The Darro is a river of the province of Granada , Spain . It is a tributary of the Genil . The river was originally named after the Roman word for gold (aurus) because people used to pan for gold on its banks. This name was then changed by the Arabs to Hadarro and after being renamed Dauro by the Christians, it finally became known as Darro. Darro is also the name of a local town.
124-660: There are five bridges crossing the Darro: Puente del Aljibillo (Bridge of the Cistern), Puente de las Chirimias (Bridge of the Pipers), Puente de Cabrera (16th century), Puente de Espinosa (16th century). The Darro river supplied water to the Alhambra through a system of aqueducts called 'Acequia Real'. 37°21′N 3°18′W / 37.350°N 3.300°W / 37.350; -3.300 This article about
248-548: A mirador , a room projecting from the exterior commanding scenic views of gardens or of the city. Buildings were designed with a mathematical proportional system that gives them a harmonious visual quality. The layout of the courtyards, the distribution of windows, and the use of water features were designed with the climate in mind, cooling and ventilating the environment in summer while minimizing cold drafts and maximizing sunlight in winter. Upper-floor rooms were smaller and more enclosed, making them more suited for use during
372-826: A tannery , and a sophisticated water supply system. As a royal city and citadel, it contained at least six major palaces, most of them located along the northern edge where they commanded views over the Albaicín quarter. The most famous and best-preserved are the Mexuar , the Comares Palace , the Palace of the Lions , and the Partal Palace , which form the main attraction to visitors today. The other palaces are known from historical sources and from modern excavations. At
496-640: A ceiling in the still unfinished palace of Charles V". He also carried out systematic archaeological excavations in various parts of the Alhambra, unearthing lost Nasrid structures such as the Palacio del Partal Alto and the Palace of the Abencerrajes which provided deeper insight into the former palace-city as a whole. The work of Torres Balbás was continued by his assistant, Francisco Prieto Moreno, who
620-624: A communal kitchen, a hammam , and a water supply cistern, as well as multiple subterranean chambers which served as dungeons and silos . The royal palace complex consists of three main parts, from west to east: the Mexuar, the Comares Palace, and the Palace of the Lions. Collectively, these palaces are also known as the Casa Real Vieja ('Old Royal Palace'), to distinguish them from the newer palaces erected next to them during
744-452: A contrast between the ornate architecture of the former Moorish palaces and their current state of ruin and neglect. This also coincided with a growing European interest in the Orient ( Orientialism ), which encouraged an emphasis on exoticism and on the "oriental" attributes of the Alhambra. This rediscovery of the Alhambra was led mostly by French, British, and German writers. In 1830,
868-579: A feature especially characteristic of the Alhambra, were carved along the walls and included Qur'anic excerpts, poetry by Nasrid court poets, and the repetition of the Nasrid motto " wa la ghalib illa-llah " ( Arabic : ولا غالب إلا الله , lit. 'And there is no victor but God'). White marble quarried from Macael (in Almeria province ) was also used to make fountains and slender columns. The capitals of columns typically consisted of
992-480: A fire destroyed a large part of the Sala de la Barca in the Comares Palace, which highlighted the site's vulnerability. A report was commissioned in 1903. This resulted in the creation of a "Special Commission" in 1905. The Special Commission was tasked to oversee conservation and restoration of the Alhambra. The commission ultimately failed to exercise control due to friction with Contreras. In 1907, Mariano Contreras
1116-520: A former hammam (bathhouse), also likely dates from this period, as does the former minaret of a mosque that is now part of the Church of San José. In the 13th century, following the rise and fall of other Muslim dynasties and the military advances of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon , Ibn al-Ahmar (Muhammad I) established what became the last and longest reigning Muslim dynasty in
1240-597: A location in Andalusia, Spain, is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a river in Spain is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Alhambra The Alhambra ( / æ l ˈ h æ m b r ə / , Spanish: [aˈlambɾa] ; Arabic : الْحَمْرَاء , romanized : al-ḥamrāʼ ) is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada , Spain . It
1364-455: A lower cylindrical section sculpted with stylized acanthus leaves, an upper cubic section with vegetal or geometric motifs, and inscriptions (like the Nasrid motto) running along the base or the top edge. While the stucco decoration, wooden ceilings, and marble capitals of the Alhambra often appear colourless or monochrome today, they were originally painted in bright colours. Primary colours – red, blue, and (in place of yellow) gold – were
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#17327732932181488-490: A main hall, all aligned along a central axis from west to east. Little remains of the two western courtyards of the Mexuar today, except for their foundations, a portico, and the water basin of a fountain. The main hall, known as the Sala del Mexuar or Council Hall, served as a throne hall where the sultan received and judged petitions. This area also granted access to the Comares Palace via the Cuarto Dorado section on
1612-514: A narrow promontory overlooking the Vega or Plain of Granada and carved by the river Darro on its north side as it descends from the Sierra Nevada . The red earth from which the fortress is constructed is a granular aggregate held together by a medium of red clay which gives the resulting layered brick- and stone- reinforced construction ( tapial calicastrado ) its characteristic hue and is at
1736-647: A number of earlier and later Moorish palaces, enclosed by a fortified wall , with thirteen defensive towers, some such as the Torre de la Infanta and Torre de la Cautiva containing elaborate vertical palaces in miniature. The river Darro passes through a ravine on the north and divides the plateau from the Albaicín district of Granada. Similarly, the Sabika Valley, containing the Alhambra Park, lies on
1860-552: A palace-city rather than a defensive and ascetic structure. This first hydraulic system was expanded afterwards and included two long water channels and several sophisticated elevation devices to bring water onto the plateau. The only elements preserved from the time of Ibn al-Ahmar are some of the fortification walls, particularly the Alcazaba at the western end of the complex. Ibn al-Ahmar did not have time to complete any major new palaces and he may have initially lived in one of
1984-409: A public square expanded during the 16th century. The Morisco rebellion of 1568 , however, resulted in a mass expulsion of Moriscos from the city and left much of neighbourhood abandoned. The old Morisco properties were taken over by the remaining Christian residents, but the neighbourhood continued to have low urban density until the 19th century. It was only towards the end of the 19th century, when
2108-520: A royal residence for his use. He rebuilt or modified portions of the Nasrid palaces to serve as royal apartments, a process which began in 1528 and was completed in 1537. He also demolished a part of the Comares Palace to make way for a monumental new palace, known as the Palace of Charles V, designed in the Renaissance style of the period. Construction of the palace began in 1527 but it was eventually left unfinished after 1637. The governorship of
2232-539: Is Granada has been populated since at least 5500 BC. The most ancient ruins found in the area belong to an oppidum called Ilturir , founded by the Iberian Bastetani tribe around 650 BC. This settlement became later known as Iliberri or Iliberis . In 44 BC Iliberis became a Roman colony and in 27 BC it became a Roman municipium named Florentia Iliberritana ('Flourishing Iliberri'). The historical relation between present-day Granada and
2356-511: Is a neighbourhood of Granada , Spain . It is centered around a hill on the north side of the Darro River which passes through the city. The neighbourhood is notable for its historic monuments and for largely retaining its medieval street plan dating back to the Nasrid period (13th to 15th centuries), although it nonetheless went through many physical and demographic changes after the end of
2480-458: Is characterized by the use of the courtyard as a central space and basic unit around which other halls and rooms were organized. Courtyards typically had water features at their centre, such as a reflective pool or a fountain. Decoration was focused on the inside of the building and was executed primarily with tile mosaics on lower walls and carved stucco on the upper walls. Geometric patterns , vegetal motifs , and Arabic inscriptions were
2604-636: Is derived from the Arabic word karm (meaning 'vineyard'). This term originally referred to a type of " periurban " house built on the hillsides on the outskirts of the city. Following the Morisco rebellion of 1568 much of the Morisco population of the city was expelled, which left many of the houses in the Albaicin empty. The remaining Christian residents then added the abandoned properties to their own and converted them into orchards and gardens, thus importing
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#17327732932182728-423: Is ignored in general usage in both English and Spanish, where the name is normally given the definite article. The reference to the colour "red" in the name is due to the reddish colour of its walls, which were constructed of rammed earth . The reddish colour comes from the iron oxide in the local clay used for this type of construction. Most of the names used today for specific structures and locations within
2852-455: Is one of the most famous monuments of Islamic architecture and one of the best-preserved palaces of the historic Islamic world , in addition to containing notable examples of Spanish Renaissance architecture . The complex was begun in 1238 by Muhammad I Ibn al-Ahmar , the first Nasrid emir and founder of the Emirate of Granada , the last Muslim state of Al-Andalus . It was built on
2976-528: Is the structure known as the Palacio del Partal Alto , in an elevated location near the centre of the complex, which probably dates from the reign of Ibn al-Ahmar's son, Muhammad II (r. 1273–1302). To the south was the Palace of the Abencerrajes, and to the east was another private palace, known as the Palace of the Convent of San Francisco , both of which were probably also originally constructed during
3100-476: The Reconquista in 1492. It was declared a World Heritage Site in 1994, as an extension of the historic site of the nearby Alhambra . There are several theories as to the origin of the district's present name, which comes from Arabic al-Bayyāzīn ( Arabic : ٱلْبَيّازِينْ ). One theory is that al-Bayyāzīn was the Arabic plural noun denoting the inhabitants of the city of Baeza (called "Beatia" by
3224-574: The Generalife . Previously, the old fortresses on the hill had been dependent on rainwater collected from the cistern near the Alcazaba and on what could be brought up from the Darro River below. The creation of the Sultan's Canal (Arabic: ساقلتة السلطان , romanized: Saqiyat al-Sultan ), which brought water from the mountains to the east, solidified the identity of the Alhambra as
3348-466: The Iberian Peninsula under Muslim control, becoming known as al-Andalus . During the early Islamic period, under the rule of the Emirate and Caliphate of Cordoba (8th to 10th centuries), the area of the Albaicin was occupied by a small settlement and fortress ( ḥiṣn ) named Gharnāṭa , which had a mainly Jewish population and was thus also known as Gharnāṭat al-Yahūd (" Gharnāṭa of
3472-520: The Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate) ran the Calle Real (Royal Street) dividing the Alhambra along its axial spine into a southern residential quarter, with mosques , hamams (bathhouses) and diverse functional establishments, and a greater northern portion, occupied by several palaces of the nobility with extensive landscaped gardens commanding views over the Albaicín. The rest of the plateau comprises
3596-640: The Rawda , the dynastic mausoleum of the Nasrids, of which only partial remains are preserved. Yusuf I (r. 1333–1354) carried out further work on the Comares Palace, including the construction of the Hall of Ambassadors and other works around the current Mexuar. He also built the Alhambra's main gate, the Puerta de la Justicia , and the Torre de la Cautiva , one of several small towers with richly-decorated rooms along
3720-458: The Taifa of Granada . Rather than settling at Madīnat Ilbīra , Zawi ben Ziri settled in the more defensible position of Gharnāṭa (Granada) instead. In a short time this town was transformed into one of the most important cities of al-Andalus . The Zirids built their citadel and palace, known as the al-Qaṣaba al-Qadīma ("Old Citadel"), on the hill now occupied by the Albaicín neighborhood. It
3844-563: The Torre de Siete Suelos , the Torre de las Cabezas , and the Torres Bermejas – were built or reinforced in this period, as seen by the addition of semi-round bastions . In 1512 the Count was also awarded the property of Mondéjar and subsequently passed on the title of Marquis of Mondéjar to his descendants. Charles V (r. 1516–1556) visited the Alhambra in 1526 with his wife Isabella of Portugal and decided to convert it into
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3968-484: The zilīj -covered dados and the geometric manuscript illuminations, and the epigraphical forms in the palace to calligraphic motifs in contemporary Arabic manuscripts. Inscriptions typically ran in vertical or horizontal bands or they were set inside cartouches of round or rectangular shape. Most major inscriptions in the Alhambra use the Naskhi or cursive script, which was the most common script used in writing after
4092-415: The 13th century Kufic scripts in the western Islamic world became increasingly stylized in architectural contexts and could be nearly illegible. In the Alhambra, there are many examples of "Knotted" Kufic, a particularly elaborate style where the letters tie together in intricate knots. The extensions of these letters could turn into strips that continued and formed more abstract motifs, or sometimes formed
4216-601: The 16th century by emigrants from the surrounding hinterlands of the Vega valley , the Alpujarras , and the Lecrín valley . Mosques were replaced with new parish churches, particularly after 1501. These new churches were often built in a mix of Mudéjar and Renaissance styles. New civic institutions were also built in the area, such as the Royal Chancellery ( Real Chancillería ), which overlooks Plaza Nueva ,
4340-446: The 1970s, when the standard of living increased and some affluent families began to return to the neighbourhood. In 1994, the Albaicín was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO as an extension of the monuments of the Alhambra and the Generalife . The traditional type of house is the carmen , consisting of a freestanding house with typically whitewashed walls and including a small orchard or garden. The Spanish term carmen
4464-561: The Alhambra and Generalife were also listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The Alhambra is now one of the most popular tourist destinations in Spain. Research, archaeological investigations, and restoration works have also remained ongoing into the 21st century. The Alhambra site is about 700–740 m (2,300–2,430 ft) in length and about 200–205 m (660–670 ft) at its greatest width. It extends from west-northwest to east-southeast and covers an area of about 142,000 m (1,530,000 sq ft) or 35 acres. It stands on
4588-470: The Alhambra are imaginative names coined after the mediaeval period , often in the 19th century. The original Arabic names of the Nasrid-era buildings are not known, although some scholars have proposed connections between certain buildings and some of the names mentioned in historical sources. The evidence for a Roman presence is unclear but archaeologists have found remains of ancient foundations on
4712-599: The Alhambra in 1914, which was charged again with overseeing the site's conservation and Cendoya's work. In 1915, it was linked directly to the Directorate-General of Fine Arts of the Ministry of Public Education (later the Ministry of National Education). Like Mariano Contreras before him, Cendoya continued to clash with the supervisory body and to obstruct their control. He was eventually dismissed from his post in 1923. After Cendoya, Leopoldo Torres Balbás
4836-409: The Alhambra into an icon of the era with their writings and illustrations during the 19th century. Restoration work on the Alhambra was undertaken in 1828 by the architect José Contreras, endowed in 1830 by Ferdinand VII . After the death of Contreras in 1847, it was continued by his son Rafael (died 1890) and his grandson Mariano Contreras (died 1912). The Contreras family members continued to be
4960-547: The Alhambra itself being attacked, when the forces of the Catholic Monarchs , King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile , took the surrounding territory with a force of overwhelming numbers. Muhammad XII moved the remains of his ancestors from the complex, as was verified by Leopoldo Torres Balbás in 1925, when he found seventy empty tombs. The remains are now likely to be located in Mondújar in
5084-578: The Alhambra was the construction of the Palace of the Lions to the east of the Comares Palace in an area previously occupied by gardens. He also remodelled the Mexuar, created the highly decorated "Comares Façade" in the Patio del Cuarto Dorado , and redecorated the Court of the Myrtles, giving these areas much of their final appearance. After Muhammad V, relatively little major construction work occurred in
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5208-473: The Alhambra's purported " Oriental " character. For example, in 1858–1859 Rafael Contreras and Juan Pugnaire added Persian-looking spherical domes to the Court of the Lions and to the northern portico of the Court of the Myrtles, even though these had nothing to do with Nasrid architecture. In 1868, a revolution deposed Isabella II and the government seized the properties of the Spanish monarchy, including
5332-524: The Alhambra's western tip is the Alcazaba fortress . Multiple smaller towers and fortified gates are also located along the Alhambra's walls. Outside the Alhambra walls and located nearby to the east is the Generalife , a former Nasrid country estate and summer palace accompanied by historic orchards and modern landscaped gardens. The architecture of the Nasrid palaces reflects the tradition of Moorish architecture developed over previous centuries. It
5456-655: The Alhambra. In 1870 the Alhambra was declared a National Monument of Spain and the state allocated a budget for its conservation, overseen by the Provincial Commission of Monuments. Mariano Contreras, the last of the Contreras architects to serve as director of conservation of the Alhambra, was appointed as architectural curator in April 1890. His tenure was controversial and his conservation strategy attracted criticism from other authorities. In September 1890,
5580-518: The Alhambra. One exception is the Torre de las Infantas , which dates from the time of Muhammad VII (1392–1408). The 15th century saw the Nasrid dynasty in decline and in turmoil, with few significant construction projects and a more repetitive, less innovative style of architecture. The last Nasrid sultan, Muhammad XII of Granada , surrendered the Emirate of Granada in January 1492, without
5704-462: The Almohad architectural tradition that preceded the Nasrids. The exterior façade of the gate is decorated with a polylobed moulding with glazed tiles inside a rectangular alfiz frame. Inside the gate's passage is a dome that is painted to simulate the appearance of red brick, a decorative feature characteristic of the Nasrid period. Two other exterior gates existed, both located further east. On
5828-511: The American writer Washington Irving lived in Granada and wrote his Tales of the Alhambra , first published in 1832, which played a major role in spurring international interest in southern Spain and in its Islamic-era monuments like the Alhambra. Other artists and intellectuals, such as John Frederick Lewis , Richard Ford , François-René de Chateaubriand , and Owen Jones , helped make
5952-592: The Christian Spanish period. The Mexuar is the westernmost part of the palace complex. It was analogous to the mashwar s (or mechouar s) of royal palaces in North Africa. It was first built as part of the larger complex begun by Isma'il I which included the Comares Palace. It housed many of the administrative and more public functions of the palace, such as the chancery and the treasury. Its layout consisted of two consecutive courtyards followed by
6076-595: The Comares Façade, stands on the south side of the Patio de Cuarto Dorado ('Courtyard of the Gilded Room') at the east edge of the Mexuar. This highly decorated symmetrical façade, with two doors, was the entrance to the palace and likely served in some ceremonial functions. Albaic%C3%ADn The Albaicín ( Spanish pronunciation: [alβajˈθin] ), also spelled Albayzín (from Arabic : ٱلْبَيّازِينْ , romanized : al-Bayyāzīn ),
6200-565: The Iberian peninsula, the Nasrids , who ruled the Emirate of Granada . However, when Ibn Al-Ahmar established himself in the city he moved the royal palace from the old Zirid citadel on the Albaicín hill to the Sabika hill further south, beginning construction on what became the present Alhambra , a fortified palace complex that still dominates the city today. The population of the city and
6324-682: The Jews"). A larger settlement, Madīnat Ilbīra , was located further northwest, near present-day Atarfe . At the beginning of the 11th century, the area became dominated by the Zirids, a Sanhaja Berber group and offshoot of the Zirids who ruled parts of North Africa . When the Caliphate of Cordoba collapsed after 1009, the Zirid leader Zawi ben Ziri established an independent kingdom for himself,
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#17327732932186448-482: The Nasrid Palaces. This was originally the main access point to the complex for the regular residents of the city, since it was accessible from the Albaicín side, but after the Christian conquest the Puerta de la Justicia was favoured by Ferdinand and Isabella. The gate, one of the earliest structures built in the Alhambra in the 13th century, is one of the Alhambra structures that bears the most resemblance to
6572-667: The Nasrid palaces, the Palacio del Partal Alto (near the Partal Palace), to use as family residence. Iñigo López de Mendoza y Quiñones (d. 1515), the second Count of Tendilla , was present in Ferdinand II's entourage when Muhammad XII surrendered the keys to the Alhambra and he became the Alhambra's first Spanish governor. For almost 24 years after the conquest, he made repairs and modifications to its fortifications in order to better protect it against gunpowder artillery attacks. Multiple towers and fortifications – such as
6696-485: The Nasrid period. The Casa de Zafra was built in the 14th to 15th century and is named after Hernando de Zafra, the Secretary of Ferdinand and Isabella. The Dar al-Horra was a Nasrid palace built in the 15th century. Both mansions include large rectangular courtyards oriented in a north-south direction. The main rooms of the houses were located behind porticos on the north and south sides of the courtyard. Traditionally,
6820-430: The Palace of the Lions, talk about the palace or room in which they're situated and are written in the first person, as if the room itself was speaking to the reader. Most of the poetry is inscribed in Nasrid cursive script, while foliate and floral Kufic inscriptions—often formed into arches, columns, enjambments, and "architectural calligrams"—are generally used as decorative elements. Kufic calligrams , particularly of
6944-532: The Roman-era Iliberis has long been debated by scholars. Modern archeological digs on the Albaicín hill have uncovered finds demonstrating the presence of a significant Roman town on that site. Little is known, however, about the history of the city in the period between the end of the Roman era and the 11th century. The Umayyad conquest of Hispania , starting in 711 AD, brought large parts of
7068-594: The Romans) and that the name was given in reference to the refugees of that city who settled here during the Nasrid period. Another theory is that name comes from Arabic rabaḍ al-Bayyazīn , meaning "district/suburb of the falconers ", which is supported by the fact that other neighborhoods with that name exist in other Spanish cities. Another hypothesis is that the name Albaicín derives from Arabic al-bāʾisīn ( Arabic : البائسين , lit. 'the miserable [plural]'). The region surrounding what today
7192-405: The Sabika hill, an outcrop of the Sierra Nevada which had been the site of earlier fortresses and of the 11th-century palace of Samuel ibn Naghrillah . Later Nasrid rulers continuously modified the site. The most significant construction campaigns, which gave the royal palaces much of their defining character, took place in the 14th century during the reigns of Yusuf I and Muhammad V . After
7316-756: The Sabika hill. A fortress or citadel, probably dating from the Visigothic period, existed on the hill in the 9th century. The first reference to the Qal‘at al-Ḥamra was during the battles between the Arabs and the Muladies during the rule of ‘Abdallah ibn Muhammad (r. 888–912). According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was quite small, and its walls were not capable of deterring an army intent on conquering. The first reference to al-Ḥamrāʼ came in lines of poetry attached to an arrow shot over
7440-405: The Tendilla-Mondéjar family came to an end in 1717–1718, when Philip V confiscated the family's properties in the Alhambra and dismissed the Marquis of Mondéjar, José de Mendoza Ibáñez de Segovia (1657–1734), from his position as mayor ( alcaide ) of the Alhambra, in retaliation for the Marquis opposing him in the War of the Spanish Succession . The departure of the Tendilla-Mondéjar family marked
7564-410: The Zirids, a Sanhaja Berber group and offshoot of the Zirids who ruled parts of North Africa . When the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed after 1009 and the Fitna (civil war) began, the Zirid leader Zawi ben Ziri established an independent kingdom for himself, the Taifa of Granada . The Zirids built their citadel and palace, known as the al-Qaṣaba al-Qadīma ("Old Citadel" or "Old Palace"), on
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#17327732932187688-402: The archway on the exterior façade, while the image of a key, another symbol of faith, is carved above the archway on the inner façade. A Christian-era sculpture of the Virgin and Christ Child was inserted later into another niche just inside the gate. Near the outside of the gate is the Pilar de Carlos V , a Renaissance-style fountain built in 1524 with some further alterations in 1624. At
7812-414: The area. Its tallest tower, the 26 m (85 ft) high Torre del Homenaje ('Tower of Homage'), was the keep and military command post of the complex. It may have also been the first residence of Ibn al-Ahmar inside the Alhambra while the complex was being constructed. The westernmost tower, the 25 m (82 ft) high Torre de la Vela , acted as a watch tower. The flag of Ferdinand and Isabella
7936-436: The beginning of the Alhambra's most severe period of decline. During this period the Spanish state dedicated few resources to it and its management was taken over by self-interested local governors who lived with their families inside the neglected palaces. Over subsequent years the Alhambra was further damaged. Between 1810 and 1812 Granada was occupied by Napoleon 's army during the Peninsular War . The French troops, under
8060-461: The command of Count Sebastiani , occupied the Alhambra as a fortified position and caused significant damage to the monument. Upon evacuating the city, they attempted to dynamite the whole complex to prevent it from being re-used as a fortified position. They successfully blew up eight towers before the remaining fuses were disabled by Spanish soldier José Garcia, whose actions saved what remains today. In 1821, an earthquake caused further damage. In
8184-437: The conclusion of the Christian Reconquista in 1492, the site became the Royal Court of Ferdinand and Isabella (where Christopher Columbus received royal endorsement for his expedition), and the palaces were partially altered. In 1526, Charles V commissioned a new Renaissance-style palace in direct juxtaposition with the Nasrid palaces, but it was left uncompleted in the early 17th century. The site fell into disrepair over
8308-583: The conquest of al-Andalus by the Almoravids from North Africa during the late 11th century. In the mid-12th century they were followed by the Almohads . After 1228 Almohad rule collapsed and local rulers and factions emerged again across the territory of Al-Andalus. With the Reconquista in full swing, the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon – under kings Ferdinand III and James I , respectively – made major conquests across al-Andalus. Castile captured Cordoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248 . Meanwhile, Ibn al-Ahmar (Muhammad I) established what became
8432-403: The decorated backgrounds that were often painted in red, blue, or turquoise (with other colours mixed into the details). The main gate of the Alhambra is the large Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice), known in Arabic as Bab al-Shari'a ( Arabic : باب الشريعة , lit. 'Gate of Shari'a (law)'), which served as the main entrance on the south side of the walled complex. It
8556-558: The design of buildings, probably because inscriptions came to feature so prominently in their decoration. The head of the chancery was often also the vizier (prime minister) of the sultan. Although not exactly architects, the terms of office of many individuals in these positions coincide with the major phases of construction in the Alhambra, which suggests that they played a role in leading construction projects. The most important figures who held these positions, such as Ibn al-Jayyab , Ibn al-Khatib , and Ibn Zamrak , also composed much of
8680-518: The early 19th century, the site was described as being occupied by prisoners, disabled soldiers and other marginalized people. As early as the second half of the 18th century, the Alhambra's appearance and details began to be documented by Spanish illustrators and officials. By the first decade of the 19th century, other European writers began to bring attention to it and the site subsequently became an object of fascination for Western Romanticist writers, whose publications frequently sought to evoke
8804-438: The early Islamic period. Thuluth was a derivation of the cursive script often used for more pompous or formal contexts; favoured, for example, in the preambles of documents prepared by the Nasrid chancery. Many inscriptions in the Alhambra were composed in a mixed Naskhi-Thuluth script. Bands of cursive script often alternated with friezes or cartouches of Kufic script. Kufic is the oldest form of Arabic calligraphy, but by
8928-461: The east side of the Council Hall. Multiple parts of the Mexuar were significantly modified in the post- Reconquista period; notably, the Sala del Mexuar was converted into a Christian chapel and additions were made to the Cuarto Dorado to convert it into a residence. Many of these additions were later removed during modern restorations in the 19th and 20th centuries. The Comares Palace
9052-502: The edges of a cartouche encompassing the rest of the inscription. The texts of the Alhambra include "devout, regal, votive, and Qur'anic phrases and sentences," formed into arabesques, carved into wood and marble, and glazed onto tiles. Poets of the Nasrid court, including Ibn al-Khatīb and Ibn Zamrak, composed poems for the palace. The inscriptions of the Alhambra are also unique for their frequent self-referential nature and use of personification . Some inscribed poems, such as those in
9176-522: The end of the passage coming from the Puerta de la Justicia is the Plaza de los Aljibes ('Place of the Cisterns'), a broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Nasrid Palaces. The plaza is named after a large cistern dating to around 1494, commissioned by Iñigo López de Mondoza y Quiñones. The cistern was one of the first works carried out in the Alhambra after the 1492 conquest and it filled what
9300-435: The following centuries, with its buildings occupied by squatters . The troops of Napoleon destroyed parts of it in 1812. After this, the Alhambra became an attaction for British, American, and other European Romantic travellers. The most influential of them was Washington Irving , whose Tales of the Alhambra (1832) brought international attention to the site. The Alhambra was one of the first Islamic monuments to become
9424-504: The fortress on the Sabika hill and it also formed part of a coracha (from Arabic qawraja ), a type of fortification allowing soldiers from the fortress to access the river and bring back water even during times of siege. The Sabika hill fortress, also known as al-Qasaba al-Jadida ("the New Citadel"), was later used for the foundations of the current Alcazaba of the Alhambra. Under the Zirid kings Habbus ibn Maksan and Badis ,
9548-420: The gate are embellished with ceramic decoration filing the spandrels of the arches and stucco decoration above. On the western side of the gate is the carving of a key symbol like the one on the Puerta de la Justicia . The other main gate of the Alhambra was the Puerta de las Armas ('Gate of Arms'), located on the north side of the Alcazaba, from which a walled ramp leads towards the Plaza de los Aljibes and
9672-415: The ground floor. The "doubling" of rooms on both the ground and upper floors likely reflected their seasonal use: the upper floors, which were warmer, were used in colder months while the ground floors were used in warmer months. In the 16th century, Castilian Gothic and Renaissance motifs also began to appear among the decorative motifs and the upper floor galleries were extended around all four sides of
9796-469: The hill now occupied by the Albaicín neighbourhood. It was connected to two other fortresses on the Sabika and Mauror hills to the south. On the Darro River , between the Zirid citadel and the Sabika hill, was a sluice gate called Bāb al-Difāf ("Gate of the Tambourines"), which could be closed to retain water if needed. This gate was part of the fortification connecting the Zirid citadel with
9920-569: The largest medieval cistern of the Albaicin, known in Arabic as al-Jubb al-Qadīm ("the Old Cistern") and in Spanish today as the Aljibe del Rey ("Cistern of the King"), which had a capacity of 300 cubic metres. A now-ruined sluice gate called Bāb al-Difāf ("Gate of the Tambourines") was built across the Darro River and could be closed in order to retain water if needed. The nearby Bañuelo ,
10044-478: The last and longest reigning Muslim dynasty in the Iberian peninsula, the Nasrids , who ruled the Emirate of Granada . Ibn al-Ahmar was a relatively new political player in the region and likely came from a modest background, but he was able to win the support and consent of multiple Muslim settlements under threat from the Castilian advance. Upon settling in Granada in 1238, Ibn al-Ahmar initially resided in
10168-472: The legitimacy of modern techniques and materials in restoration so long as these were visually recognizable. Many of the buildings in the Alhambra were affected by his work. Some of the inaccurate changes and additions made by the Contreras architects were reversed. The young architect "opened arcades that had been walled up, re-excavated filled-in pools, replaced missing tiles, completed inscriptions that lacked portions of their stuccoed lettering, and installed
10292-573: The main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, "stalactite"-like sculpting, known as muqarnas , was used for three-dimensional features like vaulted ceilings. Alhambra derives from the Arabic الْحَمْرَاء ( al-Ḥamrāʼ , pronounced [alħamˈraːʔ] ), meaning lit. ' the red one ' (f.), the complete form of which was الْقَلْعَةُ ٱلْحَمْرَاءُ al-Qalʻat al-Ḥamrāʼ "the red fortress ( qalat )". The "Al-" in "Alhambra" means "the" in Arabic, but this
10416-525: The major monuments built in the Albaicín during this period are the Maristan (hospital), built in 1365–1367 (later demolished in 1843) and the Great Mosque ( congregational mosque ) of the Albaicín, dating from the 13th century. During this time the commercial heart of the district was what is now known as Panaderos Street ( Calle Panaderos ). This street ran between the gate called Bab al-Ziyada to
10540-422: The most important architects and conservators of the Alhambra up until 1907. During this period, they generally followed a theory of "stylistic restoration", which favoured the construction and addition of elements to make a monument "complete" but not necessarily corresponding to any historical reality. They added elements which they deemed to be representative of what they thought was an "Arabic style", emphasizing
10664-573: The most powerful figure in the kingdom was the Jewish administrator known as Samuel ha-Nagid (in Hebrew ) or Isma'il ibn Nagrilla (in Arabic). Samuel built his own palace on the Sabika hill, possibly on the site of the current palaces, although nothing remains of it. It reportedly included gardens and water features. The period of the Taifa kingdoms , during which the Zirids ruled, came to an end with
10788-428: The most prominent and were juxtaposed to achieve a certain aesthetic balance, while other colours were used in more nuanced ways in the background. The Alhambra features various styles of the Arabic epigraphy that developed under the Nasrid dynasty, and particularly under Yusuf I and Muhammad V. José Miguel Puerta Vílchez compares the walls of the Alhambra to the pages of a manuscript, drawing similarities between
10912-568: The north side is the Puerta del Arrabal ('Arrabal Gate'), which opens onto the Cuesta de los Chinos ('Slope of the Pebbles'), the ravine between the Alhambra and the Generalife. It was probably created under Muhammad II and served the first palaces of the Alhambra which were built in this area during his reign. It underwent numerous modifications in the later Christian era of the Alhambra. On
11036-408: The northern rooms were larger, allowing them to take advantage of the northern winds and the midday sun. Traditional house architecture evolved over the 15th and 16th centuries. Previously, the ground floors of residences were more important and more heavily decorated. Over this period, however, it became more common to build an upper story and this upper story often became more richly-decorated than
11160-409: The northern walls. Muhammad V 's reign (1354–1391, with interruptions) marked the political and cultural apogee of the Nasrid emirate as well as the apogee of Nasrid architecture. Particularly during his second reign (after 1362), there was a stylistic shift towards more innovative architectural layouts and an extensive use of complex muqarnas vaulting. His most significant contribution to
11284-446: The object of modern scientific study and has been the subject of numerous restorations since the 19th century. It is now one of Spain's major tourist attractions and a UNESCO World Heritage Site . During the Nasrid era, the Alhambra was a self-contained city separate from the rest of Granada below. It contained most of the amenities of a Muslim city such as a Friday mosque , hammams (public baths), roads, houses, artisan workshops,
11408-456: The official palace of the sultan and the state, known as the Qaṣr al-Sultan or Dār al-Mulk . The core of this complex was the Comares Palace , while another wing of the palace, the Mexuar , extended to the west. The Comares Baths are the best-preserved element from this initial construction, as the rest of the palace was further modified by his successors. Near the main mosque Isma'il I also created
11532-464: The old citadel of the Zirids on the Albaicin hill, but that same year he began construction of the Alhambra as a new residence and citadel. According to an Arabic manuscript since published as the Anónimo de Madrid y Copenhague , This year, 1238 Abdallah ibn al-Ahmar climbed to the place called "the Alhambra". He examined it, marked the foundations of a castle and left someone in charge of directing
11656-399: The oldest Nasrid palace still standing today. Isma'il I (r. 1314–1325) undertook a significant remodelling of the Alhambra. His reign marked the beginning of the "classical" period of Nasrid architecture, during which many major monuments in the Alhambra were begun and decorative styles were consolidated. Isma'il decided to build a new palace complex just east of the Alcazaba to serve as
11780-520: The periurban house type into this central neighbourhood of the city. All houses were provided with water through a network of pipes which distributed water from the many cisterns in the area. At least twenty underground cisterns still exist in the neighbourhood today. Among the oldest and most important preserved historic houses in the neighbourhood are the Casa de Zafra and the Dar al-Horra , both dating from
11904-832: The poetry that adorns the walls of the Alhambra. Ibn al-Jayyab served as head of the chancery at various times between 1295 and 1349 under six sultans from Muhammad II to Yusuf I. Ibn al-Khatib served as both head of the chancery and as vizier for various periods between 1332 and 1371, under the sultans Yusuf I and Muhammad V. Ibn Zamrak served as vizier and head of the chancery for periods between 1354 and 1393, under Muhammad V and Muhammad VII. Carved stucco (or yesería in Spanish) and mosaic tilework ( zilīj or zellij in Arabic; alicatado in Spanish ) were used for wall decoration, while ceilings were generally made in wood, which could be carved and painted in turn. Tile mosaics and wooden ceilings often feature geometric motifs . Tilework
12028-459: The present day, along with one of its main gates, the Bāb al-Unaydar (now called Puerta Monaita in Spanish). Another smaller gate, Bāb al-Ziyāda (now known as Arco de las Pesas or Puerta Nueva ) is located further east along the same wall. The city and its residences were supplied with water through an extensive hydraulic system of underground cisterns and pipes. The Zirid palace was located near
12152-488: The present-day Gran Vía de Colón and its surroundings were created between 1895 and 1908, that many of the inhabitants in the centre of the city were forced to relocate to the Albaicin and the neighbourhood increased in density. Many of the former spacious courtyard homes were subdivided into smaller plots to accommodate multiple families, or rooms from adjacent houses were purchased and joined together to expand available living spaces. These crowded conditions continued until
12276-621: The principality of Lecrín . After the conquest, the Alhambra became a royal palace and property of the Spanish Crown . Isabella and Ferdinand initially took up residence here and stayed in Granada for several months, up until 25 May 1492. It was during this stay that two major events happened. On 31 March the monarchs signed the Alhambra Decree , which ordered the expulsion of all Jews in Spain who refused to convert. Christopher Columbus , who had also been present to witness
12400-405: The ramparts, recorded by Ibn Hayyan (d. 1076): "Deserted and roofless are the houses of our enemies; Invaded by the autumnal rains, traversed by impetuous winds; Let them within the red castle (Kalat al hamra) hold their mischievous councils; Perdition and woe surround them on every side." At the beginning of the 11th century, the region of Granada was dominated by
12524-490: The root of the name of 'the Red Hill'. The Alhambra's most westerly feature is the Alcazaba, a large fortress overlooking the city. Due to touristic demand, modern access runs contrary to the original sequence which began from a principal access via the Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice) onto a large souq or public market square facing the Alcazaba, now subdivided and obscured by later Christian-era development. From
12648-415: The south side is the Puerta de los Siete Suelos ('Gate of Seven Floors'), which was almost entirely destroyed by the explosions set off by the departing French troops in 1812. The present gate was reconstructed in the 1970s with help of remaining fragments and of multiple old engravings that illustrate the former gate. The original gate was probably built in the mid-14th century and its original Arabic name
12772-608: The surrender of Granada, presented his plans for an expedition across the Atlantic to the monarchs in the Hall of Ambassadors and on 17 April they signed the contract which set the terms for the expedition which landed in the Americas later that year. The new Christian rulers began to make additions and alterations to the palace complex. The governorship of the Alhambra was entrusted to the Tendilla family, who were given one of
12896-466: The terms of the surrender, but these rights were soon undermined. In December 1499, the Albaicín was the starting point of a Muslim rebellion throughout Granada, triggered by the forced conversion of the Muslim population to Christianity, who then became known as ' Moriscos '. After the Christian conquest, much of the Morisco population of the city was displaced to the Albaicin, where they were joined in
13020-401: The time of Muhammad II . Muhammad III (r. 1302–1309) erected the Partal Palace , parts of which are still standing today, as well as the Alhambra's main ( congregational ) mosque (on the site of the current Church of Santa Maria de la Alhambra). The Partal Palace is the earliest known palace to be built along the northern walls of the complex, with views onto the city below. It is also
13144-408: The towers of the Alcazaba, before later moving to a modest house on the site of the current Palace of Charles V . Later Nasrid rulers after Ibn al-Ahmar continuously modified the site. Along with the fragile materials themselves, which needed regular repairs, this makes the exact chronology of its development difficult to determine. The oldest major palace for which some remains have been preserved
13268-576: The trees are bare. The design and decoration of the Nasrid palaces are a continuation of Moorish (western Islamic) architecture from earlier centuries but developed their own characteristics. The combination of carefully-proportioned courtyards, water features, gardens, arches on slender columns, and intricately-sculpted stucco and tile decoration gives Nasrid architecture qualities that are described as ethereal and intimate. Walls were built mostly in rammed earth , lime concrete , or brick and then covered with plaster , while wood (mostly pine )
13392-464: The west and south, and, beyond this valley, the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mauror separates it from the Antequeruela district. Another ravine separates it from the Generalife, the summer pleasure gardens of the emir. Salmerón Escobar notes that the later planting of deciduous elms obscures the overall perception of the layout, so a better reading of the original landscape is given in winter when
13516-564: The west and the Great Mosque of the Albaicín to the east. Next to Bab al-Ziyada was a public square called Raḥbat al-Ziyāda ("Enlargement Square") also existed, later known in Spanish as El Ensanche ("the Enlargement") and now as Plaza Larga . In 1492, after years of military campaigns , Granada fell under the control of the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella , completing the Christian conquest of Muslim al-Andalus. Muslims were initially granted protections and rights according to
13640-496: The wider Nasrid emirate was swelled by Muslim refugees from the territories newly conquered by Castile and Aragon, resulting in a small yet densely-populated territory which was more uniformly Muslim and Arabic-speaking than before. Granada itself expanded and new neighbourhoods grew around the Albaicín. A new set of walls was constructed further north of the Albaicín during the 13th–14th centuries, with Bab Ilbirah (present-day Puerta de Elvira ) as its western entrance. Among
13764-538: The winter. Courtyards were usually aligned in a north–south direction which allows the main halls to receive direct sunlight at midday during the winter, while during the summer the higher midday sun is blocked by the position and depth of the porticos fronting these halls. Little is known about the architects and craftsmen who built the Alhambra, but more is known about the Dīwān al-Ins͟hā' , or chancery . This institution seems to have played an increasingly important role in
13888-401: The words "blessing" ( بركة baraka ) and "felicity" ( يمن yumn ), are used as decorative motifs in arabesque throughout the palace. Like the rest of the original stucco decoration, many inscriptions were originally painted and enhanced with colours. Studies indicate that the letters were often painted in gold or silver, or in white with black outlines, which would have made them stand out on
14012-494: The work, and before that year had passed, the construction of the ramparts was completed; water was brought in from the river and a channel carrying the water was built (...) During the reign of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was transformed into a palatine city, complete with an irrigation system composed of aqueducts and water channels that provided water for the complex and for other nearby countryside palaces such as
14136-476: Was Bab al-Gudur . It would have been the main entrance serving the medina , the area occupied by industries and the houses of workers inside the Alhambra. It was also through here that the Catholic Monarchs first entered the Alhambra on January 2, 1492. The Alcazaba or citadel is the oldest part of the Alhambra today. It was the centrepiece of the complicated system of fortifications that protected
14260-504: Was appointed as chief architect from 1923 to 1936. The appointment of Torres Balbás, a trained archaeologist and art historian , marked a definitive shift to a more scientific and systematic approach to the Alhambra's conservation. He endorsed the principles of the 1931 Athens Charter for the Restoration of Monuments , which emphasized regular maintenance, respect for the work of the past, legal protection for heritage monuments, and
14384-470: Was built in 1348 during the reign of Yusuf I. The gate consists of a large horseshoe arch leading to a steep ramp passing through a bent passage . The passage turns 90 degrees to the left and then 90 degrees to the right, with an opening above where defenders could throw projectiles onto any attackers below. The image of a hand, whose five fingers symbolized the Five Pillars of Islam , is carved above
14508-475: Was connected to two smaller fortresses on the Sabika hill (site of the future Alhambra ) and Mauror hill to the south. The city around it grew during the 11th century to include the Albaicín, the Sabika, the Mauror, and a part of the surrounding plains. The city was fortified with walls encompassing an area of approximately 75 hectares . The northern part of these walls, near the Albaicin citadel, have survived to
14632-429: Was first raised above it as a symbol of the Spanish conquest of Granada on 2 January 1492. A bell was added on the tower soon afterward and for centuries it was rung at regular times every day and on special occasions. In 1843 the tower became part of the city's coat of arms. Inside the enclosure of the inner fortress was a residential district that housed the elite guards of the Alhambra. It contained urban amenities like
14756-443: Was generally used for lower walls or for floors, while stucco was used for upper zones. Stucco was typically carved with vegetal arabesque motifs ( ataurique in Spanish, from Arabic: التوريق , romanized: al-tawrīq , lit. 'foliage'), epigraphic motifs, geometric motifs, or sebka motifs. It could be further sculpted into three-dimensional muqarnas ( mocárabes in Spanish). Arabic inscriptions,
14880-405: Was previously a gully between the Alcazaba and the palaces. On the east side of the square is the Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate) which leads to the Palace of Charles V and to the former residential neighbourhoods (the medina ) of the Alhambra. The gate's construction is attributed to the reign of Muhammad III, although the decoration dates from different periods. Both the inner and outer façades of
15004-468: Was replaced with Modesto Cendoya, whose work was also criticized. Cendoya began many excavations in search of new artifacts but often left these works unfinished. He restored some important elements of the site, like the water supply system, but neglected others. Due to continued friction with Cendoya, the Special Commission was dissolved in 1913 and replaced with the council ( Patronato ) of
15128-532: Was the chief architectural curator from 1936 to 1970. In 1940, a new Council of the Alhambra was created to oversee the site, which has remained in charge ever since. In 1984 the central government in Madrid transferred responsibility for the site to the Regional Government of Andalusia and in 1986 new statutes and documents were developed to regulate the planning and protection of the site. In 1984
15252-426: Was the core of a large palace complex begun by Isma'il I in the early 13th century and subsequently modified and refurbished by Yusuf I and Muhammad V over the course of the same century. This new palace complex served as the official palace of the sultan and the state, known in Arabic as the Qaṣr al-Sultan or Dār al-Mulk . The Comares Palace was accessed from the west through the Mexuar. An internal façade, known as
15376-414: Was used for roofs, ceilings, doors, and window shutters. Buildings were designed to be seen from within, with their decoration focused on the inside. The basic unit of Nasrid palace architecture was a rectangular courtyard with a pool, fountain, or water channel at its centre. Courtyards were flanked on two or four sides by halls, often preceded by arcaded porticoes. Many of these structures featured
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