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108-592: Dalmatian Zagora, in the strict sense, spans from the hinterland east of Šibenik to the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina and continues south to Vrgorac , just north of the Neum corridor. Its borders are present in two counties: Split-Dalmatia and Šibenik-Knin . The terrain in Zagora is fairly rugged: in the region immediately bordering the coastline, it is mostly flat but dry, mainly covered with makija (maquis, macchia) . More inland, greener pastures can be seen, as

216-465: A dry summer climate , described by Köppen as Cs , is a temperate climate type that occurs in the lower mid-latitudes (normally 30 to 44 north and south latitude). Such climates typically have dry summers and wet winters, with summer conditions being hot and winter conditions typically being mild. These weather conditions are typically experienced in the majority of Mediterranean-climate regions and countries, but remain highly dependent on proximity to

324-424: A 40 mm (1.6 in) level. The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat: " a " represents an average temperature in the warmest month above 22 °C (72 °F), while " b " indicates the average temperature in the warmest month below 22 °C (72 °F). There is a "c" with 3 or less months' average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F), but this climate is rare and is very isolated. Under

432-891: A Csb climate because of its location inside the Alborz mountains . Winters in this zone are rainy and can be mild to chilly. Some locales in this zone experience some amount of snowfall, while others do not. Csb climates are found in northwestern Iberian Peninsula (namely Galicia and the Norte region and west coast of Portugal ), in coastal Northern California , in the Pacific Northwest (namely western Washington , western Oregon and southern portions of Vancouver Island in British Columbia ), in central Chile , in parts of southern Australia and in sections of southwestern South Africa . A few locations close to

540-456: A Mediterranean climate are near large bodies of water, temperatures are generally moderate, with a comparatively small range of temperatures between the winter low and summer high unlike (the relatively rare) dry-summer humid continental climates (although the daily diurnal range of temperature during the summer is large due to dry and clear conditions, except along the immediate coastlines). Temperatures during winter only occasionally fall below

648-613: A century of intensive agriculture. Much of the Overberg in the southern Cape of South Africa , was once covered with renosterveld , but has likewise been largely converted to agriculture, mainly for wheat . In hillside and mountainous areas, away from the urban sprawls , ecosystems and habitats of native vegetation are more sustained and undisturbed. The fynbos vegetation in the South-western Cape in South Africa

756-533: A complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation. Following Ottoman occupation, there was a steady flow of people out of Bosnia and a large number of abandoned villages in Bosnia are mentioned in the Ottoman registers, while those who stayed eventually became Muslims . Many Catholics in Bosnia fled to neighboring Catholic lands in the early Ottoman occupation. The evidence indicates that

864-520: A distinct culture and art form, started to organize itself in today's Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia , Kosovo , Montenegro and Albania . From the 8th century BCE, Illyrian tribes evolved into kingdoms. The earliest recorded kingdom in Illyria was the Enchele in the 8th century BCE. The Autariatae under Pleurias (337 BCE) were considered to have been a kingdom. The Kingdom of

972-668: A few kilometres inland. Occasionally also termed the "cool-summer Mediterranean climate", this subtype of the Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) is less common and experience warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 22 °C (72 °F) during its warmest month and as usual an average in the coldest month between 18 and −3 °C (64 and 27 °F) or, in some applications, between 18 and 0 °C (64 and 32 °F). Also, at least four months must average above 10 °C (50 °F). Cool ocean currents, upwelling and higher latitudes are often

1080-707: A form of the name " Bosnia " is in De Administrando Imperio , a politico-geographical handbook written by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII in the mid-10th century (between 948 and 952) describing the "small land" ( χωρίον in Greek ) of "Bosona" ( Βοσώνα ), where the Serbs dwell. Bosnia was also mentioned in the DAI (χωριον βοσονα, small land of Bosnia), as a region of Baptized Serbia. The section of

1188-521: A large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field , while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals such as Matrakçı Nasuh ; generals such as Isa-Beg Ishaković , Gazi Husrev-beg , Telli Hasan Pasha and Sarı Süleyman Pasha ; administrators such as Ferhad Pasha Sokolović and Osman Gradaščević ; and Grand Viziers such as

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1296-556: A mean temperature below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C [27 °F]), depending on the isotherm used). Regions in the Americas with this climate are influenced by the dry-summer trend (though briefly) that extends considerably poleward along the west coast, as well as the moderating influences of high altitude and relative proximity to the Pacific Ocean. These conditions maintain an unusually narrow temperature range through

1404-455: A number of death camps . The regime systematically and brutally massacred Serbs in villages in the countryside, using a variety of tools. The scale of the violence meant that approximately every sixth Serb living in Bosnia and Herzegovina was the victim of a massacre and virtually every Serb had a family member that was killed in the war, mostly by the Ustaše. The experience had a profound impact in

1512-697: A revolt spanned for four years (6–9 AD), after which they were subdued. In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from the entire Roman Empire settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region. Following the split of the Empire between 337 and 395 AD, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of the Western Roman Empire . The region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455 AD. It subsequently changed hands between

1620-550: A season earlier than at the Dead Sea . In the Holy Land no rain at all falls in summer but early rains may come in autumn. The majority of the regions with Mediterranean climates have relatively mild winters and very warm summers. However, winter and summer temperatures can vary greatly between different regions with a Mediterranean climate. For instance, in the case of winters, Funchal experiences mild to warm temperatures in

1728-696: A state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms they intended would make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model" colony. Habsburg rule had several key concerns in Bosnia. It tried to dissipate the South Slav nationalism by disputing the earlier Serb and Croat claims to Bosnia and encouraging identification of Bosnian or Bosniak identity. Habsburg rule also tried to provide for modernisation by codifying laws, introducing new political institutions, establishing and expanding industries. Austria–Hungary began to plan

1836-575: A third unit, the Brčko District , which is governed by its own local government. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a developing country and ranks 74th in the Human Development Index . Its economy is dominated by industry and agriculture, followed by tourism and the service sector. Tourism has increased significantly in recent years. The country has a social-security and universal-healthcare system, and primary and secondary level education

1944-597: A yearly cycle in which abiotic (environmental) controls of stream populations and community structure dominate during floods, biotic components (e.g. competition and predation) controls become increasingly important as the flood discharge declines, and environmental controls regain dominance as environmental conditions become very harsh (i.e. hot and dry); as a result, these communities are well suited to recover from droughts , floods , and fires . Aquatic organisms in these regions show distinct long-term patterns in their structure and function, and are also highly sensitive to

2052-599: Is a country in Southeast Europe , situated on the Balkan Peninsula . It borders Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to the north and southwest. In the south it has a 20 kilometres (12 miles) long coast on the Adriatic Sea , with the town of Neum being its only access to the sea. Bosnia has a moderate continental climate with hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In

2160-594: Is also believed to be first mentioned as a land (horion Bosona) in Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus' De Administrando Imperio in the mid 10th century, at the end of a chapter entitled Of the Serbs and the country in which they now dwell . This has been scholarly interpreted in several ways and used especially by the Serb national ideologists to prove Bosnia as originally a "Serb" land. Other scholars have asserted

2268-424: Is closely associated with Mediterranean climate zones, as are unique freshwater communities, though vegetation native to the Mediterranean climate zone can also be found in the approximate nearby climate zones, which usually tend to be the humid subtropical , oceanic and/or semi-arid zones, depending on the region and location. Particularly distinctive of the climate are sclerophyll shrublands, called maquis in

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2376-576: Is famed for its high floral diversity , and includes such plant types as members of the Restionaceae , Ericas (Heaths) and Proteas . Representatives of the Proteaceae also grow in Australia, such as Banksias . The palette of California native plants is also renowned for its species and cultivar diversity. This subtype of the Mediterranean climate ( Csa ) is the most common form of

2484-938: Is free. It is a member of the UN , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , the Council of Europe , the Partnership for Peace , and the Central European Free Trade Agreement ; it is also a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean , established in July 2008. Bosnia and Herzegovina is an EU candidate country and has also been a candidate for NATO membership since April 2010. The first preserved widely acknowledged mention of

2592-406: Is higher, steppe climates tend to prevail, but still follow the basic pattern of the Mediterranean climates. Irregularity of the rainfall, which can vary considerably from year to year, accentuates the droughts of the Mediterranean climate. Rain does not fall evenly, nor does the rain arrive at the same time or within the same intervals. In Gibraltar , for instance, rain starts falling nearly half

2700-756: Is scarce, but overall it appears the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. In the Neretva Delta in the south, there were important Hellenistic influences of the Illyrian Daors tribe. Their capital was Daorson in Ošanići near Stolac . Daorson, in the 4th century BCE, was surrounded by megalithic , 5 m high stonewalls (as large as those of Mycenae in Greece), composed of large trapezoid stone blocks. Daors made unique bronze coins and sculptures. Conflict between

2808-540: Is subject to scholarly debate, came to predominate over the Slavs in the neighbouring regions. Croats "settled in area roughly corresponding to modern Croatia, and probably also including most of Bosnia proper, apart from the eastern strip of the Drina valley" while Serbs "corresponding to modern south-western Serbia (later known as Raška ), and gradually extended their rule into the territories of Duklja and Hum ". Bosnia

2916-758: The Alans and the Huns . By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian I had reconquered the area for the Byzantine Empire . Slavs overwhelmed the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. Illyrian cultural traits were adopted by the South Slavs, as evidenced in certain customs and traditions, placenames, etc. The Early Slavs raided the Western Balkans, including Bosnia, in the 6th and early 7th century (amid

3024-729: The Ardiaei (originally a tribe from the Neretva valley region) began at 230 BCE and ended at 167 BCE. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardylis of the Dardani and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last and best-known Illyrian kingdom. Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. From the 7th century BCE, bronze was replaced by iron, after which only jewelry and art objects were still made out of bronze. Illyrian tribes, under

3132-729: The Banate of Bosnia was established; by the 14th century, this had evolved into the Kingdom of Bosnia . In the mid-15th century, it was annexed into the Ottoman Empire , under whose rule it remained until the late 19th century; the Ottomans brought Islam to the region. From the late 19th century until World War I , the country was annexed into the Austro-Hungarian monarchy . In the interwar period , Bosnia and Herzegovina

3240-547: The Bosnia Eyalet until the formation of the short-lived Herzegovina Eyalet in the 1830s, which reemerged in the 1850s, after which the administrative region became commonly known as Bosnia and Herzegovina . On initial proclamation of independence in 1992 , the country's official name was the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , but following the 1995 Dayton Agreement and the new constitution that accompanied it,

3348-580: The Bosnian parliament and growth of new political life. On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip , a Bosnian Serb member of the revolutionary movement Young Bosnia , assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand , in Sarajevo—an event that was the spark that set off World War I . At the end of the war, the Bosniaks had lost more men per capita than any other ethnic group in

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3456-914: The D1 state road which comes from Zagreb , crosses from Lika through Knin and Sinj, down to Split , and the recently built A1 highway , which meanders near Zadar and Benkovac, passing throughout Zagora, via the Dugopolje exit (to Split) and on to Ploče . The railway links Zagreb with Knin , from Knin to Zadar, from Knin to Perković, where the line splits to Šibenik or to Split. 43°42′42″N 16°17′02″E  /  43.7117987°N 16.28400123°E  / 43.7117987; 16.28400123 Bosnia and Herzegovina in Europe  (dark grey) Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Serbo-Croatian : Bosna i Hercegovina , Босна и Херцеговина ), sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia ,

3564-585: The Istanbul government might seek the outright return of Bosnia and Herzegovina. These factors caused the Austro-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question sooner, rather than later. Taking advantage of turmoil in the Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian diplomacy tried to obtain provisional Russian approval for changes over the status of Bosnia and Herzegovina and published

3672-603: The Köppen climate classification , "hot dry-summer" climates (classified as Csa ) and "cool dry-summer" climates (classified as Csb ) are often referred to as just "Mediterranean". Under the Köppen climate system, the first letter indicates the climate group (in this case temperate climates). Temperate climates or " C " zones average temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), but below 18 °C (64 °F), in their coolest months. The second letter indicates

3780-766: The Migration Period ), and were composed of small tribal units drawn from a single Slavic confederation known to the Byzantines as the Sclaveni (whilst the related Antes , roughly speaking, colonized the eastern portions of the Balkans). Tribes recorded by the ethnonyms of "Serb" and "Croat" are described as a second, latter, migration of different people during the second quarter of the 7th century who could or could not have been particularly numerous; these early "Serb" and "Croat" tribes, whose exact identity

3888-581: The Neolithic age, permanent human settlements were established, including those that belonged to the Butmir , Kakanj , and Vučedol cultures. After the arrival of the first Indo-Europeans , the area was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. The ancestors of the South Slavic peoples that populate the area today arrived during the 6th through the 9th century. In the 12th century,

3996-738: The garrigue or maquis in the European Mediterranean Basin, the chaparral in California, the fynbos in South Africa , the mallee in Australia, and the matorral in Chile. Areas with this climate are also where the so-called "Mediterranean trinity" of major agricultural crops have traditionally been successfully grown ( wheat , grapes and olives ). As a result, these regions are notable for their high-quality wines, grapeseed/olive oils, and bread products. Under

4104-415: The subtropical ridge migrates towards the equator and leaves the area, making rainfall much more likely. As a result, areas with this climate receive almost all of their precipitation during their winter and spring seasons, and may go anywhere from four to six months during the summer and early fall without having any significant precipitation . In the lower latitudes, precipitation usually decreases in both

4212-586: The 11th century, although it retained its own nobility and institutions. In the High Middle Ages , political circumstance led to the area being contested between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early 12th century, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as the Banate of Bosnia (under the rule of local bans ). The first Bosnian ban known by name

4320-437: The 4th century BCE, the first invasion of Celts is recorded. They brought the technique of the pottery wheel , new types of fibulas and different bronze and iron belts. They only passed on their way to Greece, so their influence in Bosnia and Herzegovina is negligible. Celtic migrations displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period

4428-604: The Andes in Northern Ecuador , Peru , Colombia , and Western Venezuela . The cold-summer subtype of the Mediterranean climate ( Csc ) is rare and predominantly found at scattered high-altitude locations along the west coasts of North and South America having a similar climate. This type is characterized by cool, dry summers, with less than four months with a mean temperature at or above 10 °C (50 °F), as well as with cool, wet winters, with no winter month having

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4536-521: The Bosnian heartland. Following his death in 1391, however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463 after its conquest by the Ottoman Empire. There

4644-732: The Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decrees and in accordance and the full extent of Ottoman laws; however, in effect, these often merely affected arbitrary rule and behavior of powerful local elite. As the Ottoman Empire continued its rule in the Balkans ( Rumelia ), Bosnia was somewhat relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province and experienced a period of general welfare. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar , were established and grew into regional centers of trade and urban culture and were then visited by Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi in 1648. Within these cities, various Ottoman Sultans financed

4752-428: The Empire's westernmost province. The 18th century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbreaks of plague. The Porte's efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with distrust growing to hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed Tanzimat reforms. This, combined with frustrations over territorial, political concessions in

4860-437: The Habsburg Empire whilst serving in the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Infantry (known as Bosniaken ) of the Austro-Hungarian Army . Nonetheless, Bosnia and Herzegovina as a whole managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed. The Austro-Hungarian authorities established an auxiliary militia known as the Schutzkorps with a moot role in the empire's policy of anti-Serb repression. Schutzkorps, predominantly recruited among

4968-464: The Illyrians and Romans started in 229 BCE, but Rome did not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9. It was precisely in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina that Rome fought one of the most difficult battles in its history since the Punic Wars , as described by the Roman historian Suetonius . This was the Roman campaign against Illyricum , known as Bellum Batonianum . The conflict arose after an attempt to recruit Illyrians, and

5076-399: The Köppen classification, dry-summer climates ( Csa , Csb ) usually occur on the western sides of continents. Csb zones in the Köppen system include areas normally not associated with Mediterranean climates but with Oceanic climates, such as much of the Pacific Northwest , much of southern Chile , parts of west-central Argentina , and parts of New Zealand . Additional highland areas in

5184-600: The Mediterranean Basin, chaparral in California, matorral in Chile, fynbos in South Africa, and mallee and kwongan shrublands in Australia. Mediterranean vegetation shows a number of adaptations to drought , grazing , and frequent fire regimes. The small sclerophyllous leaves that characterize many of the perennial shrubs of this biome, help conserve water and prevent nutrient loss. The soils generally are of low fertility , and many plants have mutualistic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria . Aquatic communities in Mediterranean climate regions are adapted to

5292-447: The Mediterranean climate typically experience hot, sometimes very hot and dry summers. Winters can be mild, cool or chilly, and some cities in this region receive somewhat regular snowfall (e.g. Kermanshah ), while others do not receive any (e.g. Casablanca ). Csa climates are mainly found around the Mediterranean Sea , southern Australia, southwestern South Africa , sections of Central Asia , northern sections of Iran and Iraq ,

5400-448: The Mediterranean climate, therefore it is also known as a "typical Mediterranean climate". As stated earlier, regions with this form of a Mediterranean climate experience average monthly temperatures in excess of 22.0 °C (71.6 °F) during its warmest month and an average in the coldest month between 18 and −3 °C (64 and 27 °F) or, in some applications, between 18 and 0 °C (64 and 32 °F). Regions with this form of

5508-701: The Muslim (Bosniak) population, were tasked with hunting down rebel Serbs (the Chetniks and Komitadji ) and became known for their persecution of Serbs particularly in Serb populated areas of eastern Bosnia, where they partly retaliated against Serbian Chetniks who in fall 1914 had carried out attacks against the Muslim population in the area. The proceedings of the Austro-Hungarian authorities led to around 5,500 citizens of Serb ethnicity in Bosnia and Herzegovina being arrested, and between 700 and 2,200 died in prison while 460 were executed. Around 5,200 Serb families were forcibly expelled from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following World War I, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined

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5616-432: The Ottomans. Quite a few Vlachs also became Islamized in Bosnia, and some (mainly in Croatia) became Catholics. The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, forced and economic migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became

5724-401: The Pacific portions of the United States and Chile, extreme west areas of Argentina, around Cape Town in South Africa, parts of Southwest and South Australia , and parts of Central Asia . They tend to be found in proximity (both poleward and near the coast) of desert and semi-arid climates , and equatorward of oceanic climates . Mediterranean climate zones are typically located along

5832-399: The Proto-Indo-European root bʰegʷ- , meaning "the running water". According to the English medievalist William Miller , the Slavic settlers in Bosnia "adapted the Latin designation ... Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna and themselves Bosniaks ". The name Herzegovina means "herzog's [land]", and "herzog" derives from the German word for "duke". It originates from

5940-401: The South Slav Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia and Herzegovina at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution and the formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions. The dominant ideological conflict of

6048-560: The Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia and Herzegovina's major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere. The political reforms brought about in the newly established Yugoslavian kingdom saw few benefits for the Bosnian Muslims; according to the 1910 final census of land ownership and population according to religious affiliation conducted in Austria-Hungary, Muslims owned 91.1%, Orthodox Serbs owned 6.0%, Croat Catholics owned 2.6% and others, 0.3% of

6156-412: The annexation of Bosnia, but due to international disputes the issue was not resolved until the annexation crisis of 1908. Several external matters affected the status of Bosnia and its relationship with Austria–Hungary. A bloody coup occurred in Serbia in 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power in Belgrade . Then in 1908, the revolt in the Ottoman Empire raised concerns that

6264-411: The annexation proclamation on 6 October 1908. Despite international objections to the Austro-Hungarian annexation, Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in March 1909. In 1910, Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph proclaimed the first constitution in Bosnia, which led to relaxation of earlier laws, elections and formation of

6372-431: The average annual precipitation must not exceed 900 mm (35 in), as well as satisfying Köppen's precipitation requirements. [Chile] has four months of winter, no more, and in them, except when there is a quarter moon, when it rains one or two days, all the other days have such a beautiful sunshine that is not necessary to resort to fire. The summer is so temperate, with delicious airs, that man can go all day under

6480-404: The central and eastern regions, the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and in the northeast it is predominantly flat. Herzegovina , the smaller, southern region, has a Mediterranean climate and is mostly mountainous. Sarajevo is the capital and the largest city. The area has been inhabited since at least the Upper Paleolithic , but evidence suggests that during

6588-435: The climate and elevations change. Karst topography dominates the landscape. The land is interspersed with river canyons, of Krka , Čikola , Cetina and others. One national park is located in Zagora, the Krka National Park . The aforementioned geographical and climate conditions influenced the life patterns of the historically important shepherd population: in the wintertime, they were moving their numerous flocks from

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6696-434: The cold current has a stabilizing effect on the surrounding air, further reducing the chances for rain, but often causing thick layers of marine fog that usually evaporates by mid-day. Similar to desert climates, in many Mediterranean climates there is a strong diurnal character to daily temperatures in the warm summer months due to strong solar heating during the day from sunlight and rapid cooling at night. In winter,

6804-413: The collective memory of Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. An estimated 209,000 Serbs or 16.9% of its Bosnia population were killed on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war. The Ustaše recognized both Catholicism and Islam as the national religions, but held the position Eastern Orthodox Church , as a symbol of Serb identity, was their greatest foe. Although Croats were by far

6912-426: The concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The Cvetković-Maček Agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Croatia and Serbia. However the rising threat of Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Germany forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement,

7020-439: The construction of many works of Bosnian architecture such as the country's first library in Sarajevo, madrassas , a school of Sufi philosophy , and a clock tower ( Sahat Kula ), bridges such as the Stari Most , the Emperor's Mosque and the Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque . Furthermore, several Bosnian Muslims played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history during this time. Bosnian recruits formed

7128-421: The country's history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape. The Ottomans incorporated Bosnia as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity. Within Bosnia, the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and

7236-532: The early Muslim conversions in Ottoman Bosnia in the 15th–16th century were among the locals who stayed rather than mass Muslim settlements from outside Bosnia. In Herzegovina, many Orthodox people had also embraced Islam. By the late 16th and early 17th century, Muslims are considered to have become an absolute majority in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Albanian Catholic priest Pjetër Mazreku reported in 1624 that there were 450,000 Muslims, 150,000 Catholics and 75,000 Eastern Orthodox in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There

7344-557: The freezing point and snow is generally seldom seen. Summer temperatures can be cool to very hot, depending on the distance from a large body of water, elevation, and latitude, among other factors. Strong winds from inland desert regions can sometimes boost summer temperatures up, quickly increasing the risk of wildfires . Notable exceptions to the usual proximity from bodies of water, thus featuring extremely high summer temperatures and cooler winters, include south-eastern Turkey and northern Iraq ( Urfa , Erbil ), surrounded by hot deserts to

7452-413: The handbook is devoted to the Serbian prince 's lands, and Bosnia is treated as a separate territory, though one that is particularly dependent on Serbs. The name of the land is believed to derive from the name of the river Bosna that courses through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer, the name Bosna could derive from Illyrian *"Bass-an-as", which in turn could derive from

7560-519: The inclusion of Bosnia in the chapter to merely be the result of Serbian Grand Duke Časlav 's temporary rule over Bosnia at the time, while also pointing out Porphyrogenitus does not say anywhere explicitly that Bosnia is a "Serb land". In fact, the very translation of the critical sentence where the word Bosona (Bosnia) appears is subject to varying interpretation. In time, Bosnia formed a unit under its own ruler, who called himself Bosnian. Bosnia, along with other territories, became part of Duklja in

7668-457: The influence of Hallstatt cultures to the north, formed regional centers that were slightly different. Parts of Central Bosnia were inhabited by the Daesitiates tribe, most commonly associated with the Central Bosnian cultural group . The Iron Age Glasinac-Mati culture is associated with the Autariatae tribe. A very important role in their life was the cult of the dead, which is seen in their careful burials and burial ceremonies, as well as

7776-561: The influential Sokollu Mehmed Pasha and Damat Ibrahim Pasha . Some Bosnians emerged as Sufi mystics, scholars such as Muhamed Hevaji Uskufi Bosnevi , Ali Džabić ; and poets in the Turkish , Albanian , Arabic , and Persian languages . However, by the late 17th century the Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the end of the Great Turkish War with the treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 again made Bosnia

7884-706: The interior of northern California west of the Sierra Nevada , along the Wasatch Front in Utah , and inland areas of southern Oregon west of the Cascade Mountains . Southern California's coasts also experience hot summers due to the shielding effect of the Channel Islands . However, unshielded areas of that coastline can have warm-summer Mediterranean climates with hot-summer areas just

7992-611: The largest ethnic group to constitute the Ustaše, the Vice President of the NDH and leader of the Yugoslav Muslim Organization Džafer Kulenović was a Muslim, and Muslims in total constituted nearly 12% of the Ustaše military and civil service authority. Mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate ( / ˌ m ɛ d ɪ t ə ˈ r eɪ n i ən / MED -ih-tə- RAY -nee-ən ), also called

8100-578: The largest group, Serbs the second-largest, and Croats the third-largest. Minorities include Jews , Roma , Albanians, Montenegrins, Ukrainians and Turks . Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member presidency made up of one member from each of the three major ethnic groups. However, the central government's power is highly limited, as the country is largely decentralized. It comprises two autonomous entities—the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska —and

8208-498: The largest of the ethno-religious groups due to a lack of strong Christian church organizations and continuous rivalry between the Orthodox and Catholic churches, while the indigenous Bosnian Church disappeared altogether (ostensibly by conversion of its members to Islam). The Ottomans referred to them as kristianlar while the Orthodox and Catholics were called gebir or kafir , meaning "unbeliever". The Bosnian Franciscans (and

8316-432: The lowland areas, temperatures which can sometimes prohibit the growth of typical cold-sensitive Mediterranean plants. Some Spanish authors opt to use the term 'continental Mediterranean climate' ( Clima Mediterráneo Continentalizado ) for some regions with lower temperatures in winter than the coastal areas, but Köppen's Cs zones show no distinction as long as winter temperature means stay above freezing. Additionally,

8424-668: The mountains to the coast. Historic population of Zagora has included the Illyrians and the Vlachs . The area has had diminishing human settlement in the last few centuries, although many towns and villages remain scattered all over Zagora. The larger towns include Knin , Drniš , Vrlika , Sinj , Vrgorac , Trilj and Imotski . Villages include Biskupija , Kistanje , Kijevo , Unešić , Oklaj , Ružić , Aržano , Dicmo , Muć , Cista Provo , Prgomet , Hrvace , Lovreć , Šestanovac , Zmijavci , etc. Two major roads intersect Zagora –

8532-787: The north-east, and the plight of Slavic Muslim refugees arriving from the Sanjak of Smederevo into Bosnia Eyalet , culminated in a partially unsuccessful revolt by Husein Gradaščević , who endorsed a Bosnia Eyalet autonomous from the authoritarian rule of the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II , who persecuted, executed and abolished the Janissaries and reduced the role of autonomous Pashas in Rumelia. Mahmud II sent his Grand vizier to subdue Bosnia Eyalet and succeeded only with

8640-531: The occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and he also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar , which would remain under Ottoman administration until 1908, when the Austro-Hungarian troops withdrew from the Sanjak. Although Austro-Hungarian officials quickly came to an agreement with the Bosnians, tensions remained and a mass emigration of Bosnians occurred. However,

8748-563: The ocean, altitude and geographical location. The dry summer climate is found throughout the warmer middle latitudes , affecting almost exclusively the western portions of continents in relative proximity to the coast. The climate type's name is in reference to the coastal regions of the Mediterranean Sea , which mostly share this type of climate, but it can also be found in the Atlantic portions of Iberia and Northwest Africa,

8856-520: The official name was changed to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia has been inhabited by humans since at least the Paleolithic , as one of the oldest cave paintings was found in Badanj cave . Major Neolithic cultures such as the Butmir and Kakanj were present along the river Bosna dated from c.  6230 BCE – c.  4900 BCE . The bronze culture of the Illyrians , an ethnic group with

8964-428: The population was called Dobri Bošnjani ("Good Bosnians"). The names Serb and Croat, though occasionally appearing in peripheral areas, were not used in Bosnia proper. Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by a power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stephen II Kotromanić became Ban . By the time of his death in 1353, he

9072-580: The precipitation pattern (" s " represents dry summers). Köppen has defined a dry summer month as a month with less than 30 mm (1.2 in) of precipitation and as a month within the high-sun months of April to September, in the case of the Northern Hemisphere and October to March, in the case of the Southern Hemisphere, and it also must contain exactly or less than one-third that of the wettest winter month. Some, however, use

9180-406: The property. Following the reforms, Bosnian Muslims were dispossessed of a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land. Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians, such as Mehmed Spaho , ensured the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to

9288-530: The reason for this cooler type of Mediterranean climate. The other main reason for this cooler type is the altitude . For instance, Menton on the French coast has a Csa climate while Castellar, Alpes-Maritimes , the adjacent town just north of Menton, with an altitude between 100 and 1,382 m (328 and 4,534 ft), has a Csb climate instead. The village of Siah Bisheh in Northern Iran also has

9396-650: The recent effects of climate change . The native vegetation of Mediterranean climate lands must be adapted to survive long, hot summer droughts in summer and prolonged wet periods in winter. Mediterranean vegetation examples include the following: Many native vegetations in Mediterranean climate area valleys have been cleared for agriculture and farming. In places such as the Sacramento Valley and Oxnard Plain in California , draining marshes and estuaries combined with supplemental irrigation has led to

9504-464: The reluctant assistance of Ali Pasha Rizvanbegović . Related rebellions were extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate. New nationalist movements appeared in Bosnia by the middle of the 19th century. Shortly after Serbia's breakaway from the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, Serbian and Croatian nationalism rose up in Bosnia, and such nationalists made irredentist claims to Bosnia's territory. This trend continued to grow in

9612-761: The rest of the 19th and 20th centuries. Agrarian unrest eventually sparked the Herzegovinian rebellion , a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation that led to the Congress of Berlin and the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy obtained

9720-592: The richness of their burial sites. In northern parts, there was a long tradition of cremation and burial in shallow graves, while in the south the dead were buried in large stone or earth tumuli (natively called gromile ) that in Herzegovina were reaching monumental sizes, more than 50 m wide and 5 m high. Japodian tribes had an affinity to decoration (heavy, oversized necklaces out of yellow, blue or white glass paste, and large bronze fibulas , as well as spiral bracelets, diadems and helmets out of bronze foil). In

9828-795: The signing of the Tripartite Treaty , and a coup d'état , Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941. Once the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by German forces in World War II , all of Bosnia and Herzegovina was ceded to the Nazi puppet regime, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) led by the Ustaše . The NDH leaders embarked on a campaign of extermination of Serbs, Jews, Romani as well as dissident Croats, and, later, Josip Broz Tito 's Partisans by setting up

9936-481: The six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole. The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates or banovinas that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with

10044-419: The south and mountains to the north. Those places routinely experience summer daily means of over 30 °C (86 °F) and daily highs above 40 °C (104 °F), while receiving enough rainfall in winter not to fall into arid or semi-arid classifications. As in every climatologic domain, the highland locations of the Mediterranean domain can present cooler temperatures in the summer and winter than

10152-495: The south coast of England such as Weymouth and Portland just scrape into this climate classification due to very low rainfall in July. A trend towards slightly drier summers during the 1971–2000 climate average period, meant that this classification previously extended slightly further to include a few other weather stations in southern England, such as Bognor Regis and Teignmouth . Rarer instances of this climate can be found in relatively small and isolated high altitude areas of

10260-743: The subtropics also meet Cs requirements, though they, too, are not normally associated with Mediterranean climates. The same goes for a number of oceanic islands such as Madeira , the Juan Fernández Islands , the western part of the Canary Islands , and the eastern part of the Azores . Under Trewartha 's modified Köppen climate classification, the two major requirements for a Cs climate are revised. Under Trewartha's system, at least eight months must have average temperatures of 10 °C (50 °F) or higher ( subtropical ), and

10368-537: The sun. Poleward extension and expansion of the subtropical anticyclone over the oceans bring subsiding air to the region in summer, with clear skies and high temperatures. When the anticyclone moves Equator-ward in winter, it is replaced by traveling, frontal cyclones with their attendant precipitation. During summer, regions of the Mediterranean climate are strongly influenced by the subtropical ridge which keeps atmospheric conditions very dry with minimal cloud coverage. In some areas, such as coastal California ,

10476-461: The temperature and rainfall pattern for a Csa or even a Csb climate can exist as a microclimate in some high-altitude locations adjacent to a rare tropical As ( tropical savanna climate with dry summers, typically in a rainshadow region, as in Hawaii). These have a favourable climate, with mild wet winters and fairly warm, dry summers. The Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome

10584-531: The title of a 15th-century Bosnian magnate, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača , who was "Herceg [Herzog] of Hum and the Coast" (1448). Hum (formerly called Zachlumia ) was an early medieval principality that had been conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. When the Ottomans took over administration of the region, they called it the Sanjak of Herzegovina ( Hersek ). It was included within

10692-702: The tropics, on Haleakalā Summit in Hawaii. In South America, Csc regions can be found along the Andes in Chile and Argentina. The town of Balmaceda, Chile is one of the few towns confirmed to have this climate. Small areas with a Csc climate can be found at high elevations in Corsica . In Norway, the small fishing village of Røstlandet , in Røst Municipality , above the Arctic Circle has

10800-452: The western coasts of landmasses, between roughly 30 and 45 degrees north or south of the equator . The main cause of Mediterranean, or dry summer, climate is the subtropical ridge , which extends towards the pole of the hemisphere in question during the summer and migrates towards the equator during the winter. This is due to the seasonal poleward-equatorward variations of temperatures. The resulting vegetation of Mediterranean climates are

10908-541: The winter and summer due to higher evapotranspiration . Toward the polar latitudes, total moisture usually increases; for instance, the Mediterranean climate in Southern Europe has more rain. The rainfall also tends to be more evenly distributed throughout the year in Southern Europe, while in places such as Southern California , the summer is nearly or completely dry. In places where evapotranspiration

11016-410: The winter, with frost and snowfall almost unknown, whereas Tashkent has cold winters with annual frosts and snowfall; or, to consider summer, Seville experiences rather high temperatures in that season. In contrast, San Francisco has cool summers with daily highs around 21 °C (70 °F) due to the continuous upwelling of cold subsurface waters along the coast. Because most regions with

11124-554: The year for climate zones at such distances from coasts. In North America, areas with Csc climate can be found in the Olympic , Cascade , Klamath , and Sierra Nevada ranges in Washington, Oregon and California. These locations are found at high altitude nearby lower altitude regions characterized by a warm-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) or hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csa ). A rare instance of this climate occurs in

11232-692: Was Ban Borić . The second was Ban Kulin , whose rule marked the start of a controversy involving the Bosnian Church – considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church . In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254. During this time,

11340-400: Was a general awareness in medieval Bosnia, at least amongst the nobles, that they shared a joint state with Serbia and that they belonged to the same ethnic group. That awareness diminished over time, due to differences in political and social development, but it was kept in Herzegovina and parts of Bosnia which were a part of Serbian state. The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in

11448-514: Was a lack of Orthodox Church activity in Bosnia proper in the pre-Ottoman period. An Orthodox Christian population in Bosnia was introduced as a direct result of Ottoman policy. From the 15th century and onwards, Orthodox Christians (Orthodox Vlachs and non-Vlach Orthodox Serbs) from Serbia and other regions settled in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Favored by the Ottomans over the Catholics, many Orthodox churches were allowed to be built in Bosnia by

11556-567: Was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . After World War II , it was granted full republic status in the newly formed Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . In 1992, following the breakup of Yugoslavia , the republic proclaimed independence . This was followed by the Bosnian War , which lasted until late 1995 and ended with the signing of the Dayton Agreement . The country is home to three main ethnic groups : Bosniaks are

11664-460: Was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his ambitious nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. By the year 1377, Bosnia was elevated into a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko as the first Bosnian King in Mile near Visoko in

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