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98-624: In its current form, the gate was built in 1537 under the rule of Suleiman the Magnificent ; however, a gate is known to have been located in the same spot since the Roman period. Beneath the current gate, the remains of an earlier gate can be seen, dating back to the time of the Roman Emperor Hadrian , who visited the region in 129/130 CE. Directly below the 16th-century gate there is an older gate, dated by most archaeologists to

196-516: A pashaluk after his military title, besides the administrative term for the type of jurisdiction, e.g. eyalet , vilayet/walayah . Both beylerbeys (governors-general) and valis/wālis (the most common type of Governor) were entitled to the style of Pasha (typically with two tails). The word pashalik designated any province or other jurisdiction of a Pasha, such as the Pasha or Bashaw of Tripoli . Ottoman and Egyptian authorities conferred

294-542: A former concubine, became the legal wife of the Sultan, much to the astonishment of the observers in the palace and the city. He also allowed Hurrem Sultan to remain with him at court for the rest of her life, breaking another tradition—that when imperial heirs came of age, they would be sent along with the imperial concubine who bore them to govern remote provinces of the Empire, never to return unless their progeny succeeded to

392-520: A harem girl from Ruthenia , then part of Poland . Western diplomats, taking notice of the palace gossip about her, called her "Russelazie" or "Roxelana", referring to her Ruthenian origins. The daughter of an Orthodox priest, she was captured by Tatars from Crimea , sold as a slave in Constantinople, and eventually rose through the ranks of the Harem to become Suleiman's favorite . Hurrem,

490-642: A lasting presence in the province of Van , control of the western half of Azerbaijan and some forts in Georgia . In 1553, Suleiman began his third and final campaign against the Shah. Having initially lost territories in Erzurum to the Shah's son, Suleiman retaliated by recapturing Erzurum, crossing the Upper Euphrates and laying waste to parts of Persia. The Shah's army continued its strategy of avoiding

588-550: A legitimate sultan. Suleiman was born in Trabzon on the southern coast of the Black Sea to Şehzade Selim (later Selim I ), probably on 6 November 1494, although this date is not known with absolute certainty or evidence. His mother was Hafsa Sultan , a concubine convert to Islam of unknown origins, who died in 1534. At the age of seven, Suleiman began studies of science, history, literature, theology and military tactics in

686-486: A lesser extent) Levantine Arabic , it is used as an honorific closer to "Sir" than "Lord", especially by older people. Among Egyptians born since the Revolution of 1952 and the abolition of aristocratic titles, it is considered a highly formal way of addressing one's male peers. The Republican Turkish authorities abolished the title circa the 1930s. Although it is no longer an official title, high-ranking officers of

784-760: A phenomenon often referred to as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire . Suleiman the Magnificent ( محتشم سليمان Muḥteşem Süleymān ), as he was known in the West , was also called Suleiman the First ( سلطان سليمان أول Sulṭān Süleymān-ı Evvel ), and Suleiman the Lawgiver ( قانونی سلطان سليمان Ḳānūnī Sulṭān Süleymān ) for his reform of the Ottoman legal system. It is unclear when exactly

882-524: A push towards Persia, only to find the Shah sacrificing territory instead of facing a pitched battle, resorting to harassment of the Ottoman army as it proceeded along the harsh interior. In 1535 Suleiman made a grand entrance into Baghdad. He enhanced his local support by restoring the tomb of Abu Hanifa , the founder of the Hanafi school of Islamic law to which the Ottomans adhered. Attempting to defeat

980-597: A result, an Ottoman expedition to Aceh was launched, which was able to provide extensive military support to the Acehnese. The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Ocean throughout the 16th century. The Ajuran Sultanate allied with

1078-561: A series of projects, including bridges, mosques, palaces and various charitable and social establishments. The greatest of these were built by the Sultan's chief architect, Mimar Sinan , under whom Ottoman architecture reached its zenith. Sinan became responsible for over three hundred monuments throughout the empire, including his two masterpieces, the Süleymaniye and Selimiye mosques—the latter built in Adrianople (now Edirne ) in

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1176-425: A set of fines for specific offenses, as well as reducing the instances requiring death or mutilation. In the area of taxation, taxes were levied on various goods and produce, including animals, mines, profits of trade, and import-export duties. Higher medreses provided education of university status, whose graduates became imams ( امام ) or teachers. Educational centers were often one of many buildings surrounding

1274-466: A single legal code, all the while being careful not to violate the basic laws of Islam. It was within this framework that Suleiman, supported by his Grand Mufti Ebussuud , sought to reform the legislation to adapt to a rapidly changing empire. When the Kanun laws attained their final form, the code of laws became known as the kanun‐i Osmani ( قانون عثمانی ), or the "Ottoman laws". Suleiman's legal code

1372-672: A successor sultanate to the Ottoman Empire. As such, he bore the title of Pasha , in addition to the official title of Wāli , and the self-declared title of Khedive . His successors to the Egyptian and Sudanese throne , Ibrahim , Abbas , Sa'id , and Isma'il also inherited these titles, with Pasha , and Wāli ceasing to be used in 1867, when the Ottoman Sultan , Abdülaziz officially recognised Isma'il as Khedive. The title Pasha appears originally to have applied exclusively to military commanders and only high ranking family of

1470-443: A symbol of Turco-Mongol tradition) or peacock tails that the bearers were entitled to display on their standard as a symbol of military authority when on campaign. Only the sultan himself was entitled to four tails, as sovereign commander in chief . The following military ranks entitled the holder to the style Pasha (lower ranks were styled Bey or merely Effendi ): If a Pasha governed a provincial territory , it could be called

1568-545: A title given to some Ottoman provincial officials and janissaries . As first used in western Europe, the title appeared in writing with an initial b . The English forms bashaw , bassaw , bucha , etc., general in the 16th and 17th century, derive through the medieval Latin and Italian word bassa . Due to the Ottoman presence in the Arab world , the title became used frequently in Arabic , though pronounced basha due to

1666-512: A woman from his harem, an Orthodox Christian of Ruthenian origin who converted to Sunni Islam , and who became famous in Western Europe of his time by the name Roxelana, due to her red hair. Their son, Selim II , succeeded Suleiman following his death in 1566 after 46 years of rule. Suleiman's other potential heirs, Mehmed and Mustafa , had died; Mehmed had died in 1543 from smallpox, and Mustafa had been strangled to death in 1553 at

1764-465: Is a cultural icon in much of Palestinian literature and culture. It has folkloric and sentimental value to many Palestinians which includes imagery of women selling baladi products and coffee shops in the square. Nazmi Jubeh, a professor at Birzeit University , said of Damascus Gate, "[It] has become a symbol for the Palestinian national struggle because of its accessibility to Palestinians and

1862-571: Is aptly named, enjoys reading, is knowledgeable and shows good judgment." Upon succeeding his father, Suleiman began a series of military conquests, eventually leading to a revolt led by the Ottoman-appointed governor of Damascus in 1521. Suleiman soon made preparations for the conquest of Belgrade from the Kingdom of Hungary —something his great-grandfather Mehmed II had failed to achieve because of John Hunyadi 's strong defense in

1960-657: The Barbary pirates of North Africa can be seen in the context of the wars against Spain. In 1541, the Spaniards led an unsuccessful expedition to Algiers . In 1542, facing a common Habsburg enemy during the Italian Wars , Francis I sought to renew the Franco-Ottoman alliance . In early 1542, Polin successfully negotiated the details of the alliance, with the Ottoman Empire promising to send 60,000 troops against

2058-699: The Hagia Sophia and Topkapı Palace . Despite his following marriage and his new sumptuous residence, Ibrahim sometimes spent the night with Suleiman I at Topkapı Palace. In turn, the sultan occasionally slept at Ibrahim's lodgings. Ibrahim Pasha rose to Grand Vizier in 1523 and commander-in-chief of all the armies. Suleiman also conferred upon Ibrahim Pasha the honor of beylerbey of Rumelia (first-ranking military governor-general), granting Ibrahim authority over all Ottoman territories in Europe, as well as command of troops residing within them in times of war. At

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2156-536: The Islamic calendar of 1543 AD. In addition to Suleiman's own work, many great talents enlivened the literary world during Suleiman's rule, including Fuzûlî and Bâkî . The literary historian Elias John Wilkinson Gibb observed that "at no time, even in Turkey, was greater encouragement given to poetry than during the reign of this Sultan". Suleiman's most famous verse is: The people think of wealth and power as

2254-618: The Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) under a house approximately 40 m south of Damascus Gate. The large paving slabs he unearthed were probably part of the plaza's pavement, but it cannot be ruled out that they were laid out in one of the streets radiating south of it. Excavations have revealed that construction within the Damascus Gate continued under the Byzantine emperor, Justinian I . The Damascus Gate

2352-735: The Mughal imperial ports of Thatta , Surat and Janjira . The Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great himself is known to have exchanged six documents with Suleiman the Magnificent. Suleiman led several naval campaigns against the Portuguese in an attempt to remove them and reestablish trade with the Mughal Empire . Aden in Yemen was captured by the Ottomans in 1538, in order to provide an Ottoman base for raids against Portuguese possessions on

2450-585: The Muhammad Ali dynasty and was noted in Egyptian media in 2014 as one of the main "families that rule Egypt" to this day, and as "deeply rooted in Egyptian society and… in the history of the country." As an honorific, the title pasha was an aristocratic title and could be hereditary or non-hereditary, stipulated in the firman ( patent of nobility ) issued by the Sultan carrying the tughra (imperial seal). The title did not bestow rank or title to

2548-664: The Persian Gulf , while the Persians retained their former capital Tabriz and all their other northwestern territories in the Caucasus and as they were prior to the wars, such as Dagestan and all of what is now Azerbaijan . Ottoman ships had been sailing in the Indian Ocean since the year 1518. Ottoman admirals such as Hadim Suleiman Pasha , Seydi Ali Reis and Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis are known to have voyaged to

2646-781: The Eastern Mediterranean island of Rhodes , the home base of the Knights Hospitaller . Suleiman built a large fortification, Marmaris Castle , that served as a base for the Ottoman Navy . Following a five-month siege , Rhodes capitulated and Suleiman allowed the Knights of Rhodes to depart. The conquest of the island cost the Ottomans 50,000 to 60,000 dead from battle and sickness (Christian claims went as high as 64,000 Ottoman battle deaths and 50,000 disease deaths). As relations between Hungary and

2744-564: The Knights killed in battle; but a relief force from Spain entered the battle, resulting in the loss of 10,000 Ottoman troops and the victory of the local Maltese citizenry. While Sultan Suleiman was known as "the Magnificent" in the West, he was always Kanuni Suleiman or "The Lawgiver" ( قانونی ) to his Ottoman subjects. The overriding law of the empire was the Shari'ah , or Sacred Law, which as

2842-508: The Magnificent Suleiman I ( Ottoman Turkish : سليمان اول , romanized :  Süleyman-ı Evvel ; Turkish : I. Süleyman , pronounced [syleiˈman] ; 6 November 1494 – 6 September 1566), commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in Western Europe and Suleiman the Lawgiver (Ottoman Turkish: قانونى سلطان سليمان , romanized:  Ḳānūnī Sulṭān Süleymān ) in his Ottoman realm,

2940-718: The Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and through the Persian Gulf . At the helm of an expanding empire, Suleiman personally instituted major judicial changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law. His reforms, carried out in conjunction with

3038-543: The Ottoman Empire deteriorated, Suleiman resumed his campaign in Central Europe, and on 29 August 1526 he defeated Louis II of Hungary (1506–1526) at the Battle of Mohács . Upon encountering the lifeless body of King Louis, Suleiman is said to have lamented: "I came indeed in arms against him; but it was not my wish that he should be thus cut off before he scarcely tasted the sweets of life and royalty." While Suleiman

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3136-517: The Ottoman fleet. In 1535, Charles V led a Holy League of 26,700 soldiers (10,000 Spaniards, 8,000 Italians, 8,000 Germans, and 700 Knights of St. John) to victory against the Ottomans at Tunis , which together with the war against Venice the following year, led Suleiman to accept proposals from Francis I of France to form an alliance against Charles . Huge Muslim territories in North Africa were annexed. The piracy carried on thereafter by

3234-629: The Ottomans defied the Portuguese economic monopoly in the Indian Ocean by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese. Having consolidated his conquests on land, Suleiman was greeted with the news that the fortress of Koroni in Morea (the modern Peloponnese , peninsular Greece) had been lost to Charles V 's admiral, Andrea Doria . The presence of

3332-699: The Ottomans, leading to a stalemate from which neither army made any significant gain. In 1555, a settlement known as the Peace of Amasya was signed, which defined the borders of the two empires. By this treaty, Armenia and Georgia were divided equally between the two, with Western Armenia , western Kurdistan , and western Georgia (incl. western Samtskhe ) falling in Ottoman hands while Eastern Armenia , eastern Kurdistan, and eastern Georgia (incl. eastern Samtskhe) stayed in Safavid hands. The Ottoman Empire obtained most of Iraq , including Baghdad, which gave them access to

3430-482: The Persian word padishah . Jean Deny also attributed its origin to padishah , while repeating a suggestion by Gerhard Doerfer that it was influenced by Turkic baskak ( bāsqāq ), meaning 'agent, tax collector'. Some theories have posited a Turkish or Turkic origin of the word, claiming it derived from başağa ( bāş āghā ), which denoted a 'principal elder brother' or 'prince's elder son' in

3528-631: The Roman emperor Hadrian in 129/130 CE. Italian architect and engineer, Ermete Pierotti, who served under the Jerusalem governor Surraya Pasha (1857–1863), thought the gate to be identical with the 'North Gate' described by Josephus , through which the Jews made a sortie to disturb Titus ' first reconnoissance of the city. J.B. Hennessy and C.M. Bennett of the British School of Archaeology excavated in 1964–1966 next to Damascus Gate and exposed

3626-560: The Shah once and for all, Suleiman embarked upon a second campaign in 1548–1549. As in the previous attempt, Tahmasp avoided confrontation with the Ottoman army and instead chose to retreat, using scorched earth tactics in the process and exposing the Ottoman army to the harsh winter of the Caucasus . Suleiman abandoned the campaign with temporary Ottoman gains in Tabriz and the Urmia region,

3724-551: The Spanish in the Eastern Mediterranean concerned Suleiman, who saw it as an early indication of Charles V's intention to rival Ottoman dominance in the region. Recognizing the need to reassert naval preeminence in the Mediterranean, Suleiman appointed an exceptional naval commander in the form of Khair ad Din , known to Europeans as Barbarossa . Once appointed admiral-in-chief, Barbarossa was charged with rebuilding

3822-575: The Turkish word from which it was borrowed was formed as a result of the combination of the Pahlavi words pati- 'lord', and shah ( 𐭬𐭫𐭪𐭠 ). According to Josef W. Meri and Jere L. Bacharach , the word is "more than likely derived from the Persian Padishah " ( پادشاه ). The same view is held by Nicholas Ostler , who mentions that the word was formed as a shortening of

3920-407: The Turkish word itself has been a matter of debate. Contrary to titles like emir ( amīr ) and bey ( beg ), which were established in usage much earlier, the title pasha came into Ottoman usage right after the reign of Osman I (d. 1324), though it had been used before the Ottomans by some Anatolian Turkish rulers of the same era. Old Turkish had no fixed distinction between /b/ and /p/, and

4018-513: The West. With a reinforced garrison of 16,000 men, the Austrians inflicted the first defeat on Suleiman, sowing the seeds of a bitter Ottoman–Habsburg rivalry that lasted until the 20th century. His second attempt to conquer Vienna failed in 1532, as Ottoman forces were delayed by the siege of Güns and failed to reach Vienna. In both cases, the Ottoman army was plagued by bad weather, forcing them to leave behind essential siege equipment, and

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4116-710: The absence of the /p/ sound in Arabic. Within the Ottoman Empire , the Sultan had the right to bestow the title of Pasha . Lucy Mary Jane Garnett wrote in the 1904 work Turkish Life in Town and Country that it was the sole "Turkish title which carries with it any definite rank and precedence". It was through this custom that the title ( Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [ˈbæːʃæ] ) came to be used in Egypt, which

4214-520: The attacks and defended the Eger Castle . Suleiman's father had made war with Persia a high priority. At first, Suleiman shifted attention to Europe and was content to contain Persia , which was preoccupied by its own enemies to its east. After Suleiman stabilized his European frontiers, he now turned his attention to Persia, the base for the rival Shia Muslim faction. The Safavid dynasty became

4312-403: The breadth of Suleiman's patronage of the arts, the earliest of the documents dating from 1526 list 40 societies with over 600 members. The Ehl-i Hiref attracted the empire's most talented artisans to the Sultan's court, both from the Islamic world and from the recently conquered territories in Europe, resulting in a blend of Arabic, Turkish and European cultures. Artisans in service of

4410-440: The city's Roman name after 130 CE, Aelia Capitolina . Until the latest excavations (1979–1984), some researchers believed that Hadrian's gate was preceded by one erected by Agrippa I (r. 41–44 CE) as part of the so-called Third Wall . However, recent research seems to prove that the gate does not predate the Roman reconstruction of the city as Aelia Capitolina, during the first half of the second century. Hadrian's Roman gate

4508-495: The court included painters, book binders, furriers, jewellers and goldsmiths. Whereas previous rulers had been influenced by Persian culture (Suleiman's father, Selim I, wrote poetry in Persian), Suleiman's patronage of the arts saw the Ottoman Empire assert its own artistic legacy. Suleiman himself was an accomplished poet, writing in Persian and Turkish under the takhallus (nom de plume) Muhibbi ( محبی , "Lover"). Some of Suleiman's verses have become Turkish proverbs, such as

4606-602: The courtyards of mosques, others included libraries, baths, soup kitchens, residences and hospitals for the benefit of the public. Under Suleiman's patronage, the Ottoman Empire entered the golden age of its cultural development . Hundreds of imperial artistic societies (called the اهل حرف Ehl-i Hiref , "Community of the Craftsmen") were administered at the Imperial seat, the Topkapı Palace . After an apprenticeship, artists and craftsmen could advance in rank within their field and were paid commensurate wages in quarterly annual installments. Payroll registers that survive testify to

4704-446: The divine law of Islam was outside of the Sultan's powers to change. Yet an area of distinct law known as the Kanuns ( قانون , canonical legislation) was dependent on Suleiman's will alone, covering areas such as criminal law, land tenure and taxation. He collected all the judgments that had been issued by the nine Ottoman Sultans who preceded him. After eliminating duplications and choosing between contradictory statements, he issued

4802-437: The empire's chief judicial official Ebussuud Efendi , harmonized the relationship between the two forms of Ottoman law: sultanic ( Kanun ) and religious ( Sharia ). He was a distinguished poet and goldsmith; he also became a great patron of culture, overseeing the " Golden Age " of the Ottoman Empire in its artistic , literary and architectural development. Breaking with Ottoman tradition, Suleiman married Hurrem Sultan ,

4900-458: The facade of the Roman gate's eastern opening, and the Crusader-period outer gate or barbican . Menachem Magen directed a dig in 1979–1984 , revealing the entire eastern gate opening, as well as the remains of the towers east and west of the gate and the pavement of the plaza opening up behind (south of) the gateway. The exact extent of the Roman plaza inside the gate is not known, even after the 2013 salvage excavation conducted by Zubair Adawi for

4998-409: The gate took place during the early 12th century (first Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem , 1099–1187), the early Ayyubid period (1187–1192), and the 13th-century second phase of Crusader rule over Jerusalem. The Crusader barbican consisted mainly in an outer gatehouse opening to the east, and connected to the central portal of the Roman gate by an L-shaped courtyard enclosed by massive walls. The barbican

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5096-414: The greatest fate, But in this world a spell of health is the best state. What men call sovereignty is a worldly strife and constant war; Worship of God is the highest throne, the happiest of all estates. Suleiman also became renowned for sponsoring a series of monumental architectural developments within his empire. The Sultan sought to turn Constantinople into the center of Islamic civilization by

5194-464: The ire of the Ottomans, who assembled another massive army in order to dislodge the Knights from Malta. The Ottomans invaded Malta in 1565, undertaking the Great Siege of Malta , which began on 18 May and lasted until 8 September, and is portrayed vividly in the frescoes of Matteo Perez d'Aleccio in the Hall of St. Michael and St. George. At first, it seemed that this would be a repeat of the battle on Rhodes, with most of Malta's cities destroyed and half

5292-423: The main connecting point for both worshippers and for markets." Damascus Gate has been an ongoing site of violent confrontations between Palestinians and Israeli soldiers and police. In 2016, there were more than 15 attacks at the gate. The Washington Post published an article that year, entitled "Jerusalem's ancient Damascus Gate is at the heart of a modern wave of violence". In April 2021, Israeli police closed

5390-429: The main enemy after two episodes. First, Shah Tahmasp killed the Baghdad governor loyal to Suleiman, and put his own man in. Second, the governor of Bitlis had defected and sworn allegiance to the Safavids. As a result, in 1533, Suleiman ordered his Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha to lead an army into eastern Asia Minor where he retook Bitlis and occupied Tabriz without resistance. Suleiman joined Ibrahim in 1534. They made

5488-399: The military strength of Hungary. Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's economic, military and political power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the Christian strongholds of Belgrade and Rhodes as well as most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed much of

5586-413: The nobleman John Zápolya , whom Suleiman supported. Under Charles V and his brother Ferdinand I, the Habsburgs reoccupied Buda and took possession of Hungary. Reacting in 1529, Suleiman marched through the valley of the Danube and regained control of Buda; in the following autumn, his forces laid siege to Vienna . This was to be the Ottoman Empire's most ambitious expedition and the apogee of its drive to

5684-405: The north to the Arab bazaar ( souk ) in the Muslim Quarter . In contrast to the Jaffa Gate , where stairs rise towards the gate, at the Damascus Gate the stairs descend towards the gate. Until 1967, a crenellated turret loomed over the gate, but it was damaged in the fighting that took place in and around the Old City during the Six-Day War . In August 2011, the Israeli authorities restored

5782-416: The one only who does not distress me in this room ... My Istanbul, my karaman, the earth of my Anatolia My Badakhshan, my Baghdad and Khorasan My woman of the beautiful hair, my love of the slanted brow, my love of eyes full of misery ... I'll sing your praises always I, lover of the tormented heart, Muhibbi of the eyes full of tears, I am happy. Before his downfall, Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha

5880-401: The opportunity to avenge the defeat suffered at Vienna. In 1541, the Habsburgs attempted to lay siege to Buda but were repulsed, and more Habsburg fortresses were captured by the Ottomans in two consecutive campaigns in 1541 and 1544 as a result, Ferdinand and Charles were forced to conclude a humiliating five-year treaty with Suleiman. Ferdinand renounced his claim to the Kingdom of Hungary and

5978-402: The pre-Ottoman period. According to etymologist Sevan Nişanyan , the word is derived from Turkish beşe ( بچّه 'boy, prince'), which is cognate with Persian bačče ( بچّه ). Some earlier Turkish lexicographers, such as Ahmed Vefik Paşa and Mehmed Salahi, argued it was most likely derived from Turkish başa or Turkish beşe , the latter meaning 'elder brother' and being

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6076-551: The region. Its capture was vital in removing the Hungarians and Croats who, following the defeats of the Albanians , Bosniaks , Bulgarians , Byzantines and the Serbs , remained the only formidable force who could block further Ottoman gains in Europe. Suleiman encircled Belgrade and began a series of heavy bombardments from an island in the Danube . Belgrade, with a garrison of only 700 men, and receiving no aid from Hungary, fell in August 1521. The road to Hungary and Austria lay open, but Suleiman turned his attention instead to

6174-455: The reign of Suleiman's son Selim II . Suleiman also restored the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Walls of Jerusalem (which are the current walls of the Old City of Jerusalem ), renovated the Kaaba in Mecca , and constructed a complex in Damascus . Suleiman loved gardens and his shaykh grew a white tulip in one of the gardens. Some of the nobles in the court had seen the tulip and they also began growing their own. Soon images of

6272-465: The schools of the imperial Topkapı Palace in Constantinople . As a young man, he befriended Pargalı Ibrahim , a Greek slave who later became one of his most trusted advisers (but who was later executed on Suleiman's orders). At age seventeen, he was appointed as the governor of first Kaffa (Theodosia), then Manisa , with a brief tenure at Edirne . Upon the death of his father, Selim I (r. 1512–1520), Suleiman entered Constantinople and ascended to

6370-408: The second century CE. In the square behind this gate stood a Roman victory column topped by a statue of Emperor Hadrian, as depicted on the 6th-century Madaba Map . This historical detail is preserved in the current gate's Arabic name, Bab el-Amud, meaning "gate of the column". On the lintel of the 2nd-century gate, which has been made visible by archaeologists beneath today's Ottoman gate, is inscribed

6468-408: The site of martyrdom of Saint Stephen , marked since the time of Empress Eudocia by a church and monastery which lies outside the city walls. A 1523 account of a visit to Jerusalem by a Jewish traveller from Leghorn uses the name Bâb el 'Amud and notes its proximity to the Cave of Zedekiah . The Damascus Gate is flanked by two towers, each equipped with machicolations . It offers access from

6566-749: The staired plaza outside the gate, a traditional holiday gathering spot for Palestinians. The closure triggered violent night clashes; the barricades were removed after several days. On 18 October 2021, at least 22 Palestinians were wounded and 25 arrested. Since 10 October, when Jerusalem Municipality renewed excavations of graves in the historic Muslim Bab al-Asbat Cemetery near the Old City, mounting Palestinian anger led to daily arrests. 31°46′53.9″N 35°13′49.8″E  /  31.781639°N 35.230500°E  / 31.781639; 35.230500 Gates 1. Jaffa 2. Zion 3. Dung 4. Golden 5. Lions 6. Herod 7. Damascus 8. New ( Double, Single, Tanners ' ) Al-Mawazin Suleiman

6664-455: The sultan's order. His other son Bayezid was executed in 1561 on Suleiman's orders, along with Bayezid's four sons, after a rebellion. Although scholars typically regarded the period after his death to be one of crisis and adaptation rather than simple decline , the end of Suleiman's reign was a watershed in Ottoman history. In the decades after Suleiman, the empire began to experience significant political, institutional, and economic changes,

6762-421: The sultans, but subsequently it could distinguish any high official, and also unofficial persons whom the court desired to honour. It was also part of the official style of the Kapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral of the Ottoman fleet). Pashas ranked above Beys and Aghas , but below Khedives and Viziers . Three grades of Pasha existed, distinguished by the number of horse tails (three, two, and one respectively;

6860-418: The term Kanunî (the Lawgiver) first came to be used as an epithet for Suleiman. It is entirely absent from sixteenth and seventeenth-century Ottoman sources and may date from the early 18th century. There is a tradition of western origin, according to which Suleiman the Magnificent was "Suleiman II", but that tradition has been based on an erroneous assumption that Süleyman Çelebi was to be recognised as

6958-421: The territories of the German king Ferdinand, as well as 150 galleys against Charles, while France promised to attack Flanders , harass the coasts of Spain with a naval force, and send 40 galleys to assist the Turks for operations in the Levant. In August 1551, Ottoman naval commander Turgut Reis attacked and captured Tripoli , which had been a possession of the Knights of Malta since 1530. In 1553, Turgut Reis

7056-455: The throne as the tenth Ottoman Sultan. An early description of Suleiman, a few weeks following his accession, was provided by the Venetian envoy Bartolomeo Contarini : The sultan is only twenty-five years [actually 26] old, tall and slender but tough, with a thin and bony face. Facial hair is evident, but only barely. The sultan appears friendly and in good humor. Rumor has it that Suleiman

7154-552: The throne in 1703. Ahmet III’s gardens in Istanbul were adorned with tulips from Turkey’s mountains and the finest bulbs imported from Dutch commercial growers. Throughout his reign, he imported millions of Dutch tulip bulbs, reflecting the enduring legacy of Suleiman’s influence and the extravagant height of tulip culture during this period. Suleiman had two known consorts: Suleiman I had at least eight sons: Süleyman had two daughters: Suleiman fell in love with Hurrem Sultan ,

7252-423: The throne. Under his pen name, Muhibbi, Sultan Suleiman composed this poem for Hurrem Sultan: Throne of my lonely niche, my wealth, my love, my moonlight. My most sincere friend, my confidant, my very existence, my Sultan, my one and only love. The most beautiful among the beautiful ... My springtime, my merry faced love, my daytime, my sweetheart, laughing leaf ... My plants, my sweet, my rose,

7350-505: The throne. Ibrahim eventually fell from grace with the Sultan and his wife. Suleiman consulted his Qadi , who suggested that Ibrahim be put to death. The Sultan recruited assassins and ordered them to strangle Ibrahim in his sleep. Pasha Pasha ( Ottoman Turkish : پاشا ; Turkish : paşa ; Arabic : باشا , romanized :  basha ) was a high rank in the Ottoman political and military system, typically granted to governors , generals , dignitaries , and others. Pasha

7448-414: The time, Ibrahim was only about thirty years old and lacked any actual military expertise; it is said that 'tongues wagged' at this unprecedented promotion straight from palace service to the two highest offices of the empire. During his thirteen years as Grand Vizier, his rapid rise to power and vast accumulation of wealth had made Ibrahim many enemies at the Sultan's court. Suleiman's suspicion of Ibrahim

7546-528: The title upon both Muslims and Christians without distinction. They also frequently gave it to foreigners in the service of the Ottoman Empire, or of the Egyptian Khedivate (later Sultanate , and Kingdom in turn), e.g. Hobart Pasha . In an Egyptian context, the Abaza Family is known as "the family of the pashas" for having produced the largest number of nobles holding this title under

7644-532: The trade routes to the Portuguese and maintained a significant level of trade with the Mughal Empire throughout the 16th century. From 1526 until 1543, Suleiman stationed over 900 Turkish soldiers to fight alongside the Somali Adal Sultanate led by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi during the Conquest of Abyssinia . After the first Ajuran-Portuguese war , the Ottoman Empire would in 1559 absorb

7742-511: The tulip were woven into rugs and fired into ceramics. Suleiman is credited with large-scale cultivation of the tulip and it is thought that the tulips spread throughout Europe because of Suleiman. It is thought that diplomats who visited him were gifted the flowers while visiting his court. Suleiman’s passion for tulips set a precedent for their cultivation and cultural significance in the Ottoman Empire. This fascination continued to flourish, reaching its zenith under Sultan Ahmet III, who ascended

7840-463: The turret, including its arrowslit , with the help of photos taken in the early twentieth century when the British Empire controlled Jerusalem . Eleven anchors fasten the restored turret to the wall, and four stone slabs combine to form the crenellated top. Directly below the current, 16th-century gate, an older gate is partially visible, first erected as a triumphal gate for the visit of

7938-647: The weakened Adal Sultanate into its domain. This expansion furthered Ottoman rule in Somalia and the Horn of Africa . This also increased its influence in the Indian Ocean to compete with the Portuguese Empire with its close ally, the Ajuran Empire . In 1564, Suleiman received an embassy from Aceh (a sultanate on Sumatra , in modern Indonesia ), requesting Ottoman support against the Portuguese. As

8036-475: The well-known Everyone aims at the same meaning, but many are the versions of the story . When his young son Mehmed died in 1543, he composed a moving chronogram to commemorate the year: Peerless among princes, my Sultan Mehmed . In Turkish the chronogram reads شهزاده‌لر گزیده‌سی سلطان محمدم ( Şehzadeler güzidesi Sultan Muhammed'üm ), in which the Arabic Abjad numerals total 955, the equivalent in

8134-550: The western coast of the Mughal Empire. Sailing on, the Ottomans failed against the Portuguese at the siege of Diu in September 1538, but then returned to Aden, where they fortified the city with 100 pieces of artillery. From this base, Sulayman Pasha managed to take control of the whole country of Yemen, also taking Sana'a . With its strong control of the Red Sea , Suleiman successfully managed to dispute control of

8232-421: The wife nor was any religious leader elevated to the title. In contrast to western nobility titles, where the title normally is added before the given name, Ottoman titles followed the given name. In contacts with foreign emissaries and representatives, holders of the title Pasha were often referred to as "Your Excellency". The sons of a Pasha were styled Pashazada or Pashazade . In modern Egyptian and (to

8330-401: The word was spelled başa still in the 15th century. According to Online Etymology Dictionary , the Turkish pasha or basha was itself from Turkish baş  /  bash ( باش 'head, chief'), itself from Old Persian pati- ('master', from Proto-Indo-European * poti ) and the root of the Persian word shah , شاه . According to Oxford Dictionaries,

8428-530: Was also one of the highest titles in the 20th-century Kingdom of Egypt and it was also used in Morocco in the 20th century, where it denoted a regional official or governor of a district. The English word pasha comes from Turkish pasha ( pāşā ; also basha ( bāşā )). The Oxford English Dictionary attributes the origin of the English borrowing to the mid-17th century. The etymology of

8526-491: Was an inseparable friend and possible lover of Suleiman. In fact, he is referred to by his chroniclers as "the favourite" (Maḳbūl) along with "the executed" (Maḳtūl). Historians state that Suleiman I is remembered for "his passion for two of his slaves: for his beloved Ibrahim when the sultan was a hot-blooded youth, and for his beloved Hurrem when he was mature." Ibrahim was originally a Christian from Parga (in Epirus ), who

8624-605: Was built as a free-standing triumphal gate , and only sometime towards the end of the 3rd or the very beginning of the 4th century were there protective walls built around Jerusalem , connecting to the existing gate. The Roman gate remained in use during the Early Muslim and Crusader period, but several storerooms were added by the Crusaders outside the gate, so that access to the city became possible only by passing through those rooms. Several phases of construction work on

8722-652: Was campaigning in Hungary, Turkmen tribes in central Anatolia (in Cilicia ) revolted under the leadership of Kalender Çelebi . Some Hungarian nobles proposed that Ferdinand , who was the ruler of neighboring Austria and tied to Louis II's family by marriage, be King of Hungary, citing previous agreements that the Habsburgs would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs. However, other nobles turned to

8820-491: Was captured in a raid during the 1499–1503 Ottoman–Venetian War , and was given as a slave to Suleiman most likely in 1514. Ibrahim converted to Islam and Suleiman made him the royal falconer , then promoted him to first officer of the Royal Bedchamber. It was reported that they slept together in the same bed. The sultan also built Ibrahim a lavish palace on the ancient Hippodrome , Istanbul's main forum outside

8918-603: Was conquered by the Ottomans in 1517. The rise to power in Egypt in 1805 by Muhammad Ali , an Albanian military commander, effectively established Egypt as a de facto independent state , however, it still owed technical fealty to the Ottoman Sultan. Moreover, Muhammad Ali harboured ambitions of supplanting the Osman Dynasty in Constantinople (now Istanbul ), and sought to style his Egyptian realm as

9016-566: Was destroyed twice, in 1219/20 by al-Mu'azzam 'Isa when he tore down all fortifications in Palestine, and in 1239 by an-Nasir Da'ud . The Damascus Gate is the only Jerusalem gate to have preserved its Arabic name, Bab al-Amud ('Gate of the Column'), since at least the 10th century. The Crusaders called it St. Stephen's Gate (in Latin, Porta Sancti Stephani ), highlighting its proximity to

9114-469: Was forced to pay a fixed yearly sum to the Sultan for the Hungarian lands he continued to control. Of more symbolic importance, the treaty referred to Charles V not as "Emperor" but as the "King of Spain", leading Suleiman to identify as the true "Caesar". In 1552, Suleiman's forces laid siege to Eger , located in the northern part of the Kingdom of Hungary, but the defenders led by István Dobó repelled

9212-456: Was hobbled by overstretched supply lines. In 1533 the Treaty of Constantinople was signed by Ferdinand I , in which he acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty and recognised Suleiman as his "father and suzerain", he also agreed to pay an annual tribute and accepted the Ottoman grand vizier as his brother and equal in rank. By the 1540s, a renewal of the conflict in Hungary presented Suleiman with

9310-547: Was nominated commander of Tripoli by Suleiman, making the city an important center for piratical raids in the Mediterranean and the capital of the Ottoman province of Tripolitania . In 1560, a powerful naval force was sent to recapture Tripoli, but that force was defeated in the Battle of Djerba . Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, when the Knights Hospitallers were re-established as the Knights of Malta in 1530, their actions against Muslim navies quickly drew

9408-589: Was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 until his death in 1566. Under his administration, the Ottoman Empire ruled over at least 25 million people. Suleiman succeeded his father, Selim I , as sultan on 30 September 1520 and began his reign with campaigns against the Christian powers in Central Europe and the Mediterranean. Belgrade fell to him in 1521 and the island of Rhodes in 1522–1523. At Mohács , in August 1526, Suleiman broke

9506-559: Was to last more than three hundred years. The Sultan also played a role in protecting the Jewish subjects of his empire for centuries to come. In late 1553 or 1554, on the suggestion of his favorite doctor and dentist, the Spanish Jew Moses Hamon , the Sultan issued a firman ( فرمان ) formally denouncing blood libels against the Jews. Furthermore, Suleiman enacted new criminal and police legislation, prescribing

9604-399: Was worsened by a quarrel between the latter and the finance secretary ( defterdar ) İskender Çelebi . The dispute ended in the disgrace of Çelebi on charges of intrigue, with Ibrahim convincing Suleiman to sentence the defterdar to death. Ibrahim also supported Şehzade Mustafa as the successor of Suleiman. This caused disputes between him and Hurrem Sultan, who wanted her sons to succeed to

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