Gyokusen-ji ( 玉泉寺 ) is a Buddhist temple located in the city of Shimoda , Shizuoka Prefecture , Japan . It is noteworthy in that it served as the first American consulate in Japan. The temple and its grounds were designated as a National Historic Site of Japan in 1951.
103-728: The exact date of the foundation of Gyokusen-ji is uncertain, but temple records indicate that it was originally a Shingon sect hermitage converted to the Sōtō Zen sect in the Tenshō period (1573–1592). The current Hondō was built in 1848, but soon after its completion it was commandeered by the Tokugawa shogunate for use as a residence for foreign visitors to Shimoda during negotiations to end Japan's national isolation policy . It hosted officers from American Commodore Matthew Perry ’s flotilla of Black Ships , and Japanese authorities allowed
206-631: A composite model in which a pre-Aryan yoga prototype existed in the pre-Vedic period and was refined during the Vedic period. According to Gavin D. Flood, the Upanishads differ fundamentally from the Vedic ritual tradition and indicate non-Vedic influences. However, the traditions may be connected: [T]his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in
309-457: A major center for pilgrimage for all Japanese. The Shingon monk Kakuban (1095–1143) was one Shingon scholar who responded to the rise in Pure Land devotionalism. He studied Shingon along with Tendai and also incorporated Pure Land practice into his Shingon system, as well as promoting an esoteric interpretation of nembutsu and Pure Land. Unlike other Pure Land schools, Kakuban held that
412-409: A new school of esoteric Buddhism centered around Jingo-ji and wrote some key works which outlined the main teachings of Shingon. In 818, Kūkai asked emperor Saga to grant him Mount Kōya ( 高野山 Kōyasan ) , in present-day Wakayama province, so that he could establish a true monastic center away from the disturbances of the capital and this was soon granted. Kūkai and his disciples soon began to build
515-578: A sequential growth from an Aryan genesis"; traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas as the source of all spiritual knowledge. Edwin Bryant wrote that authors who support Indigenous Aryanism also tend to support the linear model. The twentieth-century scholars Karel Werner , Thomas McEvilley , and Mircea Eliade believe that the central figure of the Pashupati seal is in a Mulabandhasana posture, and
618-618: A similar treaty between Japan and Russia. However, he became stranded in Shimoda due to a tsunami caused by the Ansei Tokai earthquake which destroyed his ships. Negotiations continued at Shimoda while Putyatin's worked on building a new ship at nearby Heda . These negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Shimoda on February 7, 1855, which opened the ports of Hakodate , Nagasaki and Shimoda to Russian vessels, permitted limited trading and
721-481: A specific tradition: According to Knut A. Jacobsen , yoga has five principal meanings: David Gordon White writes that yoga's core principles were more or less in place in the 5th century CE, and variations of the principles developed over time: According to White, the last principle relates to legendary goals of yoga practice; it differs from yoga's practical goals in South Asian thought and practice since
824-682: Is available in the Vedas themselves is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless the indirect evidence is strong enough not to allow any doubt about the existence of spiritually highly advanced wanderers. According to Whicher (1998), scholarship frequently fails to see the connection between the contemplative practices of the rishis and later yoga practices: "The proto-Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation, ascetic forms of practice ( tapas ), breath control practiced in conjunction with
927-551: Is considered the correct etymology by traditional commentators. In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa (who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras ) says that yoga means samadhi (concentration). Larson notes that in the Vyāsa Bhāsy the term "samadhi" refers to "all levels of mental life" (sārvabhauma), that is, "all possible states of awareness, whether ordinary or extraordinary." A person who practices yoga, or follows
1030-411: Is difficult to distinguish between the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools. Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded to in the Upanishads and some Buddhist texts have been lost. The Upanishads, composed in the late Vedic period , contain the first references to practices recognizable as classical yoga. The first known appearance of the word "yoga" in the modern sense
1133-500: Is in the Katha Upanishad (probably composed between the fifth and third centuries BCE), where it is defined as steady control of the senses which – with cessation of mental activity – leads to a supreme state. The Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of the early Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines levels of existence by their proximity to one's innermost being . Yoga
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#17327761580131236-936: Is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asian Buddhism . It is sometimes also called Japanese Esoteric Buddhism, or Eastern Esotericism ( Dōngmì , 東密). The word shingon is the Japanese reading of the Chinese word 真言 ( zhēnyán ), which is the translation of the Sanskrit word mantra . The Zhēnyán lineage was founded in China (c. 7th–8th centuries) by Indian vajrācāryas (esoteric masters) like Śubhakarasiṃha , Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra . These esoteric teachings would later flourish in Japan under
1339-401: Is one, yet can be many". Yoga Traditional Yoga ( / ˈ j oʊ ɡ ə / ; Sanskrit : योग , Sanskrit pronunciation: [joːɡɐ] , lit. "yoke" or "union") is a group of physical , mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines that originated in ancient India , aimed at controlling body and mind to attain various salvation goals, as practiced in
1442-514: Is the possibility of "becoming Buddha in this very embodied existence" (sokushin jōbutsu) , even for the most depraved persons. All beings thus have the potential to become Buddhas through their own effort and through the power / grace ( adhisthana ) of the Buddha. Kūkai thus rejected the idea we lived in an age of Dharma decline and that therefore one had to be reborn in a pure land to attain enlightenment. This also informs his positive view of
1545-547: Is upright, the breath is restrained and the mind is meditatively focused, preferably in a cave or a place that is simple and quiet. The Maitrayaniya Upanishad , probably composed later than the Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali , mentions a sixfold yoga method: breath control, introspective withdrawal of the senses, meditation ( dhyana ), mental concentration , logic and reasoning , and spiritual union . In addition to discussions in
1648-659: Is used extensively in Shingon as part of daily recitation and ritual practice. The full Sanskrit title is Mahāsukhavajra-amoghasamaya-sūtra (Ch. Dale jingang bukong zhenshi sanmohe jing , Sutra of the Vow of Fulfilling the Great Perpetual Enjoyment and Benefiting All Sentient Beings Without Exception ). Another important source for the Shingon school is the Awakening of Faith and a commentary on it called
1751-472: Is viewed as a process of interiorization, or ascent of consciousness. The upanishad is the earliest literary work which highlights the fundamentals of yoga. According to White, The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad (Ku), a scripture dating from about the third century BCE ... [I]t describes
1854-467: Is “the original ground dharmakāya .” (薄伽梵即毘盧遮那本地法身, at Taisho no. 1796:39.580). According to Hakeda, Kūkai identified the Dharmakaya with "the eternal Dharma, the uncreated, imperishable, beginningless, and endless Truth". This ultimate reality does not exist independently of all things, but is immanent in them. Dainichi is worshipped as the supreme Buddha and also appears as the central figure of
1957-722: The Mahāvairocana Sūtra ( 大日経 , Dainichi-kyō ) , the Vajraśekhara Sūtra ( 金剛頂経 , Kongōchō-kyō ) , and the Susiddhikara Sūtra ( 蘇悉地経 , Soshitsuji-kyō ) . Important Mahayana sutras in Shingon include the Lotus Sutra , the Brahmajāla Sūtra and Heart Sutra . Kūkai wrote commentaries on all three. Shingon derives form the early period of Indian Vajrayana (then known as Mantrayana,
2060-673: The Satipatthana Sutta (the four foundations of mindfulness sutta) and the Anapanasati Sutta (the mindfulness of breathing sutta). The chronology of these yoga-related early Buddhist texts, like the ancient Hindu texts, is unclear. Early Buddhist sources such as the Majjhima Nikāya mention meditation; the Aṅguttara Nikāya describes jhāyins (meditators) who resemble early Hindu descriptions of muni ,
2163-762: The Atharvaveda and in the Brahmanas (the second layer of the Vedas, composed c. 1000–800 BCE). According to Flood, "The Samhitas [the mantras of the Vedas] contain some references ... to ascetics, namely the Munis or Keśins and the Vratyas." Werner wrote in 1977 that the Rigveda does not describe yoga, and there is little evidence of practices. The earliest description of "an outsider who does not belong to
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#17327761580132266-487: The Five Wisdom Buddhas . Hakeda also writes that in Shingon, Dainichi is "at the center of a multitude of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and powers; He is the source of enlightenment and the unity underlying all variety. To attain enlightenment means to realize Mahāvairocana, the implication being that Mahāvairocana is originally within man." According to Kūkai, the Buddha's light illuminates and pervades all, like
2369-516: The Hindu , Jain , and Buddhist traditions. Yoga may have pre- Vedic origins, but is first attested in the early first millennium BCE. It developed as various traditions in the eastern Ganges basin drew from a common body of practices, including Vedic elements. Yoga-like practices are mentioned in the Rigveda and a number of early Upanishads , but systematic yoga concepts emerge during
2472-471: The Katha Upanishad , dated to the fifth to first centuries BCE. Systematic yoga concepts begin to emerge in texts dating to c. 500–200 BCE, such as the early Buddhist texts , the middle Upanishads, and the Mahabharata 's Bhagavad Gita and Shanti Parva . According to Geoffrey Samuel , the "best evidence to date" suggests that yogic practices "developed in the same ascetic circles as
2575-578: The On the Interpretation of Mahāyāna ( Shi Moheyan lun 釈摩訶衍論, Japanese: Shakumakaen-ron , Taisho no. 1668), which was traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna (though it is likely an East Asian composition). Finally, the works of Kūkai are key sources in Shingon Buddhism, including his various commentaries on the key esoteric texts of Shingon as well as original works like his magnum opus,
2678-481: The Tendai school. During the late Heian, Pure Land Buddhism was becoming very popular and Shingon was also influenced by this popular devotional trend. Mount Kōya soon became the center for groups of wandering holy men called Kōya Hijiri , who merged Pure Land practices focused on Amida Buddha with devotion to Kūkai and were also involved in raising funds for the rebuilding of many temples. Kōya-san soon became
2781-442: The jnana yoga of Vedanta . While yoga is often conflated with the "classical yoga" of Patanjali's yoga sutras, Karen O'Brien-Kop notes that "classical yoga" is informed by, and includes, Buddhist yoga. Regarding Buddhist yoga, James Buswell in his Encyclopedia of Buddhism treats yoga in his entry on meditation, stating that the aim of meditation is to attain samadhi, which serves as the foundation for vipasyana , "discerning
2884-592: The nembutsu along with the popularization and use of the Mantra of Light . During the Heian period, the adoption of Shinto deities into Buddhism became popular, something that became known as Shinbutsu-shūgō (神仏習合, "syncretism of kami and buddhas"). This movement saw local Japanese deities as manifestations of the Buddhas. For example Amaterasu was seen as an emanation of Vairocana in Shingon. This emanation theory
2987-468: The ritual repertoire of Japanese Zen , including Soto Zen (through the figure of Keizan ). Shingon Buddhism also influenced broader Japanese culture , including medieval Japanese aesthetics, art , and craftsmanship . Shingon Buddhism was founded in the Heian period (794–1185) by a Japanese Buddhist monk named Kūkai (774–835 CE) who traveled to China in 804 to study Esoteric Buddhist practices in
3090-426: The "three mysteries" (Jp: sanmi 三密) of mudra , mantra and mandala . Another influential doctrine introduced by Shingon was the idea that all beings are originally enlightened, a doctrine that was known as hongaku . The Shingon school's teachings and rituals had an influence on other Japanese traditions, especially those of the Tendai school, as well as Shugendo and Shinto . Its teachings also influenced
3193-499: The 1850s are buried in the temple cemetery. The five Americans buried at Gyokusen-ji are recorded as: Harris remained in residence at the temple for two years and ten months. During his stay, Harris demanded that the Japanese provide him with both milk and beef. Gyokusen-ji today has a monument decorated with the image of a cow, which the temple claims to mark the site where the first cow to be slaughtered in Japan for human consumption
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3296-507: The Brahminic establishment" is found in the Keśin hymn 10.136, the Rigveda 's youngest book, which was codified around 1000 BCE. Werner wrote that there were ... individuals who were active outside the trend of Vedic mythological creativity and the Brahminic religious orthodoxy and therefore little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements has survived. And such evidence as
3399-494: The Buddha borrowed from the śramaṇa tradition. The Pāli Canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate to control hunger or the mind, depending on the passage. There is no mention of the tongue inserted into the nasopharynx , as in khecarī mudrā . The Buddha used a posture in which pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to modern postures used to evoke Kundalini . Suttas which discuss yogic practice include
3502-880: The Chinŏn (眞言) and the Jingak Order (眞 覺), both of which are largely based on Shingon teachings. During the 20th century, Shingon Buddhism also spread to the West, especially to the United States (a move led by the Japanese Diaspora ). There are now various temples on the West Coast and Hawaii like Hawaii Shingon Mission (built 1915–1918) and Koyasan Beikoku Betsuin ( Los Angeles , founded 1912). The teachings of Shingon are based on Mahayana texts, and early Buddhist tantras . The key esoteric sources are
3605-508: The Kesin and meditating ascetics, but the meditation practices are not called "yoga" in these texts. The earliest known discussions of yoga in Buddhist literature, as understood in a modern context, are from the later Buddhist Yogācāra and Theravada schools. Jain meditation is a yoga system which predated the Buddhist school. Since Jain sources are later than Buddhist ones, however, it
3708-505: The Meiji era anti-buddhist persecutions known as haibutsu kishaku (abolish Buddhism and destroy Shākyamuni). Some Shingon temples that were affiliated with Shintō shrines were converted into shrines. Some Shinto monks left the Buddhist priesthood to become Shintō priests, or they returned to secular life. The government enforced the confiscation of temple land and this led to the closure of many Shingon temples. Those who survived had to turn to
3811-683: The Principal Upanishads, the twenty Yoga Upanishads and related texts (such as Yoga Vasistha , composed between the sixth and 14th centuries CE) discuss yoga methods. Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BCE. In addition to his army, he brought Greek academics who wrote memoirs about its geography, people, and customs. One of Alexander's companions was Onesicritus (quoted in Book 15, Sections 63–65 by Strabo in his Geography ), who describes yogis. Onesicritus says that
3914-529: The Propagation of Dharma ) or Odaishi-sama ( お大師様 , The Great Master ) , the posthumous name given to him years after his death by Emperor Daigo . Kūkai was born to a family of the aristocratic Saeki clan in Shikoku and received a classical Confucian education at Kyoto's college (daigaku). He converted to Buddhism in his 20s and was inspired to practice asceticism in the mountains and wander
4017-549: The Pure Land exists in this very world and he also taught that Vairocana is Amida. Kakuban, and his faction of priests centered at the Denbō-in ( 伝法院 ) soon came into conflict with the leadership at Kongōbu-ji , the head temple at Mount Kōya . Through his connections with high-ranking nobles in Kyoto, Kakuban was appointed abbot of Mount Kōya. The leadership at Kongōbu-ji opposed him and after several conflicts (some of which involved
4120-687: The Shingon school in 1615, incorporating it into its administrative temple system. Under this new peace, Shingon study was revived in the various temples. Hase-dera became a major center for the broad study of all of Buddhism and also of secular topics. Meanwhile in Kōyasan, the Ji sect hiriji were allowed to return and were incorporated into the Shingon school, though this would lead to conflict later on. During this period, monks like Jōgen and Onkō (1718–1804) focused on studying and promoting Buddhist precepts and monastic discipline. This renewed interest in precepts study
4223-431: The Shingon schools continued to develop, some under the support of elite families or even emperors, like Go-Uda (1267–1324), who entered the priesthood at Tō-ji and helped revitalize the temple as well as Daikaku-ji . Meanwhile, on Kōyasan, Yūkai (1345–1416) was responsible for revitalizing Shingon doctrinal study and also for driving away all of the nembutsu hiriji (now mostly following the Ji sect) who had been living on
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4326-758: The Upanishads (composed during the late Vedic period ). Alexander Wynne agrees that formless, elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition. An early reference to meditation is made in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), one of the Principal Upanishads . The Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800–700 BCE) describes the five vital energies ( prana ), and concepts of later yoga traditions (such as blood vessels and an internal sound) are also described in this upanishad. The practice of pranayama (focusing on
4429-610: The Vehicle of Mantras). Unlike Tibetan Buddhism , which focuses on the Anuttarayoga Tantras , which are tantras that arose at a later date of Indian Buddhism , Shingon bases itself on earlier works like the Mahavairocana which generally lack the antinomian uses of sexual yoga , taboo substances and charnel ground imagery found in the later tantras. Nevertheless, the concept of "great bliss" (tairaku) and
4532-458: The Western world often entails a modern form of Hatha yoga and a posture-based physical fitness, stress-relief and relaxation technique , consisting largely of asanas ; this differs from traditional yoga, which focuses on meditation and release from worldly attachments. It was introduced by gurus from India after the success of Swami Vivekananda 's adaptation of yoga without asanas in
4635-465: The analysis, understanding and cultivation of those altered states of awareness that lead one to the experience of spiritual liberation." Another classic understanding sees yoga as union or connection with the highest Self ( paramatman ), Brahman, or God, a "union, a linking of the individual to the divine." This definition is based on the devotionalism ( bhakti ) of the Bhagavad Gita, and
4738-575: The auspices of a Buddhist monk named Kūkai ( 空海 , 774–835), who traveled to Tang China and received these esoteric transmissions from a Chinese master named Huiguo (746–805). Kūkai established his tradition at Mount Kōya (in Wakayama Prefecture ), which remains the central pilgrimage center of Shingon Buddhism. The practice of the Shingon school stresses that one is able to attain "buddhahood in this very body" (sokushin jōbutsu) through its practices, especially those which make use of
4841-598: The beginning of the Common Era in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophical schools. James Mallinson disagrees with the inclusion of supernatural accomplishments, and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga's goal as meditation-driven means to liberation in Indian religions. A classic definition of yoga comes from Patanjali Yoga Sutras 1.2 and 1.3, which define yoga as "the stilling of
4944-605: The bodies of dead American sailors to be buried in its graveyard. Gyokusen-ji was selected by officials of the Tokugawa shogunate to host Imperial Russian admiral Yevfimiy Putyatin and his officers during their stay in Shimoda. Putyatin had called at Shimoda on November 22, 1854, as it had been opened to the Americans by the Convention of Kanagawa , intending to continue on to Edo to press on with negotiations to establish
5047-399: The body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened", that "there is no shame in life on frugal fare", and that "the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit". According to Charles Rockwell Lanman , these principles are significant in the history of yoga's spiritual side and may reflect the roots of "undisturbed calmness" and "mindfulness through balance" in
5150-518: The breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad. The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana (probably before the 6th c. BCE) teaches breath control and repetition of a mantra . The 6th-c. BCE Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses. According to Flood, "[T]he actual term yoga first appears in
5253-419: The broad array of definitions and usage in Indian religions, scholars have warned that yoga is hard, if not impossible, to define exactly. David Gordon White notes that "'Yoga' has a wider range of meanings than nearly any other word in the entire Sanskrit lexicon." In its broadest sense, yoga is a generic term for techniques aimed at controlling body and mind and attaining a soteriological goal as specified by
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#17327761580135356-664: The burning down of temples of Kakuban's faction), Kakuban's group left the mountain for Mount Negoro to the northwest, where they constructed a new temple complex now known as Negoro-ji ( 根来寺 ) . After the death of Kakuban in 1143, attempts to make peace were unsuccessful and after further conflicts, the Negoro faction (led by Raiyu) founded the new Shingi Shingon School based on Kakuban's teachings. As such, Shingon became divided into two major sub-schools, Kogi Shingon ( 古義真言宗 , Ancient Shingon school ) , and Shingi Shingon ( 新義真言宗 , Reformed Shingon school ) . Over time,
5459-445: The city of Xi'an ( 西安 ), then called Chang-an, at Azure Dragon Temple ( 青龍寺 ) under Huiguo , a student of the Indian esoteric master Amoghavajra . Kūkai returned to Japan with the teachings and scriptures of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism and founded a new tradition of Japanese Buddhism that became immediately influential with the island's elites. Shingon followers usually refer to Kūkai as Kōbō-Daishi ( 弘法大師 , Great Master of
5562-449: The cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India [Bihar] – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya , and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems." More recently, Richard Gombrich and Geoffrey Samuel also argue that the śramaṇa movement originated in the non-Vedic eastern Ganges basin, specifically Greater Magadha . Thomas McEvilley favors
5665-495: The countryside as an ascetic hermit (though he also visited cities to study texts). During this time his main meditation was the mantra of bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha found in the Kokūzō-gumonji no hō ( Ākāśagarbha Memory-Retention Practice , Taisho no.1145). While he was practicing in the mountains, he had a vision of the bodhisattva flying at him. During this early period of intense study, prayer and practice, Kūkai sought
5768-554: The development of a number of yoga satellite traditions. It and other aspects of Indian philosophy came to the attention of the educated Western public during the mid-19th century. Heinrich Zimmer was an exponent of the synthesis model, arguing for non-Vedic eastern states of India . According to Zimmer, yoga is part of a non-Vedic system which includes the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy , Jainism and Buddhism : "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects
5871-425: The early śramaṇa movements ( Buddhists , Jainas and Ajivikas ), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE." This occurred during India's second urbanisation period. According to Mallinson and Singleton, these traditions were the first to use mind-body techniques (known as Dhyāna and tapas ) but later described as yoga, to strive for liberation from the round of rebirth. Werner writes, "The Buddha
5974-464: The early Upanishads of the first half of the first millennium BCE, with expositions also appearing in Jain and Buddhist texts c. 500 – c. 200 BCE . Between 200 BCE and 500 CE, traditions of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophy were taking shape; teachings were collected as sutras , and a philosophical system of Patanjaliyogasastra began to emerge. The Middle Ages saw
6077-426: The early Vedic period and codified between c. 1200 and 900 BCE, contain references to yogic practices primarily related to ascetics outside, or on the fringes of Brahmanism . The earliest yoga-practices may have come from the Jain tradition at ca. 900 BCE. The Rigveda 's Nasadiya Sukta suggests an early Brahmanic contemplative tradition. Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in
6180-488: The fifth and sixth centuries BCE in ancient India's ascetic and Śramaṇa movements, including Jainism and Buddhism. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali , the classical text on Hindu yoga, samkhya -based but influenced by Buddhism, dates to the early centuries of the Common Era . Hatha yoga texts began to emerge between the ninth and 11th centuries, originating in tantra . Yoga is practiced worldwide, but "yoga" in
6283-407: The first use of the root of the word "yoga" is in hymn 5.81.1 of the Rigveda , a dedication to the rising Sun-god, where it has been interpreted as "yoke" or "control". Pāṇini (4th c. BCE) wrote that the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots: yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau ("to concentrate"). In the context of the Yoga Sutras , the root yuj samādhau (to concentrate)
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#17327761580136386-438: The formation of the renunciate ideal. The ascetic traditions of the eastern Ganges plain are thought to drew from a common body of practices and philosophies, with proto-samkhya concepts of purusha and prakriti as a common denominator. According to Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, Hindu researchers have favoured a linear theory which attempts "to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as
6489-416: The head temple of Shingon. Mount Kōya experienced a period of decline afterwards, until it recovered in the 11th century through the support of Fujiwara clan nobles like Fujiwara no Michinaga . Shingon Buddhism enjoyed immense popularity during the Heian period ( 平安時代 ), particularly among the nobility, and contributed greatly to the art and literature of the time, influencing other communities such as
6592-401: The hierarchy of mind-body constituents—the senses, mind, intellect, etc.—that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and other texts and schools (Ku3.10–11; 6.7–8). The hymns in book two of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (another late-first-millennium BCE text) describe a procedure in which the body
6695-411: The highest truth to be found in Buddhism. One day he dreamt of a man telling him to seek out the Mahavairocana Sutra . He was able to obtain a copy in Chinese (and Sanskrit) but large portions of the text were undecipherable to him and thus he decided to go to China to find someone who could explain it to him. In 804, Kūkai set sail on a fleet of four ships to China. The future Tendai founder Saichō
6798-569: The imperial court for permission to establish a new Buddhist school and waited three years for a response in Kyushu . In 809 Kūkai was allowed to reside at a temple near Kyoto known as Takaosanji (now Jingo-ji ). This temple would become his major center of operations near the capital. Kūkai's fortunes rose steadily when Emperor Saga became his patron and Kūkai was appointed as the head of Todai-ji in 810. Kūkai began to give esoteric initiations (abhiseka) at this time, including to elite laymen and to Saicho and his students. He also began to organize
6901-456: The late 19th and early 20th centuries. Vivekananda introduced the Yoga Sutras to the West, and they became prominent after the 20th-century success of hatha yoga. The Sanskrit noun योग yoga is derived from the root yuj ( युज् ) "to attach, join, harness, yoke". According to Jones and Ryan, "The word yoga is derived from the root yuj, “to yoke,” probably because the early practice concentrated on restraining or “yoking in”
7004-528: The later works of Patanjali and Buddhaghosa . Nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation), an early form of yoga, is described in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter ( Shanti Parva ) of the third-century BCE Mahabharata . Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from empirical consciousness, including thoughts and sensations, until purusha (self) is realized. Terms such as vichara (subtle reflection) and viveka (discrimination) similar to Patanjali's terminology are used, but not described. Although
7107-404: The light of the sun (hence his name). The immanent presence also means that every being already has "original enlightenment" ( hongaku ) within. This is also known as the "enligthened mind" ( bodhicitta ) and the Buddha nature . As Kūkai writes: "Where is the Dharmakaya? It is not far away; it is in our body. The source of wisdom? In our mind; indeed, it is close to us!" Because of this, there
7210-411: The mountain. He also purged the tradition of all traces of the heterodox Tachikawa school (even burning their texts). The Tachikawa school was known for teaching a mixed form of esotericism which made use of Daoist and sexual practices. During the war torn Sengoku period (1467 to 1615), all the Shingon temples in or near the capital were destroyed or stripped of all lands, while the Shingon centers in
7313-418: The mountains like Kōya and Negoro were forced to raise militaries for self defense, though sometimes they used these forces to attempt to expand the lands holdings of their temples. Mount Negoro, the center of Shingi Shingon, was sacked by the daimyō Toyotomi Hideyoshi ( 豊臣秀吉 ) in 1585. After this show of force, Kōyasan, the last major Shingon temple left standing at this time, submitted to Hideyoshi, and
7416-465: The movements of the mind," and the recognition of Purusha, the witness-consciousness, as different from Prakriti, mind and matter. According to Larson, in the context of the Yoga Sutras , yoga has two meanings. The first meaning is yoga "as a general term to be translated as "disciplined meditation" that focuses on any of the many levels of ordinary awareness." In the second meaning yoga is "that specific system of thought (sāstra) that has for its focus
7519-766: The natural world, as well as of the arts, all of which he saw as manifestations of the Buddha. Dainichi is the ultimate source of all Buddhas and bodhisattvas, and of the entire cosmos. The centrality of Dainichi is seen in the fact that he appears at the centre of both the Diamond Realm and the Womb Realm mandalas. According to Kūkai, Mahāvairocana is also the Universal Principle which underlies all Buddhist teachings. Thus, other Buddhist deities can be thought of as manifestations of Dainichi, each with their own attributes. As Kūkai writes, "the great Self
7622-418: The new monastic complex, which they imagined and modeled on the two mandalas, the womb and vajra. This mountain center soon became the key center for Shingon study and practice. In his later life, Kūkai continued to actively promote the efficacy of Shingon ritual among the elite even while also working to build Kōyasan into a major center. Kūkai eventually achieved control of Tō-ji for the Shingon school, which
7725-532: The number of Shingon followers at ten million and the number of priests at sixteen thousand in around eleven thousand temples (in his 1988 book). In Japan, there are also several new Shingon influenced groups classified as 'New Religions'. Some of these new movements include Shinnyo-en , Agon-shu and Gedatsu-kai. Another recent modern development is the phenomenon of Chinese students reviving Chinese Esoteric Buddhism through studying Japanese Shingon. This “tantric revival movement” (mijiao fuxing yundong 密教復興運動)
7828-464: The origins of yoga. The linear model holds that yoga has Vedic origins (as reflected in Vedic texts), and influenced Buddhism. This model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars. According to the synthesis model, yoga is a synthesis of indigenous, non-Vedic practices with Vedic elements. This model is favoured in Western scholarship. The earliest yoga-practices may have appeared in the Jain tradition at ca. 900 BCE. Speculations about yoga are documented in
7931-467: The outside world, a group of American merchants landed in Shimoda and unsuccessfully attempted to open trade relations – an issue which had not yet been settled by treaty. This group resided at Gyokusen-ji after the departure of the Russians almost until the arrival of Townsend Harris , the first American Consul General to Japan in 1856, together with his secretary-interpreter Henry Heusken . The temple
8034-590: The oversight of Kōyasan Shingon-shū or Shingon-shu Buzan-ha and minister as Chinese branches of Japanese Shingon, but others have chosen to create independent and distinct schools. Today, these revivalist lineages exist in Hong Kong, Taiwan and Malaysia. Though they draw mainly from Shingon teachings, they have also adopted some Tibetan Buddhist elements. A similar phenomenon has occurred in South Korea , where two recent esoteric schools have been founded,
8137-523: The performance of the sacrifice " may be precursors of yoga. "The ecstatic practice of enigmatic longhaired muni in Rgveda 10.136 and the ascetic performance of the vratya-s in the Atharvaveda outside of or on the fringe of the Brahmanical ritual order, have probably contributed more to the ascetic practices of yoga." According to Bryant, practices recognizable as classical yoga first appear in
8240-612: The real from the unreal," liberating insight into true reality. Buswell & Lopez state that "in Buddhism, [yoga is] a generic term for soteriological training or contemplative practice, including tantric practice." O'Brien-Kop further notes that "classical yoga" is not an independent category, but "was informed by the European colonialist project." There is no consensus on yoga's chronology or origins other than its development in ancient India. There are two broad theories explaining
8343-472: The recitation of sacred hymns during the ritual, the notion of self-sacrifice, impeccably accurate recitation of sacred words (prefiguring mantra-yoga ), mystical experience, and the engagement with a reality far greater than our psychological identity or the ego." Jacobsen wrote in 2018, "Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of ( tapas ), ascetic practices in the Vedic tradition"; ascetic practices used by Vedic priests "in their preparations for
8446-462: The regular population for support. During the Meiji period, the government also adopted the "one sect, one leader" rule which forced all Shingon schools to merge under a single leader which was called a "Chōja" (Superintendent). This led to some internal political conflict among the various sub-schools of Shingon, some of which attempted to form their own separate official sects. Some of these eventually succeeded in attaining independence and eventually
8549-653: The residence of a Russian consul, and fixed the border of Japan and Russia on the Kurile Islands between Urup and Iturup . The graves of four Russian sailors (three from the Diana and one from the Askold ) who died while at Shimoda are located at the temple. Shortly after the Russian delegation departed, Gyokusen-ji was again commandeered by the government. After the Treaty of Kanagawa theoretically opened Japan to
8652-508: The roots of yoga are in the Indus Valley civilisation . This is rejected by more recent scholarship; for example, Geoffrey Samuel , Andrea R. Jain, and Wendy Doniger describe the identification as speculative; the meaning of the figure will remain unknown until Harappan script is deciphered, and the roots of yoga cannot be linked to the IVC. The Vedas , the only texts preserved from
8755-457: The senses. Later the name was also seen as a metaphor for “linking” or “yoking to” God or the divine." Buswell and Lopez translate "yoga" as "'bond', 'restraint', and by extension "spiritual discipline." Flood refers to restraining the mind as yoking the mind. Yoga is a cognate of the English word "yoke," since both are derived from an Indo-European root. According to Mikel Burley ,
8858-585: The ten volume Jūjū shinron (Treatise on Ten Levels of Mind) and the shorter summary Hizō hōyaku (Precious Key to the Secret Treasury) . In Shingon, the Buddha Mahāvairocana (Sanskrit for "Great Illuminator"), also known as Dainichi Nyorai (大日如来, "Great Sun Tathagata ") is the universal primordial ( honji-shin ) Buddha that is the basis of all phenomena. Śubhakarasiṃha's Darijing shu (大日經疏, J. Dainichikyōsho ) states that Mahāvairocana
8961-555: The transformation of desire (and other defilements) into wisdom is found in Shingon. Another important sutra in Shingon is the Prajñāpāramitānaya-sūtra (Jp. Hannyarishukyō , Taishō vol. 8, no. 243). This is a late "tantric" Prajñaparamita sutra in 150 lines which was translated by Amoghavajra and which contains various verses and seed syllables which encapsulate the Prajñaparamita teaching. The Hannyarishukyō
9064-827: The two Shingon sub-schools also diverged doctrinally on such issues as the attainment of buddhahood through a single mantra and the theory of how the Dharmakāya teaches the Dharma. Following in Kakuban's footsteps, the Koyasan monk Dōhan 道範 (1179–1252) has been seen as a key figure in the promotion of what has been called an “esoteric Pure Land culture”, a Shingon variety of Pure Land Buddhism that became very popular during this period and influenced other figures and schools like Eison of Saidaiji's Shingon Risshu. This esoteric pure land culture included esoteric uses and interpretations of
9167-562: The unified Shingon sect split into various sub-sects again. In March 1941, under the government's religious policy, Shingon schools were forcibly merged to form the 'Dai-Shingon' sect. During the second world war , prayers for the surrender of enemy nations were frequently held at various temples. After the war, both Ko-Gyō and Shin-Gyō schools continued to separate, and some established their own unique doctrines and traditions. There are now around eighteen major Shingon schools with their own headquarter temples (honzan) in Japan. Yamasaki estimated
9270-403: The yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment, is called a yogi ; a female yogi may also be known as a yogini . The term " yoga " has been defined in different ways in Indian philosophical and religious traditions. "Yoga is skill in action" (2.50) "Know that which is called yoga to be separation from contact with suffering" (6.23) Due to its complicated historical development, and
9373-457: The yogis were aloof and adopted "different postures – standing or sitting or lying naked – and motionless". Onesicritus also mentions attempts by his colleague, Calanus , to meet them. Initially denied an audience, he was later invited because he was sent by a "king curious of wisdom and philosophy". Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogis consider life's best doctrines to "rid the spirit of not only pain, but also pleasure", that "man trains
9476-455: Was Shinnen (804–891) and already at this time there was some conflict between Tō-ji and Kōyasan. Some Shingon monks also followed in Kūkai's footsteps and visited China to receive more teachings and texts. Likewise, several Tendai monks also visited China and brought back esoteric teachings, making Tendai esotericism a major competitor to Shingon. Under Kangen (853–925), Tō-ji temple rose to become
9579-567: Was a major temple within the capital. His final request before his death in 832 was to construct a Shingon hall in Imperial palace grounds in order to accommodate the practice of the seven day ritual of chanting the Sutra of Golden Light. His request was eventually granted, a year after his death . After Kūkai, the main Shingon temples were taken over by key disciples like Jitsue, Shinzen, Shinzai, Eon and Shōhō. The main leadership after his death
9682-465: Was called honji suijaku by Buddhists. Major Shingon centers participated in this development, with key deities like Hachiman being worshipped at temples like Tō-ji for example. Also during the Heian period, the syncretic religion of Shugendō started to develop and the influence of Shingon was one major element in its development. Shingon was especially influential on the Tōzan branch of Shugendō. which
9785-477: Was centered on Mount Kinbu. The Kamakura period (1185 to 1333) saw the rise of another new Shingon tradition, the Shingon-risshū school. This new tradition stressed the importance of keeping the monastic Vinaya, along with esoteric practice. It was promoted by figures like Shunjō (1166–1227) and Eison (叡尊 1201–1290) and centered around Saidai-ji . Ninshō carried on the work of this tradition, which
9888-632: Was killed. Its English language sign reads: "This monument, erected in 1931 by the butchers of Tokyo, marks the spot where the first cow in Japan was slaughtered for human consumption. (Eaten by Harris and Heusken )". Other memorials include a commemoration of the temple as the birthplace of Japanese milk production, and another commemorating the visit of President Jimmy Carter in 1979. Shingon New branches: Tantric techniques : Fourfold division: Twofold division: Thought forms and visualisation: Yoga : Shingon ( 真言宗 , Shingon-shū , "True Word / Mantra School")
9991-506: Was known for its many public works projects, including building hospitals, hostels for the poor and animal sanctuaries. Also during this period, many followers of the Ji sect founded by Ippen (1234–1289) made Kōya-san their home, joining with the Kōya hiriji groups, and many halls for Amida centered Pure Land practice were built on the mountain. During the Muromachi period (1336 to 1573),
10094-542: Was likely a response to Confucian critiques of Buddhism at the time. Onkō was also a well known scholar of Sanskrit. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the state forced a separation of Shinto and Buddhism ( shinbutsu bunri ) and abolished the Chokusai Hōe (Imperial Rituals). The Shingon school was significantly affected by these changes (since it was closely connected with many Shinto shrines), as well as by
10197-551: Was mainly propagated by Chinese Buddhists who traveled to Japan to be trained, initiated, and receive dharma transmission as acharyas in the Shingon tradition and who then return home to establish the tradition. Some important figures of this revival include Wang Hongyuan 王弘願 (1876–1937), and Guru Wuguang (悟光上師 (1918–2000), both trained in Shingon and went on to spread Shingon teachings in the Chinese speaking world. Some of these Chinese acharyas have chosen to officially remain under
10300-668: Was on the same fleet. When Kūkai first met Huiguo (a student of Amoghavajra ) on the fifth month of 805, Huiguo was sixty and on the verge of death. Huiguo exclaimed to Kūkai that he had been waiting for him and immediately initiated him into the esoteric mandalas. In the short space of three months, Huiguo initiated and taught Kūkai everything he knew on the doctrines and practices of esoteric Buddhism. During this time Kūkai also learned Sanskrit from some Indian masters living in China. Kūkai returned to Japan after Huiguo's death in 806. He brought back numerous Buddhist texts, mandalas, ritual items and other books. After returning, Kūkai asked
10403-754: Was spared destruction. During the Edo period (1603–1868), the Shingi Shingon monks from Mount Negoro had escaped and took their lineages elsewere, eventually founding new schools at Hase-dera (the Buzan school) and at Chishaku (the Chisan-ha school). In the Edo period, the Tokugawa Shogunate implemented new religious control measures for the Buddhist community. Tokugawa Ieyasu issued regulations for
10506-566: Was the founder of his [Yoga] system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time." He notes: But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety. Early Buddhist texts describe yogic and meditative practices, some of which
10609-608: Was used as their residence and as the official US consulate in Japan for a period of two years and ten months. The temple has opened the Townsend Harris Museum , with documents, ukiyo-e , and dioramas describing the temple during the Bakumatsu period , along with a few of Townsend Harris's personal effects, the diary of Hamada Yoheiji, headman of Kakizaki village where the temple is located, and other items. Five Americans and three Russians who died in Shimoda in
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