents of the North American white-footed mouse , normally considered to be herbivorous, showed 34% animal matter. More specialized carnivores include the shrewlike rats of the Philippines, which feed on insects and soft-bodied invertebrates, and the rakali or Australian water-rat, which devours aquatic insects, fish, crustaceans, mussels, snails, frogs, birds' eggs, and water birds. The grasshopper mouse from dry regions of North America feeds on insects, scorpions, and other small mice, and only
23976-451: The supposed primitive state of harmony with nature in hunter-gatherer societies, and replacing it, possibly violently or by enslavement, with a social hierarchy as property and power emerged. The dialectal naturalist Murray Bookchin has argued that domestication of animals, in turn, meant the domestication of humanity, both parties being unavoidably altered by their relationship with each other. The sociologist David Nibert asserts that
24138-536: The surface of the ground, but may have a burrow into which they can retreat. Beavers and muskrats are known for being semiaquatic, but the rodent best adapted for aquatic life is probably the earless water rat from New Guinea. Rodents have also thrived in human-created environments such as agricultural and urban areas . Though some species are common pests for humans, rodents also play important ecological roles. Some rodents are considered keystone species and ecosystem engineers in their respective habitats. In
24300-435: The surface to feed by seizing the roots of plants with its jaws and pulling them downwards into its burrow. It also practices coprophagy. The African pouched rat forages on the surface, gathering anything that might be edible into its capacious cheek pouches until its face bulges out sideways. It then returns to its burrow to sort through the material it has gathered and eats the nutritious items. Agouti species are one of
24462-484: The surplus in crevices and hollow trees. In desert regions, seeds are often available only for short periods. The kangaroo rat collects all it can find and stores them in larder chambers in its burrow. A strategy for dealing with seasonal plenty is to eat as much as possible and store the surplus nutrients as fat. Marmots do this, and may be 50% heavier in the autumn than in the spring. They rely on their fat reserves during their long winter hibernation . Beavers feed on
24624-481: The term "Ginny-pig" as early as 1653. Others believe "guinea" may be an alteration of the word coney (rabbit); guinea pigs were referred to as "pig coneys" in Edward Topsell 's 1607 treatise on quadrupeds . How the animals came to be called "pigs" is not clear. They are built somewhat like pigs, with large heads relative to their bodies, stout necks, and rounded rumps with no tail of any consequence; some of
24786-637: The transition of humans from foraging to farming in different places and times across the planet. For instance, small-scale trial cultivation of cereals began some 28,000 years ago at the Ohalo II site in Israel. In the Fertile Crescent 11,000–10,000 years ago, zooarchaeology indicates that goats, pigs, sheep, and taurine cattle were the first livestock to be domesticated. Two thousand years later, humped zebu cattle were domesticated in what
24948-469: The ultraviolet (UV) spectrum and therefore can see light that humans can not. The functions of this UV sensitivity are not always clear. In degus , for example, the belly reflects more UV light than the back. Therefore, when a degu stands up on its hind legs, which it does when alarmed, it exposes its belly to other degus and ultraviolet vision may serve a purpose in communicating the alarm. When it stands on all fours, its low UV-reflectance back could help make
25110-421: The upper classes and royalty, including Queen Elizabeth I . The earliest known written account of the guinea pig dates from 1547, in a description of the animal from Santo Domingo . Because cavies are not native to Hispaniola , the animal was believed to have been earlier introduced there by Spanish travelers. However, based on more recent excavations on West Indian islands, the animal must have been introduced to
25272-474: The water surface or house mice rattle their tails to indicate alarm. Some species have vestigial tails or no tails at all. In some species, the tail is capable of regeneration if a part is broken off. Rodents generally have well-developed senses of smell , hearing, and vision. Nocturnal species often have enlarged eyes and some are sensitive to ultraviolet light. Many species have long, sensitive whiskers or vibrissae for touch or "whisking" . Whisker action
25434-527: The wild in small groups (" herds ") that consist of several females ("sows"), a male ("boar"), and their young ("pups" not "piglets," a break with the preceding porcine nomenclature). Herds of animals move together, eating grass or other vegetation, yet do not store food. While they do not burrow themselves or build nests, they frequently seek shelter in the burrows of other animals, as well as in crevices and tunnels formed by vegetation. They are crepuscular and tend to be most active during dawn and dusk when it
25596-407: The world. In Western society , the guinea pig has enjoyed widespread popularity as a pet since its introduction to Europe and North America by European traders in the 16th century. Their docile nature, friendly responsiveness to handling and feeding, and the relative ease of caring for them have continued to make guinea pigs a popular choice of household pets. Consequently, organizations devoted to
25758-500: Was domesticated long before other animals, becoming established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era, well before agriculture . The archaeological and genetic data suggest that long-term bidirectional gene flow between wild and domestic stocks – such as in donkeys , horses , New and Old World camelids, goats, sheep, and pigs – was common. Human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted
25920-532: Was gradual and geographically diffuse – happening in many small steps and spread over a wide area – on the evidence of both archaeology and genetics. It was a process of intermittent trial and error and often resulted in diverging traits and characteristics. Whereas domestication of animals impacted most on the genes that controlled behavior, that of plants impacted most on the genes that controlled morphology (seed size, plant architecture, dispersal mechanisms) and physiology (timing of germination or ripening), as in
26082-412: Was the first mammal for which seismic communication was documented. These fossorial rodents bang their head against the walls of their tunnels. This behavior was initially interpreted as part of their tunnel building behavior, but it was eventually realized that they generate temporally patterned seismic signals for long-distance communication with neighboring mole rats. Footdrumming is used widely as
26244-557: Was triggered by the climatic and environmental changes that occurred after the peak of the Last Glacial Maximum and which continue to this present day. These changes made obtaining food by hunting and gathering difficult. The first animal to be domesticated was the dog at least 15,000 years ago. The Younger Dryas 12,900 years ago was a period of intense cold and aridity that put pressure on humans to intensify their foraging strategies but did not favour agriculture. By
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