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133-522: The company was founded in 1981 as a trading enterprise, importing sugar, cement, rice, fisheries, and other consumer goods for distribution in the Nigeria market. The group moved into manufacturing in the 1990s, starting with textiles, moving onto flour milling, salt processing and sugar refining by the end of the decade. The company next moved into cement production, growing rapidly and moving into other African countries. A high degree of vertical integration

266-508: A civil war from 1967 to 1970, followed by a succession of military dictatorships and democratically elected civilian governments until achieving a stable government in the 1999 Nigerian presidential election , with the election of Olusegun Obasanjo of the Peoples Democratic Party . However, the country frequently experiences electoral fraud , and corruption is rampant in various levels of Nigerian politics. Nigeria

399-549: A megacity like Lagos and other major Nigerian cities which are linked with economic development, population growth and the inability of municipal councils to manage the resulting rise in industrial and domestic waste. This waste management problem is also attributable to unsustainable environmental management lifestyles of Kubwa community in the Federal Capital Territory, where there are habits of indiscriminate disposal of waste, dumping of waste along or into

532-529: A 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.2/10, ranking it 82nd globally out of 172 countries. In the year 2010, thousands of people were inadvertently exposed to lead-containing soil from informal gold mining within the northern state of Zamfara. While estimates vary, it is thought that upwards of 400 children died of acute lead poisoning , making this perhaps the largest lead poisoning fatality outbreak ever encountered. Government of Zambia The politics of Zambia takes place in

665-631: A 3 million tonnes fertilizer plant, petroleum refinery capable of refining 650,000 barrels of oil and a petrochemical operation. Dangote Refinery was inaugurated in May 2023, and will be the largest single train refinery in the world at full capacity. Nigeria Nigeria , officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria , is a country in West Africa . It is situated between the Sahel to

798-458: A 95.38% "yes" vote. Growing opposition to UNIP's monopoly on power led to the rise in 1990 of the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD). The MMD assembled an increasingly impressive group of important Zambians, including prominent UNIP defectors and labour leaders. During the year, President Kaunda agreed to a referendum on the one-party state but, in the face of continued opposition, dropped

931-422: A blind eye to the allegations of his predecessor's improprieties. Mwanawasa was accused by some observers of demonstrating an authoritarian streak in early 2004 when his Minister of Home Affairs issued a deportation order to a British citizen and long-time Zambian resident Roy Clarke, who had published a series of satirical attacks on the president in the independent Post newspaper. However, when Clarke appealed to

1064-471: A civilian government but not before appointing Ernest Shonekan head of an interim national government . Babangida's regime has been considered the most corrupt and responsible for creating a culture of corruption in Nigeria. Shonekan's interim government, the shortest in the political history of the country, was overthrown in a coup d'état of 1993 led by General Sani Abacha , who used military force on

1197-566: A contract with CNOOC Group for the installation of a large underwater offshore pipeline. The pipeline, when completed, will extend from Bonny ( Rivers State ) through Ogedegbe, Olokola to Lekki and the Escravos Lagos pipeline, finally terminating at the West Africa Gas Pipeline . Dangote Group was created in the late 1970s, when Aliko Dangote established a venture that traded sugar and other consumer goods, which

1330-597: A democracy from independence it soon became a one-party state for 19 years from 8 December 1972 until multi-party democracy was re-introduced on 4 December 1990 which led to multi-party elections on 1 November 1991. Since then, Zambia has been a relatively stable democracy having consistently peacefully transferred power between four political parties ( UNIP , MMD , PF and UPND ) and has since 1991 held nine presidential elections, of which seven were general elections. Zambia has undergone democratic backsliding since 2011. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) rated Zambia as

1463-463: A faulty voter registration exercise. Despite the UNIP boycott, the elections took place peacefully, and five presidential and more than 600 parliamentary candidates from 11 parties participated. Afterward, however, several opposition parties and non-governmental organisations declared the elections neither free nor fair. As President Chiluba began his second term in 1997, the opposition continued to reject

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1596-522: A framework of a presidential representative democratic republic , whereby the president of Zambia is head of state , head of government and leader of a multi-party system . Executive power is exercised by the government, while legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. Formerly Northern Rhodesia , Zambia became a republic immediately upon attaining independence in October 1964. Whilst Zambia has since functioned as

1729-498: A hybrid regime in 2020. The EIU has also consistently put Zambia among the top ten most democratic African countries, ranking it 8th in Africa and 99th in the world as of 2018 (167 states). This is also while Freedom House ranks Zambia as ‘Partly Free’, with a score of 52/100 (0 least free and 100 mostly free) as of 2021. The constitution promulgated on 25 August 1973, abrogated the original 1964 constitution. The new constitution and

1862-465: A member of UNIP. The constitution was amended again in 1996 to set new limits on the presidency (including a retroactive two-term limit, and a requirement that both parents of a candidate be Zambian-born). The National Assembly comprises 150 directly elected members, up to ten (usually eight) presidentially appointed members, and a speaker. Zambia is divided into ten provinces , each administered by an appointed Provincial minister who essentially performs

1995-432: A river system. The river system of the northeast is also a major river system. In addition, Nigeria has numerous coastal rivers. Over the last million years, Lake Chad in the far north-east of Nigeria has dried up several times for a few thousand years and just as often growing to many times its current size. In recent decades its surface area has been reduced considerably, which may also be due to humans taking water from

2128-559: A successful jihad against the Hausa Kingdoms , founding the centralised Sokoto Caliphate . This empire, with Arabic as its official language, grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants , who sent out invading armies in every direction. The vast landlocked empire connected the east with the western Sudan region and made inroads down south conquering parts of the Oyo Empire (modern-day Kwara ), and advanced towards

2261-691: A textile weaving mill in Kano and the Nigerian Textile Mills limited's plant in Lagos. Beginning in 1997, following a decline of the textile sector, the company concentrated on manufacturing consumer goods it was importing into Nigeria such as sugar refining and flour milling, with the former it competed against imported products from Brazil and Europe. One of the biggest distributors of sugar in Nigeria, Dangote sugar refinery began local production in 1999. The strategy towards backward integration led to

2394-458: A third term. Presidential, parliamentary, and local government elections were held on 27 December 2001. Eleven parties contested the elections. The elections encountered numerous administrative problems. Opposition parties alleged that serious irregularities occurred. Nevertheless, MMD presidential candidate Levy Mwanawasa was declared the victor by a narrow margin, and he was sworn into office on 2 January 2002. Three parties submitted petitions to

2527-572: A triumvirate of three brigadier generals whose decisions could be vetoed by a Supreme Military Council . For this triumvirate, they convinced General Murtala Muhammed to become military head of state, with General Olusegun Obasanjo as his second-in-command, and General Theophilus Danjuma as the third. Together, the triumvirate introduced austerity measures to stem inflation, established a Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau, replaced all military governors with new officers, and launched "Operation Deadwood" through which they fired 11,000 officials from

2660-706: A wide scale to suppress the continuing civilian unrest. In 1995, the government hanged environmentalist Ken Saro-Wiwa on trumped-up charges in the deaths of four Ogoni elders, which caused Nigerian's suspension from the Commonwealth . Lawsuits under the American Alien Tort Statute against Royal Dutch Shell and Brian Anderson, the head of Shell's Nigerian operation, settled out of court with Shell continuing to deny liability. Several hundred million dollars in accounts traced to Abacha were discovered in 1999. The regime came to an end in 1998 when

2793-549: Is a federal republic comprising 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory , where its capital, Abuja , is located. The largest city in Nigeria is Lagos , one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world and the largest in Africa . Nigeria has been home to several indigenous pre-colonial states and kingdoms since the second millennium BC, with the Nok civilization in the 15th century BC marking

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2926-457: Is a multinational state inhabited by more than 250 ethnic groups speaking 500 distinct languages , all identifying with a wide variety of cultures. The three largest ethnic groups are the Hausa in the north , Yoruba in the west , and Igbo in the east , together constituting over 60% of the total population. The official language is English , chosen to facilitate linguistic unity at

3059-716: Is a founding member of the African Union and a member of many international organizations, including the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , NAM , the Economic Community of West African States , Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC . It is also a member of the informal MINT group of countries and is one of the Next Eleven economies. The name Nigeria derives from

3192-600: Is a hallmark of Dangote Group's operating strategy. The group now owns and operates over 18 subsidiaries, operating in ten African countries. Dangote Cement , is one of these subsidiaries and is listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange , with its market capitalization accounting for almost 20 percent of the total capitalization of the Exchange. Dangote Group is headquartered in Lagos . In 2016, Dangote signed

3325-551: Is considered to be the foundation of Igbo culture . Nri and Aguleri , where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umeuri clan. Members of the clan trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure Eri . In West Africa, the oldest bronzes made using the lost wax process were from Igbo-Ukwu , a city under Nri influence. The Yoruba kingdoms of Ife and Oyo in southwestern Nigeria became prominent in

3458-564: Is plains of tall grass interrupted by trees. Sudan savannah is similar but with shorter grasses and shorter trees. Sahel savannah consists of patches of grass and sand, found in the northeast. Nigeria is divided into two main catchment areas - that of Lake Chad and that of the Niger. The Niger catchment area covers about 63% of the country. The main tributary of the Niger is the Benue, whose tributaries extend beyond Cameroon into Cameroon into Chad and

3591-483: Is the highest court and the court of appeal; below it are the high court , magistrate's court, and local courts. A separate Constitutional Court was established in 2016. The Zambian Defense Force (ZDF) consists of the army , the air force , and the Zambian National Service (ZNS). The ZDF is designed primarily for external defence. The Zambian Police force is not part of the defence force, it

3724-574: The 1996 presidential elections . In the presidential and parliamentary elections held in November 1996, Chiluba was re-elected, and the MMD won 131 of the 150 seats in the National Assembly. Kaunda's UNIP party boycotted the parliamentary polls to protest the exclusion of its leader from the presidential race, alleging in addition that the outcome of the election had been predetermined due to

3857-536: The 2006 presidential election was hotly contested, with Mwanawasa being re-elected by a clear margin over principal challengers Michael Sata of the Patriotic Front and Hakainde Hichilema of the United Party for National Development (UPND). The parliamentary election that same year awarded MMD with 72 seats, the remaining 84 seats split among other parties with the majority of those seats going to

3990-438: The 2021 general elections , characterised by a 70% voter turnout, Hakainde Hichilema won 59% of the vote, with his closest rival, incumbent president Edgar Chagwa Lungu, receiving 39% of the vote. On 16 August Edgar Lungu conceded in a TV statement, sending a letter and congratulating president-elect Hakainde Hichilema. On 24 August 2021, Hakainde Hichilema was sworn in as the new President of Zambia. The executive branch of

4123-502: The Bight of Benin , and Bonny Island on the Bight of Biafra. The majority of those taken to these ports were captured in raids and wars. Usually, the captives were taken back to the conquerors' territory as forced labour ; they were sometimes gradually acculturated and absorbed into the conquerors' society. Slave routes were established throughout Nigeria linking the hinterland areas with

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4256-798: The Bornu Empire gave rise to the British-controlled Borno Emirate which established Abubakar Garbai of Borno as ruler. In 1903, the British victory in the Battle of Kano gave them a logistical edge in pacifying the heartland of the Sokoto Caliphate and parts of the former Bornu Empire. On 13 March 1903, at the grand market square of Sokoto, the last vizier of the caliphate officially conceded to British rule. The British appointed Muhammadu Attahiru II as

4389-666: The Eastern Region . In May 1967, Governor of the Eastern Region Lt. Colonel Emeka Ojukwu declared the region independent from the federation as a state called the Republic of Biafra , as a result of the continuous and systematically planned attacks against Igbos and those of Eastern extraction popularly known as 1966 pogroms . This declaration precipitated the Nigerian Civil War , which began as

4522-669: The Lagos Treaty of Cession . British missionaries expanded their operations and travelled further inland. In 1864, Samuel Ajayi Crowther became the first African bishop of the Anglican Church . In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received recognition from other European nations at the Berlin Conference . The following year, it chartered the Royal Niger Company under

4655-542: The MMD . Edgar Chagwa Lungu was sworn in as president of Zambia on 25 January 2015, succeeding acting-president Guy Scott who briefly held the office after the passing of Michael Chiluyfa Sata. Lungu's presidency has thus far been criticised for failing to halt the depreciating Kwacha . There have also been unsubstantiated reports of Lungu's alleged alcoholism, stemming from a reported physical collapse early in his presidency. The economic challenges facing Zambia, in particular

4788-571: The Muslim world . There are early historical references by medieval Arab and Muslim historians and geographers which refer to the Kanem–Bornu Empire as the region's major centre for Islamic civilization. The Kingdom of Nri of the Igbo people consolidated in the 10th century and continued until it lost its sovereignty to the British in 1911. Nri was ruled by the Eze Nri , and the city of Nri

4921-589: The Niger River running through the country. This name was coined on 8 January 1897, by the British journalist Flora Shaw . The neighboring Republic of Niger takes its name from the same river. The origin of the name Niger , which originally applied to only the middle reaches of the Niger River, is uncertain. The word is likely an alteration of the Tuareg name egerew n-iger ewen used by inhabitants along

5054-564: The Nigerian Political Bureau which made recommendations for the transition to the Third Nigerian Republic. In 1989, Babangida started making plans for the transition to the Third Nigerian Republic. Babangida survived the 1990 Nigerian coup d'état attempt , then postponed a promised return to democracy to 1992. Babangida legalized the formation of political parties and formed the two-party system with

5187-602: The Northern Nigeria Protectorate into the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria . Administratively, Nigeria remained divided into the Northern and Southern Protectorates and Lagos Colony . Inhabitants of the southern region sustained more interaction, economic and cultural, with the British and other Europeans owing to the coastal economy. Christian missions established Western educational institutions in

5320-699: The Northern Rhodesian African National Congress , and the United Progressive Party (UPP). The ANC drew its strength from western and southern provinces, while the UPP found some support among Bemba speakers in the copperbelt and northern provinces. Although not strongly supported in all areas of the country, only UNIP had a nationwide following. In February 1972, Zambia became a one-party state , and all other political parties were banned. Kenneth Kaunda,

5453-560: The Social Democratic Party and National Republican Convention ahead of the 1992 general elections . He urged all Nigerians to join either of the parties, which Chief Bola Ige referred to as "two leper hands". The 1993 presidential election held on 12 June was the first since the military coup of 1983. The results, though not officially declared by the National Electoral Commission, showed

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5586-525: The Yoruba heartland of Ibadan , to reach the Atlantic Ocean. The territory controlled by the empire included much of modern-day northern and central Nigeria. The sultan sent out emirs to establish suzerainty over the conquered territories and promote Islamic civilization; the emirs in turn became increasingly rich and powerful through trade and slavery. By the 1890s, the largest slave population in

5719-576: The 10th century. With the spread of Islam from the 7th century AD, the area became known as Sudan or as Bilad Al Sudan (English: Land of the Blacks). Since the populations were partially affiliated with the Arab Muslim culture of North Africa , they began trans-Saharan trade and were referred to by the Arabic speakers as Al-Sudan (meaning "The Blacks") as they were considered an extended part of

5852-467: The 12th and 14th centuries, respectively. The oldest signs of human settlement at Ife's current site date back to the 9th century, and its material culture includes terracotta and bronze figures. In the 16th century, Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to begin important, direct trade with the peoples of southern Nigeria, at the port they named Lagos (formerly Eko) and in Calabar along

5985-607: The 150 elected seats and UNIP the remaining 25. However, UNIP swept the Eastern Province, gathering 19 of its seats there. By the end of Chiluba's first term as president (1996), the MMD's commitment to political reform had faded in the face of re-election demands. A number of prominent supporters founded opposing parties. Relying on the MMD's overwhelming majority in parliament, President Chiluba in May 1996 pushed through constitutional amendments that eliminated former President Kaunda and other prominent opposition leaders from

6118-676: The 1994 Lusaka Protocols. Zambia has provided troops to UN peacekeeping initiatives in Mozambique , Rwanda , Angola , and Sierra Leone . Zambia was the first African state to cooperate with the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda into the Rwandan genocide in 1994. In 1998, Zambia took the lead in efforts to establish a cease-fire in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Zambia was active in

6251-586: The 2007 general elections, Umaru Yar'Adua of the People's Democratic Party came to power. The international community, which had observed the Nigerian elections to promote a free and fair process, condemned these elections as seriously flawed. Yar'Adua died on 5 May 2010, and Vice President Goodluck Jonathan had been sworn in by the Senate three months earlier as acting president to succeed Yar'Adua. Jonathan won

6384-449: The 2011 presidential election; the polls went smoothly and with relatively little violence or electoral fraud. Jonathan's tenure saw an economic recovery that made Nigeria the leading economic power in Africa. The Jonathan administration also saw an increase in unparalleled corruption, with as many as 20 billion US dollars said to have been lost to the Nigerian state through the national oil company. Above all, however, Jonathan's tenure saw

6517-557: The August 2016 Zambian general election , President Edgar Lungu won re-election narrowly in the first round of the election. The opposition had allegations of fraud and the governing Patriotic Front (PF) rejected the allegations made by opposition UPND party. However, in 2020 the Parliament through the office of the justice minister (Given Lubinda) proposed a bill called Bill 10, which was rejected in Parliament on its third reading. In

6650-467: The British government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. By the eve of independence in 1960, regional differences in modern educational access were marked. The legacy, though less pronounced, continues to the present day. The balance between north and south was also expressed in Nigeria's political life. For instance, northern Nigeria did not outlaw slavery until 1936 whilst in other parts of Nigeria, slavery

6783-763: The Chad Basin, where the course of the El Beid River forms the border with Cameroon, from the Mandara Mountains to Lake Chad. The Komadugu Yobe river system gives rise to the internationally important Hadejia-Nguru wetlands and Ox-bow lakes around Lake Nguru in the rainy season. Other rivers of the northeast include the Ngadda and the Yedseram, both of which flow through the Sambisa swamps, thus forming

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6916-869: The Congolese peace effort after the signing of a cease-fire agreement in Lusaka in July and August 1999, although activity diminished considerably after the Joint Military Commission tasked with implementing the ceasefire relocated to Kinshasa in September 2001. Zambia is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US -military (as covered under Article 98 ). Zambia

7049-401: The High Court against the order, the judge ruled that the order was arbitrary and unjustified and quashed the order. President Mwanawasa, true to his mantra of heading a government of laws, respected the court decision and Clarke was allowed to resume his column of satirical critique. Mwanawasa's early zeal to root out corruption also waned somewhat, with key witnesses in the Chiluba trial leaving

7182-401: The High Court, challenging the presidential election results. The courts decided that there had been irregularities but that they were not serious enough to have affected the overall result, thus the election result was upheld. Opposition parties won a majority of parliamentary seats in the December, 2001 election, but subsequent by-elections gave the ruling MMD a slim majority in Parliament. In

7315-472: The Kwankwassiya of Rabiu Kwankwaso , former governor of Kano State in the Northwest. Bola Tinubu , of the ruling party, won the disputed election with 36.61% of the vote, but both runners-up claimed victory and litigation is ongoing in an election tribunal. Bola Tinubu's inauguration was held on 29 May 2023. Problems with widespread kidnapping in Nigeria continued. On 29 May 2024, Tinubu signed into law an act readopting Nigeria, We Hail Thee , which

7448-540: The Niger and the Cross Rivers has lost most of its forest because of development and harvesting by increased population and has been replaced by grassland . Everything in between the far south and the far north is savannah (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees). Rainfall is more limited to between 500 and 1,500 millimetres (20 and 60 in) per year. The savannah zone's three categories are Guinean forest-savanna mosaic , Sudan savannah, and Sahel savannah. Guinean forest-savanna mosaic

7581-420: The Nigerian government, with Nigeria utilizing air support from Egyptian pilots provided by Gamal Abdel Nasser , while France and Israel aided the Biafrans. The Congolese government, under President Joseph-Désiré Mobutu , took an early stand on the Biafran secession, voicing strong support for the Nigerian federal government and deploying thousands of troops to fight against the secessionists . Following

7714-413: The Patriotic Front. The presidency of Levy Mwanawasa until his death in office in mid-2008, was different from the flamboyant expenditure and increasingly apparent corruption of the later years of Frederick Chiluba's terms in office. Indeed, the former president was arrested and charged with several counts of embezzlement and corruption , firmly quashing initial fears that President Mwanawasa would turn

7847-512: The Sharie catchment area. In the Sahel region, rain is less than 500 millimetres (20 in) per year, and the Sahara Desert is encroaching. In the dry northeast corner of the country lies Lake Chad , on a shared water boundary delimitation with Niger, Chad and Cameroon. The Chad Basin is fed from the north-eastern quarter of Nigeria. The Bauchi Plateau forms the watershed between the Niger/Benue and Komadugu Yobe river systems. The flat plains of north-eastern Nigeria are geographically part of

7980-414: The Zambian government is vested in the president who is elected in a two round system . Presidents serve terms of five years and are limited to two terms. Prior to the 2016 Constitutional Amendment the Zambian vice-president was appointed by the president, but the current 2016 amendment puts the vice-president on the same electoral ticket as the president ( running mate ) (Article 110 Sec 2, 3 and 4) and in

8113-423: The border with Cameroon , where the montane land is part of the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon. The far south is defined by its tropical rainforest climate , where annual rainfall is 1,500 to 2,000 millimetres (60 to 80 in) per year. In the southeast stands the Obudu Plateau . Coastal plains are found in both the southwest and the southeast. Mangrove swamps are found along the coast. The area near

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8246-469: The border with Cameroon close to the coast is rich rainforest and part of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests ecoregion , an important centre for biodiversity . It is a habitat for the drill primate , which is found in the wild only in this area and across the border in Cameroon. The areas surrounding Calabar , Cross River State, also in this forest, are believed to contain the world's largest diversity of butterflies. The area of southern Nigeria between

8379-405: The caliphate and the central Sokoto administration to prevent any defence as he worked towards the capital. As the British approached the city of Sokoto , Sultan Muhammadu Attahiru I organized a quick defence of the city and fought the advancing British-led forces. The British force quickly won, sending Attahiru I and thousands of followers on a Mahdist hijra . In the northeast, the decline of

8512-477: The canals, sewerage systems that are channels for water flows, and the like. Haphazard industrial planning, increased urbanisation, poverty and lack of competence of the municipal government are seen as the major reasons for high levels of waste pollution in major cities of the country. Some of the solutions have been disastrous to the environment, resulting in untreated waste being dumped in places where it can pollute waterways and groundwater . In 2005, Nigeria had

8645-524: The capital and an attempted coup , President Kaunda signed legislation ending UNIP's monopoly on power. In response to growing popular demand for multiparty democracy , and after lengthy, difficult negotiations between the Kaunda government and opposition groups, Zambia enacted a new constitution in August 1991. The constitution enlarged the National Assembly from 136 members to a maximum of 158 members, established an electoral commission, and allowed for more than one presidential candidate who no longer had to be

8778-565: The civil service. Colonel Buka Suka Dimka launched a February 1976 coup attempt , during which General Murtala Muhammed was assassinated. Dimka lacked widespread support among the military, and his coup failed, forcing him to flee. After the coup attempt, General Olusegun Obasanjo was appointed military head of state. Obasanjo vowed to continue Murtala's policies. Aware of the danger of alienating northern Nigerians, Obasanjo brought General Shehu Yar'Adua as his replacement and second-in-command as Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters completing

8911-652: The country, the group began looking for opportunities to expand beyond Nigeria. The company's strategy then focused on continental expansion with the building and acquisition of cement plants in African countries. Today, the Dangote Group is a diversified conglomerate, headquartered in Lagos , with interests across a range of sectors in Africa. Current interests include cement, sugar, flour, salt, seasoning, pasta, beverages and real estate, with new projects in development in oil and natural gas, telecommunications, fertilizer and steel. Competitors in both Nigeria and other portions of Africa include Stallion Group . Dangote Cement ,

9044-426: The country. The Constitutional Review Commission set up by Mwanawasa also hit some turbulence, with arguments as to where its findings should be submitted leading to suspicions that he has been trying to manipulate the outcome. Generally, the Zambian electorate viewed Mwanawasa's rule as a great improvement over Chiluba's. Following Mwanawasa's death in August 2008, Zambian vice-president Rupiah Banda succeeded him to

9177-434: The cultural and political differences were sharp among Nigeria's dominant ethnic groups: the Hausa in the north, Igbo in the east and Yoruba in the west. The Westminster system of government was retained, and thus the President 's powers were generally ceremonial. The parliamentary system of government had Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as Prime Minister and Nnamdi Azikiwe as the ceremonial president. The founding government

9310-450: The deaths of Presidents Sata and Mwanawasa respectfully). The presidency is currently filled by Hakainde Hichilema with Mutale Nalumango as vice-president since 2021 . The unicameral National Assembly of Zambia is the country's legislative body. The current National Assembly, formed following elections held on 12 August 2021 , has a total of 167 members. 156 members are directly elected in single-member constituencies using

9443-401: The depreciating Kwacha, have been attributed to the global fall of commodity prices. Zambia derives over 90% of its export earnings from a single commodity, copper, which has lost about 45% of its value on the international commodity market. On 5 January 2016, Lungu successfully concluded long-standing constitutional issues when he assented to the 2015 Constitutional Amendment Bill. This bill is

9576-570: The dictator died in the villa. He looted money to offshore accounts in Western European banks and defeated coup plots by arresting and bribing generals and politicians. His successor, General Abdulsalami Abubakar , adopted a new constitution on 5 May 1999, which provided for multiparty elections. On 29 May 1999, Abubakar handed over power to the winner of the 1999 presidential election, former military ruler General Olusegun Obasanjo , as President of Nigeria. Obasanjo had been in prison under

9709-516: The dictatorship of Abacha. Obasanjo's inauguration heralded the beginning of the Fourth Nigerian Republic, ending a 39-year period of short-lived democracies, civil war and military dictatorship. Although the elections that brought Obasanjo to power and allowed him to run for a second term in the 2003 presidential elections were condemned as unfree and unfair, Nigeria made significant progress in democratization under Obasanjo. In

9842-622: The direct control of the British government and established the Southern Nigeria Protectorate as a British protectorate and part of the British Empire . By 1902, the British had begun plans to move north into the Sokoto Caliphate. British General Lord Frederick Lugard was tasked by the Colonial Office to implement the agenda. Lugard used rivalries between many of the emirs in the southern reach of

9975-561: The duo of Moshood Abiola and Baba Gana Kingibe of the Social Democratic Party defeated Bashir Tofa and Sylvester Ugoh of the National Republican Convention by over 2.3 million votes. However, Babangida annulled the elections, leading to massive civilian protests that effectively shut down the country for weeks. In August 1993, Babangida finally kept his promise to relinquish power to

10108-516: The duties of a governor . As of 2010, a new constitution is in the process of being drafted. The major figure in Zambian politics from 1964 to 1991 was Kenneth Kaunda , who led the fight for independence and successfully bridged the rivalries among the country's various regions and ethnic groups. Kaunda tried to base government on his philosophy of " humanism ", which condemned human exploitation and stressed cooperation among people, but not at

10241-723: The earliest known sculptures in sub-Saharan Africa and smelted iron by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier. Evidence of iron smelting has also been excavated at sites in the Nsukka region of southeast Nigeria: dating to 2000 BC at the site of Lejja and to 750 BC and at the site of Opi . The Kano Chronicle highlights an ancient history dating to around 999 AD of the Hausa Sahelian city-state of Kano , with other major Hausa cities (or Hausa Bakwai ) of Daura , Hadeija , Kano , Katsina , Zazzau , Rano , and Gobir all having recorded histories dating back to

10374-792: The emergence of a wave of terror by the Boko Haram insurgency , such as the Gwoza massacre and Chibok schoolgirls kidnapping in 2014. Ahead of the general election of 2015 , a merger of the biggest opposition parties in Nigeria – the Action Congress of Nigeria , the Congress for Progressive Change , the All Nigeria Peoples Party , a faction of the All Progressives Grand Alliance and

10507-566: The establishment of a pasta plant and also flour milling to supply raw materials for making pasta. The company then invested in a cement manufacturing venture at Obajana , Kogi State , with an aggressive strategy, the Obajana plant began production with 5 million tonnes of cement, the group then invested funds in another cement operation at Ibeshe, Ogun State to shore up the local manufacturing sector from about 2.5 million tonnes to up to 8 million tonnes. To reduce economic and political risk within

10640-503: The event of a vacancy of an elected president the vice-president is the immediate successor to the president and remains president until the next general election (Article 106 Sec 5(a) and Sec 6). This is in contrast to the 1996 constitution that required a by-election within 90 days of an elected president's vacancy with the vice-president acting as an interim (as was the case with former Acting-President Guy Scott in October 2014 to January 2015 and former President Rupiah Banda in 2008 after

10773-492: The expense of the individual. During Kaunda's presidency, members of all ethnic groups were represented by ministers in the government, in relation to their demographic size. Kaunda's political party, the United National Independence Party (UNIP), was founded in 1959 and was in power under Kaunda's leadership from 1964 to 1991. Before 1972, Zambia had three significant political parties: UNIP,

10906-463: The first internal unification. The modern state originated with British colonialization in the 19th century, taking its present territorial shape with the merging of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in 1914. The British set up administrative and legal structures while practicing indirect rule through traditional chiefdoms . Nigeria became a formally independent federation on 1 October 1960. It experienced

11039-522: The first time since the return of democracy, no former military ruler ran for president, marking a strengthening of democracy and faith in the multiparty constitution . The election also saw the rise of metonymic supporters of the new candidates, the Obidient movement of Peter Obi , previously governor of Anambra State, widely appealed to young, urban voters and has his core base in the Southeast; and

11172-416: The forest zone's most southerly portion, especially around the Niger River and Cross River deltas, is mangrove swamp . North of this is a freshwater swamp, containing different vegetation from the saltwater mangrove swamps, and north of that is a rainforest. The savannah zone's three categories are divided into Guinean forest-savanna mosaic , made up of plains of tall grass which are interrupted by trees,

11305-528: The highest rate of deforestation in the world, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . That year, 12.2%, the equivalent of 11,089,000 hectares, had been forested in the country. Between 1990 and 2000, Nigeria lost an average of 409,700 hectares of forest every year equal to an average annual deforestation rate of 2.4%. Between 1990 and 2005, in total Nigeria lost 35.7% of its forest cover or around 6,145,000 hectares. Nigeria had

11438-463: The inlets to irrigate agricultural land. Nigeria is covered by three types of vegetation: forests (where there is significant tree cover), savannahs (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees), and montane land (least common and mainly found in the mountains near the Cameroon border). Both the forest zone and the savannah zone are divided into three parts. Some of

11571-402: The intention to formalise UNIP supremacy in the new system, the constitution stipulated that the sole candidate in elections for the office of president was the person selected to be the president of UNIP by the party's general conference. The second-ranking person in the Zambian hierarchy was UNIP's secretary-general. In December 1990, at the end of a tumultuous year that included riots in

11704-753: The largest cement production company in Africa, with a market capitalization of almost US$ 14 billion on the Nigeria Stock Exchange , has subsidiaries in Benin , Cameroon , Ghana , Nigeria , South Africa and Zambia . In December 2010, the group signed an agreement with the Government of Zambia to construct a US$ 400 million cement plant in Zambia. It was completed in 2015 and is located in Ndola , The plant produces 42.5-grade cement to compete against

11837-477: The leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie . By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the company had vastly succeeded in subjugating the independent southern kingdoms along the Niger River , the British conquered Benin in 1897, and, in the Anglo-Aro War (1901–1902), defeated other opponents. The defeat of these states opened up the Niger area to British rule. In 1900, the company's territory came under

11970-476: The location of a large area of Central African mangroves . Nigeria's most expansive topographical region is that of the valleys of the Niger and Benue river valleys (which merge and form a Y-shape). To the southwest of the Niger is a "rugged" highland . To the southeast of the Benue are hills and mountains, which form the Mambilla Plateau , the highest plateau in Nigeria. This plateau extends through

12103-408: The lower-grade but dominant 32.5 products in the market, the new plant is expected to have an annual output of 1.5 million metric tonnes of cement. Dangote Sugar is another major subsidiary of the group, competing with Bua Sugar and Golden Sugar Co. Dangote Sugar is the largest sugar refining company in sub-Saharan Africa. The group has also diversified into oil and gas-related ventures, establishing

12236-676: The major coastal ports. Some of the more prolific slave-trading kingdoms who participated in the Atlantic slave trade were linked with the Edo's Benin Empire in the south, Oyo Empire in the southwest, and the Aro Confederacy in the southeast. Benin's power lasted between the 15th and 19th centuries. Oyo, at its territorial zenith in the late 17th to early 18th centuries, extended its influence from western Nigeria to modern-day Togo . In

12369-461: The middle reaches of the river around Timbuktu before 19th-century European colonialism . Before Flora Shaw suggested the name Nigeria , other proposed names included Royal Niger Company Territories , Central Sudan , Niger Empire , Niger Sudan , and Hausa Territories . Kainji Dam excavations showed ironworking by the 2nd century BC. The transition from Neolithic times to the Iron Age

12502-418: The military triumvirate, with Obasanjo as head of state and General Theophilus Danjuma as Chief of Army Staff , the three went on to re-establish control over the military regime and organized the military's transfer of power programme: states creation and national delimitation , local government reforms and the constitutional drafting committee for a new republic. The military carefully planned

12635-519: The minority. Nigeria is a regional power in Africa and a middle power in international affairs. Nigeria's economy is the fourth-largest in Africa , the 53rd-largest in the world by nominal GDP , and 27th-largest by PPP . Nigeria is often referred to as the Giant of Africa owing to its large population and economy , and is considered to be an emerging market by the World Bank . Nigeria

12768-403: The most common across the country; Sudan savannah, with short grasses and short trees; and Sahel savannah patches of grass and sand, found in the northeast. Waste management including sewage treatment , the linked processes of deforestation and soil degradation , and climate change or global warming are the major environmental problems in Nigeria. Waste management presents problems in

12901-716: The national elections that followed in December 1973 were the final steps in achieving what was called a "one-party participatory democracy". The 1973 constitution provided for a strong president and a unicameral National Assembly. National policy was formulated by the Central Committee of the United National Independence Party (UNIP), the sole legal party in Zambia . The cabinet executed the central committee's policy. In accordance with

13034-468: The national level. Nigeria's constitution ensures de jure freedom of religion , and it is home to some of the world's largest Muslim and Christian populations. Nigeria is divided roughly in half between Muslims , who live mostly in the north part of the country, and Christians , who live mostly in the south; indigenous religions , such as those native to the Igbo and Yoruba ethnicities, are in

13167-594: The new PDP (a faction of serving governors of the ruling People's Democratic Party) – formed the All Progressives Congress led by current president Bola Ahmed Tinubu. At the time, it was the most expensive election ever to be held on the African continent (being surpassed only by the elections of 2019 and 2023 ). The new mega-opposition party chose as their candidate for the election former military dictator Muhammadu Buhari. Buhari's campaign in 2015

13300-434: The new caliph. Lugard abolished the caliphate but retained the title sultan as a symbolic position in the newly organized Northern Nigeria Protectorate . This remnant became known as " Sokoto Sultanate Council ". In June 1903, the British defeated the remaining northern forces of Attahiru. By 1906, all resistance to British rule had ended. On 1 January 1914, the British formally united the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and

13433-579: The north and the Gulf of Guinea to the south in the Atlantic Ocean . It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi). With a population of more than 230 million, it is the most populous country in Africa , and the world's sixth-most populous country . Nigeria borders Niger in the north , Chad in the northeast , Cameroon in the east , and Benin in the west . Nigeria

13566-579: The north, the incessant fighting amongst the Hausa city-states and the decline of the Bornu Empire allowed the Fulani people to gain headway into the region. Until this point, the Fulani, a nomadic ethnic group, primarily traversed the semi-desert Sahelian region north of Sudan with cattle and avoided trade and intermingling with the Sudanic peoples. At the beginning of the 19th century, Usman dan Fodio led

13699-441: The office of president, to be held as a temporary position until the emergency election on 30 October 2008. Banda won by a narrow margin over opposition leader Michael Sata, to complete the remainder of Mwanawasa's term. Rupiah Banda failed to be re-elected in the 2011 Presidential and Parliamentary elections, losing to Michael Sata of the Patriotic Front . This brought an end to a total of 20 years' rule by three presidents from

13832-516: The official Nigerian government side attacked Biafra on 6 July 1967, at Garkem. The 30-month war, with a long blockade of Biafra and its isolation from trade and international relief, ended in January 1970. Estimates of the number of dead in the former Eastern Region during the 30-month civil war range from one to three million. Britain and the Soviet Union were the main military backers of

13965-516: The plotters struggled to form a central government. Senate President Nwafor Orizu handed over government control to the Army , under the command of another Igbo officer, Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi . Later, the counter-coup of 1966, supported primarily by Northern military officers, facilitated the rise of Yakubu Gowon as military head of state. Tension rose between north and south; Igbos in northern cities suffered persecution and many fled to

14098-495: The protectorates. Under Britain's policy of indirect rule and validation of Islamic legitimist tradition, the Crown did not encourage the operation of Christian missions in the northern, Islamic part of the country. By the mid-20th century following World War II , a wave for independence was sweeping across Africa, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by

14231-411: The referendum and signed a constitutional amendment making Zambia a multi-party state. Zambia's first multi-party elections for parliament and the presidency since the 1960s were held on 31 October 1991. MMD candidate Frederick Chiluba resoundingly carried the presidential election over Kenneth Kaunda with 76% of the vote. To add to the MMD landslide, in the parliamentary elections the MMD won 125 of

14364-573: The region Slave Coast . Europeans traded goods with peoples at the coast; coastal trade with Europeans also marked the beginnings of the Atlantic slave trade . The port of Calabar on the historical Bight of Biafra (now commonly referred to as the Bight of Bonny) became one of the largest slave-trading posts in West Africa in this era. Other major slaving ports were located in Badagry , Lagos on

14497-622: The resettlement of slaves freed by Britain in North America after the American Revolutionary War . Britain intervened in the Lagos kingship power struggle by bombarding Lagos in 1851, deposing the slave-trade-friendly Oba Kosoko , helping to install the amenable Oba Akitoye and signing the Treaty between Great Britain and Lagos on 1   January 1852. Britain annexed Lagos as a crown colony in August 1861 with

14630-532: The result of extensive work begun during the Mwanawasa era (The Mwanakatwe Commission) and continued by the Michael Chilufya Sata appointed Technical Committee. As justice minister, Lungu had previously presented the draft constitution to parliament, where it was subsequently decided that non-contentious issues will be debated in parliament and contentious issues will be subject to a referendum. In

14763-486: The results of the election amid international efforts to encourage the MMD and the opposition to resolve their differences through dialogue. Early in 2001, supporters of President Chiluba mounted a campaign to amend the constitution to enable Chiluba to seek a third term of office. Civil society, opposition parties, and many members of the ruling party complimented widespread popular opposition to exert sufficient pressure on Chiluba to force him to back away from any attempt at

14896-468: The return to civilian rule putting in place measures to ensure that political parties had broader support than witnessed during the first republic. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was elected president. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly. On 1 October 1979, Shehu Shagari

15029-587: The separatist Ambazonia ) 1,690 km or 1,050 mi. Its coastline is at least 853 km (530 mi). Nigeria lies between latitudes 4° and 14°N , and longitudes 2° and 15°E . The highest point in Nigeria is Chappal Waddi at 2,419 m (7,936 ft). The main rivers are the Niger and the Benue , which converge and empty into the Niger Delta . This is one of the world's largest river deltas and

15162-464: The shipping and the importing of cement to his group's portfolio. Dangote competed (and competes) with Lafarge , a French company that imported and produced the bulk of African cement. When the import license era was discontinued in 1986, the firm concentrated in bulk importing of salt, sugar, and rice and gradually reduced its cement business. The group's first foray into manufacturing began in 1989 with textiles Mills Limited, operating two operations,

15295-645: The simple majority (or First-past-the-post ) system. 8 seats are filled through presidential appointment, and 3 seats are held by ex-officio members: the Vice President , the Speaker and one Deputy Speaker. All members serve five-year terms. The election in Kaumbwe constituency did not take place on 12 August due to the death of the UPND candidate and was postponed until 21 October 2021. The Supreme Court

15428-407: The sole candidate, was elected president in the 1973 elections. Elections also were held for the National Assembly. Only UNIP members were permitted to run, but these seats were sharply contested. President Kaunda's mandate was renewed in December 1978 and October 1983 in a "yes" or "no" vote on his candidacy. In the 1983 election, more than 60% of those registered participated and gave President Kaunda

15561-403: The threshold of power in the country. As oil production and revenue rose, the Nigerian government became increasingly dependent on oil revenues and international commodity markets for budgetary and economic concerns. The coup in July 1975 , led by Generals Shehu Musa Yar'Adua and Joseph Garba , ousted Gowon, who fled to Britain. The coup plotters wanted to replace Gowon's autocratic rule with

15694-413: The war, Nigeria enjoyed an oil boom in the 1970s, during which the country joined OPEC and received huge oil revenues. Despite these revenues, the military government did little to improve the standard of living , help small and medium businesses, or invest in infrastructure. As oil revenues fueled the rise of federal subsidies to states, the federal government became the centre of political struggle and

15827-551: The waters of this country". In August 1983, Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred by violence, and allegations of widespread vote-rigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results. There were also uncertainties, such as in the first republic, that political leaders may be unable to govern properly. The 1983 military coup d'état

15960-475: The widespread cultivation of agricultural products, such as the palm, for use in European industry. The slave trade continued after the ban, as illegal smugglers purchased slaves along the coast from native slavers. Britain's West Africa Squadron sought to intercept the smugglers at sea. The rescued slaves were taken to Freetown , a colony in West Africa originally established by Lieutenant John Clarkson for

16093-558: The world, about two million, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate . The use of slave labour was extensive, especially in agriculture. By the time of its break-up in 1903 into various European colonies, the Sokoto Caliphate was one of the largest pre-colonial African states. A changing legal imperative (the outlawing of the Atlantic slave trade in 1807) and economic imperative (a desire for political and social stability) led most European powers to support

16226-529: Was a coalition of conservative parties: the Northern People's Congress led by Sir Ahmadu Bello , a party dominated by Muslim northerners, and the Igbo and Christian-dominated National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons led by Nnamdi Azikiwe . The opposition consisted of the comparatively liberal Action Group , which was largely dominated by the Yoruba and led by Obafemi Awolowo . An imbalance

16359-563: Was a persistent and visible advocate of change in Southern Africa, supporting liberation movements in Mozambique, Namibia, Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), and South Africa. Many of these organisations were based in Zambia during the 1970s and 1980s. President Chiluba assumed a somewhat higher profile internationally in the mid- and late 1990s. His government played a constructive regional role sponsoring Angola peace talks that led to

16492-601: Was abolished soon after colonialism. Nigeria gained a degree of self-rule in 1954, and full independence from the United Kingdom on 1 October 1960, as the Federation of Nigeria with Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as its Prime Minister , while retaining the British monarch , Elizabeth II , as nominal head of state and Queen of Nigeria . Azikiwe replaced the colonial governor-general in November 1960. At independence,

16625-686: Was accomplished without intermediate bronze production. Some have suggested the technology moved west from the Nile Valley . But the Iron Age in the Niger River valley and the forest region appears to predate the introduction of metallurgy in the upper savanna by more than 800 years, as well as predating it in the Nile Valley. More recent research suggests that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan Africa . The Nok civilization thrived between 1,500 BC and AD 200. It produced life-sized terracotta figures that are some of

16758-403: Was coordinated by key officers of the Nigerian military and led to the overthrow of the government and the installation of Major General Muhammadu Buhari as head of state. The military coup of Muhammadu Buhari shortly after the regime's re-election in 1984 was generally viewed as a positive development. In 1985, Ibrahim Babangida overthrew Buhari in a coup d'état. In 1986, Babangida established

16891-412: Was created in the polity as the result of the 1961 plebiscite . Southern Cameroons opted to join the Republic of Cameroon while Northern Cameroons chose to join Nigeria. The northern part of the country became larger than the southern part. The disequilibrium and perceived corruption of the electoral and political process led to two military coups in 1966. The first coup was in January 1966 and

17024-690: Was established for internal security services and is under the ministry of home affairs. Zambia is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the Commonwealth , the African Union (and its predecessor the Organization of African Unity or OAU), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Common Market for Africa (COMA), which is headquartered in Lusaka. President Kaunda

17157-453: Was funded by a $ 3,000 loan from his grandfather. Later, the group would gradually expand into trading other commodities, such as rice. In 1981, he established two business enterprises, Dangote Nigeria Limited, and Blue Star Services, this was a period when import licenses were required to import bulk commodities, the firm then sought to acquire import licenses for various commodities including steel, baby food, and aluminium products. He then added

17290-583: Was led mostly by soldiers under Majors Emmanuel Ifeajuna (of the Igbo tribe), Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu ( Northerner of Eastern extraction) and Adewale Ademoyega (a Yoruba from the West). The coup plotters succeeded in assassinating Sir Ahmadu Bello and Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa alongside prominent leaders of the Northern Region and Premier Samuel Akintola of the Western Region , but

17423-418: Was popular and built around his image as a staunch anti-corruption fighter—he won the election by over two million votes. Observers generally praised the election as being fair. The election marked the first time an incumbent president had lost re-election in Nigeria. In the 2019 presidential election , Buhari was re-elected. Four candidates vied for the presidency in the 2023 presidential election . For

17556-507: Was sworn in as the first President and Commander-in-Chief of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Obasanjo peacefully transferred power to Shagari, becoming the first head of state in Nigerian history to willingly step down. The Shagari government became viewed as corrupt by virtually all sectors of Nigerian society. In 1983, the inspectors of the state-owned Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation began to notice "the slow poisoning of

17689-501: Was the country's national anthem from 1960 to 1978, as its national anthem, replacing Arise, O Compatriots . Nigeria is located in western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea and has a total area of 923,768 km (356,669 sq mi), making it the world's 32nd-largest country . Its borders span 4,047 kilometres (2,515 mi), and it shares borders with Benin (773 km or 480 mi), Niger (1,497 km or 930 mi), Chad (87 km or 54 mi), and Cameroon (including

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