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89-547: The Dassaretii were one of the most prominent peoples of southern Illyria, forming an ethnic state. They made up the ancient Illyrian kingdom that was established in this region. The weakening of the kingdom of the Enchelei presumably led to Enchelei's assimilation and inclusion into a newly established Illyrian realm at the latest in the 6th–5th centuries BC, marking the arising of the Dassaretii, who appear to have replaced

178-590: A Chaonian tribe adjacent to the Enchelei , has likely the same root as the Illyrian Dassaretii . The hypothesis that equates the Dexaroi with the Dassaretii still remains uncertain. According to a mythological tradition reported by Appian (2nd century AD), the Dassaretii were among the South- Illyrian tribes that took their names from the first generation of the descendants of Illyrius ,

267-596: A proto-state stretching from the central part of present-day Albania up to Neretva river in Herzegovina . The political entity was financed on piracy and ruled from 250 BC by the king Agron . He was succeeded by his wife Teuta, who assumed the regency for her stepson Pinnes following Agron's death in 231 BC. Queen Teuta was famous for having waged wars against the Romans . At the Neretva Delta , there

356-455: A centum language, but if the name Zanatis is similarly generated (or from ǵneh₃- "know") then Illyrian is a satem language. Another problem related to the name Gentius is that it cannot be stated whether the initial g of the sources was a palatovelar or a labiovelar . Kretschmer identified both Illyrian and Messapic as satem languages due to the change from IE o to a . On the other hand, he classified Venetic as centum due to

445-528: A handful of Illyrian words cited in classical sources and numerous examples of Illyrian anthroponyms , ethnonyms , toponyms and hydronyms . The scarcity of the data makes it difficult to identify the sound changes that have taken place in Illyrian; the most widely accepted one is that the Indo-European voiced aspirates /bʰ/ , /dʰ/ , /ɡʰ/ became voiced consonants /b/ , /d/ , /ɡ/ . Messapic

534-474: A large area of southeastern Europe, including Albanoi , Ardiaei , Autariatae , Dardani , Delmatae , Dassareti , Enchelei , Labeatae , Pannonii , Parthini , Taulantii and others (see list of ancient tribes in Illyria ). It is not known to what extent all of these tribes formed a homogeneous linguistic group, but the study of the attested eponyms has led to the identification of a linguistic core area in

623-414: A millennium, including numismatic evidence, as well as posited original forms of placenames. There are no Illyrian inscriptions (Messapian inscriptions are treated separately, and there is no consensus that they are to be reckoned as Illyrian). The spearhead found at Kovel and thought by some to be Illyrian is considered by the majority of runologists to be Eastern Germanic, and most likely Gothic, while

712-599: A mixture of Venetic, Celtic and Illyrian; and (5) the Pannonian people north in Bosnia, Northern Montenegro, and western Serbia. These identifications were later challenged by Radoslav Katičić who on the basis of personal names which occur commonly in Illyricum distinguished three onomastic areas: (1) South-Eastern Illyrian , extending southwards from the southern part of Montenegro and including most of Albania west of

801-728: A newly established Illyrian realm at the latest in the 5th century BC, marking the arising of the Dassaretii , who appear to have replaced the Enchelei in the Lakeland area of Lychnidus . The weakening of the Enchelean realm was also caused by the strengthening of another Illyrian dynasty established in its vicinity—that of the Taulantii —which existed for some time along with that of the Enchelei. The Taulantii—another people among

890-435: A population scattered thinly over a territory without urban centres, united politically and in customs and religion, normally governed by means of some periodical assembly at a single centre, and worshipping a tribal deity at a common religious centre". Snodgrass presents indeed the ethnos as the prehistoric precursor of the polis describing it "no more than a survival of the tribal system into historical times". The region of

979-591: A town within the kingdom. The monarchy was established on hereditary lines and Illyrian rulers used marriages as a means of alliance with other powers. Pliny (23–79 AD) writes that the people that formed the nucleus of the Illyrian kingdom were 'Illyrians proper' or Illyrii Proprie Dicti . They were the Taulantii , the Pleraei , the Endirudini , Sasaei , Grabaei and the Labeatae . These later joined to form

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1068-405: A votive inscription on a ring found near Shkodër which was initially interpreted as Illyrian was shown to actually be Byzantine Greek . Illyrian proper went extinct between the 2nd and 6th centuries AD, with the possible exception of a branch that may have survived and developed into Albanian. It has also been claimed that Illyrian was preserved and spoken in the countryside, as attested in

1157-482: Is a list of the members of Bardylis' Illyrian dynasty recorded as such in ancient sources, whose realm was centered in the territory of the Dassaretii as claimed by a number of modern scholars: Grabos I ( fl. c. 5th century BC) and Grabos II ( fl. c. 357 – 356 BC), who most likely was the son of the former, should also have ruled in the same region of southern Illyria, however there are not enough historical elements to determine whether or not they were of

1246-597: Is contradicted by the fact that Lyvian texts reports Illyrian toponyms and ethnonyms principally located in the core of the Illyrian kingdom ( Ardiaean – Labeatan dynasty), north of Via Egnatia , except for Taulantii and Dassaretii, a situation different from that of the 2nd century BC. An evident relation between the Pirustae and Dassaretii appears in the text, but the Pirustae are thought to have been located much further north of Dassaretii. This could be explained by

1335-555: Is further grouped with Albanian under "Adriatic Indo-European". Other schemes group the three languages under "General Illyrian" and "Western Paleo-Balkan". In older research under the influence of pan-Illyrian theories , the Histrian , Venetic and Liburnian languages were considered to be Illyrian dialects. As archaeological research developed and the onomastic data about those languages increased, it became clear that they are not related to Illyrian either as dialects or as part of

1424-442: Is of Illyrian origin, stemming from Illyrian *daksa/dassa ("water, sea") attached to the suffix -ar . It is related to Illyrian personal names Dazos and Dassius and is also reflected in the toponym of Daksa island and the river Ardaxanos , which is mentioned by Polybius (2nd century BC) in the hinterland of modern Durrës and Lezhë . The name Dassaret- appears relatively late in ancient literature, being mentioned for

1513-476: Is often conjectured to be a surviving descendant of Illyrian, although this too remains unproven. In the early modern era and up to the 19th century, the term "Illyrian" was also applied to the modern South Slavic language of Dalmatia , today identified as Serbo-Croatian . This language is only distantly related to ancient Illyrian, as they share the common ancestor Proto-Indo-European ; the two languages were never in contact as Illyrian had become extinct before

1602-461: Is viewed as neither centum nor satem ), the palatovelars have been generally depalatized (PIE * ḱ > * k or PIE * ǵ > * g followed by l or r in Albanian) in this phonetical position. The name Gentius or Genthius does not help either as there are two Illyrian forms for it, Genthius and Zanatis . If Gentius or Genthius derives from ǵenh₁- ("to be born"), this is proof of

1691-671: The Enchelei . It has been suggested either that the name Sesarethii can't be considered as another name for the Enchelei (another tribe mentioned by Hecataeus as living to the north of the Chaones ), or that Dassaretii were probably known to the Greeks with the name Encheleoi , while their original name in Illyrian would have been Sesarethioi , indicating therefore a connection between them. The name Dexaroi , mentioned by Hecataeus as

1780-574: The Bylliones . Stephanus of Byzantium ( fl.  6th century AD ) describes the Dassaretai as an Illyrian ethnos and does not associate them with a city. He seems to have used the term ethnos to describe the Dassaretan community in conformation to Anthony Snodgrass ' definition: "In its purest form the ethnos was no more than a survival of the tribal system into historical times:

1869-434: The Chaones and Atintanes , was a mixed area generally considered as a part of Illyria, however it was a cultural extension of Greek-speaking Epirus. The Dassaretii were most likely one of the Illyrian peoples described as bilingual by Strabo . The region assigned by Strabo to this Illyrian tribe was subject to the phenomenon of admixture of Greek and non-Greek elements, the latter occasionally not belonging to Illyrian but to

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1958-740: The Docleatae . The last known King of the Illyrians was Gentius , of the Labeatae tribe, and his capital city was Shkodra . Illyrian language Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Illyrian language ( / ɪ ˈ l ɪr i ə n / )

2047-590: The Hellenistic and Roman Imperial times. The worship of Artemis Agrota , "Artemis the Huntress", is considered an Illyrian indigenous cult since it was widespread only in southern Illyria, stretching from the Illyrian Dassaretan territory up to Dalmatia , including also the territory of Apollonia . In later Roman times, the cult of Diana Candaviensis , which has been interpreted as "Artemis

2136-532: The Hellenistic period bearing the inscription ΔΑΣΣΑΡΗΤΙΩΝ, attesting their presence in the Lychnidus area. The territory inhabited by the Dassaretii – Dassaretis or Dassaretia – has been documented in literary sources dating from the Roman period . It was a central area of southern Illyria , directly in contact with the regions of Orestis and Lynkestis of Upper Macedonia . The Dassaretii were located between

2225-617: The Hellenistic period they seem to have been separate political entities. It has been suggested that the tribe of Dassaretioi and the city of Lychnidos might have formed some kind of political confederation (similar to a koinon ) based on the unification of various tribes or various towns and villages. This type of political organisation were quite widespread in the Balkans during the Classical and Hellenistic periods. Some of these confederations survived until Imperial times, such as that of

2314-586: The Iapodes . In particular, a 3rd-century BC silvered bronze belt buckle , found inside the Illyrian Tombs of Selça e Poshtme near the western shore of Lake Lychnidus in Dassaretan territory, depicts a scene of warriors and horsemen in combat, with a giant serpent as a protector totem of one of the horsemen; a very similar belt was found also in the necropolis of Gostilj near the Lake Scutari in

2403-538: The Illyrian Royal Tombs were built. The idiom spoken by the Dassaretii is included in the southern Illyrian onomastic province in modern linguistics. The territory they inhabited belongs to the area that is considered in current scholarship as the linguistic core of Illyrian. It has been suggested that the zone located to the south and west of the Dassareti, Parthini and Taulanti , before reaching

2492-430: The Labeatae tribe. In southern Illyria organized realms were formed earlier than in other areas of this region. One of the oldest known Illyrian dynasty is that of the Enchelei , which seems to have reached its height from the 8th–7th centuries BC, but the dynasty fell from dominant power around the 6th century BC. It seems that the weakening of the dynasty of Enchelae resulted in their assimilation and inclusion into

2581-625: The Macedonians and Molossians several times, expanding his dominion over Upper Macedonia and Lynkestis and subjugating Macedon for several decades until he was decisively defeated by Philip II of Macedon . Before the Rise of Macedon Illyrians were the dominant power in the area. The kingdom of the Taulantii on the south-eastern coast of the Adriatic evidently reached its apex under Glaukias ' rule and dominated southern Illyrian affairs in

2670-822: The Paeones , who were located to the north-east of the lakes, while Lower Prespa was part of the Orestae . The inhabitants of the settlements that were concentrated in Upper Prespa have been under the dominion of the Dassaretan tribal confederation prior to being completely integrated into the Kingdom of Macedon. Livy (1st century BC) reports that following the victory of 167, the Roman Senate decided to give freedom to "Issenses et Taulantios, Dassaretiorum Pirustas, Rhizonitas, Olciniatas", rewarded because they abandoned

2759-451: The Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe with the possible exception of the ancestor of Albanian. Illyrian was part of the Indo-European language family. Its relation to other Indo-European languages, ancient and modern, is poorly understood because of the paucity of data and because it is still being examined. Today, the main source of authoritative information about Illyrian consists of

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2848-486: The South-Eastern and Central areas are not sufficient to show that two clearly differentiated dialects of Illyrian were in use in these areas. However, as Katičić has argued, the core onomastic area of Illyrian proper is to be located in the southeast of that Balkan region, traditionally associated with the Illyrians (centered in modern Albania). Traditionally Illyrian has referred to any non-Celtic language in

2937-612: The 2nd century BC. The precise location seems to have been found however only for Antipatreia, identified with modern Berat . The settlement of Hija e Korbit in the Korça plain at the Devoll river (ancient Eordaicus ) had been probably one of the relevant commercial and military sites of the Illyrian Dassaretii. One of the most prominent settlements in the region of Illyrian Dassaretii was established at Selcë e Poshtme , where

3026-708: The 5th century BC, and established a realm centered in their territory that comprised the area along Lychnidus and east to the Prespa Lakes , which was called "Dassaretis" later in Roman times . A fragment of Callisthenes ( c. 360 – 327 BC) which places Bardylis' realm between Molossis and Macedonia , well determines the position of that Illyrian kingdom in the area of Dassaretis. Bardylis' expansion in Upper Macedonia and Molossis, and his son Cleitus ' revolt at Pelion in Dassaretis against Alexander

3115-731: The Dalmatian islands. The Illyrian kingdom was composed of small areas within the region of Illyria. Only the Romans ruled the entire region. The internal organization of the south Illyrian kingdom points to imitation of their neighbouring Greek kingdoms and influence from the Greek and Hellenistic world in the growth of their urban centres. Polybius gives as an image of society within an Illyrian kingdom as peasant infantry fought under aristocrats which he calls in Greek Polydynastae (Greek: Πολυδυνάστες) where each one controlled

3204-587: The Dasaretii and supplied his army with the products offered by that region, without the resistance of the locals. In Roman times the Dassaretii may have practiced transhumance in southern Illyria. Illyrian kingdom The Illyrian Kingdom was an Illyrian political entity that existed on the western part of the Balkan Peninsula in ancient times. Regardless of the number of the alternately ruling dynasties, of their tribal affiliation, and of

3293-491: The Enchelei in the lakeland area. Most scholars hold that the Illyrian kingdom that was established in the early 4th century BC by the first attested Illyrian ruler – Bardylis – was centered along Lake Ohrid and east to the Prespa Lakes , which was called Dassaretis or Dassaretia later in Roman times , located on the border between Macedon and Epirus . Although Ohrid and Prespa are usually called "Dassaretan Lakes", only Ohrid remained part of Dassaretan territory, while

3382-539: The Great had defeated Illyrian chieftain Clitus forces in 335 B.C. and Illyrian soldiers and tribal leaders participated in his conquest of Persia . After the death of Alexander, Illyrian tribes started to rise to become independent from Macedonian rule. Following that in 312 B.C king Glaucius expelled Greeks from Durres . During the second part of the 3rd century BC, a number of Illyrian tribes seem to have united to form

3471-428: The Great make this localization of the core of their realm even more plausible. The exact extension of the kingdom of Bardylis and Cleitus is not known, as it could have included other regions besides Dassaretis. The establishment of a tribal realm centered in the rich region of the Illyrian Dassaretii seems supported also by numismatic and epigraphic evidence. The Illyrian Royal Tombs of Selca e Poshtme are located in

3560-521: The Greek merchants. The prosperous site of Selcë was important in the region, because it occupied a prominent military and commercial position being able to control the route which led from the Adriatic coasts of Illyria to Macedonia, hence predominating in the area near Via Egnatia that was established in Roman times following that route. Some of its natural resources were the stone quarries. The area

3649-422: The Huntress", was practiced up to the region north of Lake Shkodra (ancient lacus labeatis ), including also the territory of the Docleatae . Dassaretii were one of the tribes forming the ancient Illyrian kingdom that was established in the region of southern Illyria . Ancient sources and modern scholars hold that one of the first kingdoms established in this region was that of the Enchelei . It seems that

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3738-539: The Illyrian ( Labeatan ) king Plauratus , son of Skerdilaidas , the regions of the Parthini and Lychnis , which were previously occupied by Philip V of Macedon , and the territory of the Dassaretii was also likely detached from Macedon . Thus, after the Roman campaigns in Macedonia the Dassaretii were declared independent as Roman allies, like the Orestae , and they established autonomous political entities under

3827-400: The Illyrian Dassaretan region. The site of Selcë was in the past a flourishing economical centre more developed than the surroundings because it occupied a predominant position inside the region currently called Mokër , and because it controlled the road which led from the Adriatic coasts of Illyria to Macedonia. A helmet reporting the inscription of the name of the Illyrian king Monunius

3916-426: The Illyrian kingdom of Gentius a little before his defeat. For a similar reason Daorsi too gained immunitas , while half of the tax had to be paid by "Scodrensibus et Dassarensibus et Selepitanis ceterisque Illyriis" ("the inhabitants of Scodra , Dassarenses and Seleptani , as well as by other Illyrians"). Some scholars have suggested that Livy's material follows exclusively Polybius (2nd century BC). However, it

4005-470: The Illyrian tribe of Dassaretii bordered the regions of Macedonia and Molossia. Including the valleys of Osum and Devoll rivers, stretching to the east into the Korçë Plain , and comprising the area around lake Ohrid , the Illyrian Dassaretan region was rich in natural resources and was located in a strategic geographical position that aroused the political wishes of the neighbours and the interest of

4094-729: The Macedonians and the Illyrians as early as the 7th century BC, if the consensus in modern scholarship in dating the reigning period of Argaeus I is correct. In the 7th century BC the Taulantii invoked the aid of Corcyra and Corinth in a war against the Liburni . After the defeat and expulsion from the region of the Liburni, the Corcyreans founded in 627 BC on the Illyrian mainland a colony called Epidamnus , thought to have been

4183-468: The Roman conquest in the late 1st century BC, the concept of Illyricum expanded towards the west and north. Finally it encompassed all native peoples from the Adriatic to the Danube, inhabiting the Roman provinces of Dalmatia , Pannonia and Moesia , regardless of their ethnic and cultural differences. An extensive study of Illyrian names and territory was undertaken by Hans Krahe in the first decades of

4272-418: The Roman protectorate in southern Illyricum outside the borders of Macedonia. From the middle of the 2nd century BC Dassaretia was included in the Roman province of Macedonia . The Dassaretii established autonomous political entities under the Roman protectorate. Centered at Lychnidus, Roman era inscriptions indicate that Dassaretia was an administrative unit with its own magistrates. The tribal name Dassaret-

4361-574: The Roman protectorate. The Dassaretioi were mentioned in Imperial times in many inscriptions as either having an executive power or as dedicants. The official of the highest rank was, most likely, the strategos , whose seat seems to have been located in Lychnidos . However, the Dassaretioi were not mentioned in a single inscription together with the polis of Lychnidos. This indicates that from

4450-524: The Romans would later call "Illyricum". The Greek term encompassed only the peoples who lived on the borders of Macedonia and Epirus . Pliny the Elder , in his work Natural History , still applies a stricter usage of the term Illyrii when speaking of Illyrii proprie dicti ("Illyrians properly so-called") among the native communities in the south of Roman Dalmatia. For a couple of centuries before and after

4539-487: The above-mentioned Venetic toponyms and personal names are accepted as Illyrian in origin, it is not clear that they originated in a centum language. Vescleves , Acrabanus , Gentius and Clausal are explained by proponents of the hypothesis that Illyrian had a centum character, through comparison with IE languages such as Sanskrit or Ancient Greek, or reconstructed PIE. For example, Vescleves has been explained as PIE *h₁wesu - ḱléw- (of good fame). Also,

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4628-550: The actual extension of their kingdom, it represented an alliance of Illyrian tribes that united under the rulership of a single leader, expressly referred to as "King of the Illyrians" in ancient historical records (whether in Ancient Greek or in Latin ). The monarchic superstructure of the Illyrian state coexisted with the Illyrian tribal communities and the republican system of the Illyrian koina . The Enchele 's polity

4717-524: The early 3rd century BC and who is presumably considered Cleitus' son, might have succeeded Glaucias on the throne as the grandson of Bardylis, or alternatively he might have reigned independently after his father Cleitus somewhere in Dassaretia, in an area located nearer the Macedonian border. From the 3rd century BC onwards the Dassaretii have been attested as one of the largest Illyrian tribes of

4806-620: The eponymous ancestor of all the Illyrian peoples . The Illyrian Dassaretii are often mentioned by Polybius ( The Histories ) and Livy ( Ab Urbe Condita Libri ) in their accounts of the Illyrian Wars and Macedonian Wars . They are also mentioned by Strabo ( Geographica . VII. p. 316), Appian ( Illyrike . 1), Pomponius Mela ( De situ orbis libri III . II. 3), Pliny ( Natural History . III. 23), Ptolemy ( Geography . p. 83) and Stephanus of Byzantium ( Ethnica . "Δασσαρῆται"). Their name appears also on coins of

4895-683: The events involving the Illyrian king Bardylis and his dynasty. After Philip II of Macedon defeated Bardylis (358 BC), the Grabaei under Grabos II became the strongest state in Illyria. Philip II killed 7,000 Illyrians in a great victory and annexed the territory up to Lake Ohrid . Next, Philip II reduced the Grabaei, and then went for the Ardiaei , defeated the Triballi (339 BC), and fought with Pleurias (337 BC). After that Alexander

4984-403: The first time around 200 BC. The tribal name Sesarethioi (or Sesarethii ), mentioned for the first time by Hecataeus (6th century BC) as an Illyrian tribe holding the city of Sesarethus in the territory of the Illyrian people of Taulantioi , is very close to Dassaretioi . The variant Sesarethioi is also mentioned by Strabo (1st century BC – 1st century AD) as an alternative name for

5073-473: The inscription ΔΑΣΣΑΡΗΤΙΩΝ ( DASSARETION ) have been found in the region of Lake Lychnidus . In antiquity, as the authors of that time informs, the Dassaretan territory was known for its very fertile countryside, with a developed agricultural economy. An example is the account about the Roman consul Sulpicius , who during the Second Macedonian War in 199 BC, passed through the territory of

5162-581: The late 4th century BC, exerting great influence on the Epirote state through the close ties with the Molossian king Pyrrhus . The Ardiaei , Autariatae , and Dardani are described as the strongest Illyrian peoples by Strabo . From the 6th–5th centuries BC they followed their own social-political development in the regions they inhabited, and only the political entity of the Ardiaei, which expanded in

5251-521: The more anciently known groups of Illyrian tribes—lived on the Adriatic coast of southern Illyria (modern Albania ), dominating at various times much of the plain between the Drin and the Aous , comprising the area around Epidamnus/Dyrrhachium . When describing the Illyrian invasion of Macedonia ruled by Argaeus I , somewhere between 678–640 BC, the historian Polyaenus ( fl. 2nd-century AD) recorded

5340-528: The name Acrabanus as a compound name has been compared with Ancient Greek ἄκρος with no signs of palatalization , or Clausal has been related to ḱlewH- (wash, rinse). In all these cases the supporters of the centum character of the Illyrian language consider PIE * ḱ > * k or PIE * ǵ > * g followed by l or r to be evidence of a centum character of the Illyrian language. However, it has been shown that even in Albanian and Balto-Slavic , which are satem -like languages (unclear as Albanian

5429-520: The name of an Illyrian (barbarian) king of the region. A flourishing commercial centre emerged and the city grew rapidly. The Taulantii continued to play an important role in Illyrian history between the 5th and 4th–3rd centuries BC, and in particular, in the history of Epidamnus, both as its neighbours and as part of its population. Notably, they influenced the affairs in the internal conflicts between aristocrats and democrats. The Taulantian dynasty seems to have reached its climax during Glaukias ' rule, in

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5518-401: The north it extended to Lake Lychnidus up to the city of the same name . Although Lake Ohrid and Lake Prespa are usually called "Dassaretan Lakes", only Ohrid remained part of Dassaretan territory, while the region of Prespa became part of Macedon when Philip II annexed it after his victories against the Illyrians. Upper Prespa was on the borderland between the Dassaretan tribes and

5607-407: The north to the borders of Epirus in the south, while its influence extended throughout Epirus and down into Acarnania . The Ardiaean realm became one of Rome 's major enemies, and its primary threat in the Adriatic Sea . The dominant power of the Illyrian kingdom in the region ceased after its defeat in the Illyro-Roman Wars (229–168 BC). The last known "King of the Illyrians" was Gentius , of

5696-454: The possibility that the Pirustae had various locations in different periods, by the existence of two tribes with the same name or similar names, or by an unknown and hypothetical expansion of the Dassaretii to the north. The capital of the Illyrian tribe of Dassaretii was Lychnidos , a city located on the edge of the lake of the same name . Polybius mentions Pelion, Antipatreia , Chrysondyon , Gertous and Creonion as Dassaretan cities in

5785-401: The preservation of the IE o . Taking into account the absence of sufficient data and sometimes the dual nature of their interpretation, the centum/satem character of the Illyrian language is still uncertain and requires more evidence. The Greeks were the first literate people to come into frequent contact with Illyrian speakers. Their conception of "Illyrioi", however, differed from what

5874-405: The region of Prespa became part of Macedon when Philip II annexed it after his victories against the Illyrians. During a campaign in Illyria in 335 BC, Alexander the Great undertook a victorious siege at Pelion , in Dassaretis, against Illyrians who revolted under the leadership of Cleitus, son of Bardylis , with the aid of Glaucias , king of the Taulantii . Bardylis II , who reigned in

5963-409: The region, and in different periods they changed their rulers, being alternatively under the Illyrian ( Ardiaean / Labeatan ) kingdom, the Madedonian kingdom and the Roman Republic . In Hellenistic times the Dassaretii minted coins bearing the inscription of their ethnicon . As Roman allies, in 167 BC the Romans declared Dassaretii and their region Dassaretia independent. Dassaretia remained part of

6052-860: The region. Recent scholarship from the 1960s and on tends to agree that the region inhabited by Illyrian tribes can be divided into three distinct linguistic and cultural areas, of which only one can be properly termed "Illyrian". No written texts regarding self-identification exist from the Illyrians and no inscriptions in Illyrian exist, with the only linguistic remains being place names (toponyms) and some glosses. Since there are no Illyrian texts, sources for identifying Illyrian words have been identified by Hans Krahe as being of four kinds: inscriptions, glosses of Illyrian words in classical texts, names—including proper names (mostly inscribed on tombstones), toponyms and river names—and Illyrian loanwords in other languages. The last category has proven particularly contentious. The names occur in sources that range over more than

6141-404: The river Neretva and extending south of the provincial boundary with Macedonia at the river Drin to include the Illyris of north and central Albania; (2) the Delmatae who occupied the middle Adriatic coast between the "real Illyrians" and the Liburni; (3) the Venetic Liburni of the northeast Adriatic; (4) the Japodes who dwelt north of the Delmatae and beyond the Liburni, where names reveal

6230-400: The river Drin, though its demarcation to the south remains uncertain; (2) Central Illyrian consisting of most of ex-Yugoslavia, north of southern Montenegro to the west of Morava, excepting ancient Liburnia in the northwest, but perhaps extending into Pannonia in the north; (3) Liburnian , whose names resemble those of the Venetic territory to the northeast. The onomastic differences between

6319-433: The rule of the Illyrian kingdom of the Ardiaei , and they controlled the mountain passes eastwards over the Pindus on the border with Macedon . The retreat to the north and in later times the destruction of the Illyrian kingdom highlighted numerous communities in southern Illyria – including the Dassaretii – that were organized in koina , as evidenced by historical sources, coins and epigraphic material. The following

6408-584: The same branch. Armenian Greek Phrygian (extinct) Messapic (extinct) Albanian In the absence of sufficient lexical data and texts written in Illyrian, the theories supporting the centum character of the Illyrian language have been based mainly on the centum character of the Venetic language, which was thought to be related to Illyrian, in particular regarding Illyrian toponyms and names such as Vescleves , Acrabanus , Gentius , Clausal etc. The relation between Venetic and Illyrian

6497-525: The same dynasty as Bardylis I . The same observation applies in the case of Monunius I ( fl. c. 280 BC) and Mytilus ( fl. c. 270 BC). Ancient historian Polybius ( fl. 2nd century BC) describes peoples of Illyria , like the Dassaretae and the Ardiaei , using the term ethnos , with the meaning of " tribes " within wider national units. After defeating the Macedonians in 196 BC, Roman consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus assigned to

6586-491: The south of this zone, roughly around what is now Albania and Montenegro , where Illyrian proper is believed to have been spoken. Little is known about the relationships between Illyrian and its neighboring languages. For lack of more information, Illyrian is typically described as occupying its own branch in the Indo-European family tree. A close relationship with Messapic , once spoken in southern Italy, has been suggested but remains unproven. Among modern languages, Albanian

6675-528: The south-eastern Adriatic , came to be identified with the Illyrian kingdom in the 3rd century BC. Under the Ardiaean king Agron and his wife Teuta , the Illyrian kingdom reached its apex. It became a formidable power both on land and sea by assembling a great army and fleet, and directly ruling over a large area made up of different Illyrian tribes and cities that stretched from the Neretva River in

6764-487: The strata of an earlier population. It has been suggested that there may have been a 'Brygian' substratum or a strong influence by the Brygi , as Dassaretia was one of the regions that was previously inhabited by this Paleo-Balkan people. Several cult-objects with similar features are found in different Illyrian regions, including the territory of the Illyrian tribes of Dassaretii, Labeatae , Daorsi , and comprising also

6853-426: The supposed oldest known king in Illyria, Galaurus or Galabrus , a ruler of the Taulantii who reigned in the latter part of the 7th century BC. Some scholars consider the authenticity of Polyaenus' passage as disputable. Whether or not this account is historically reliable, and despite Polyaenus' interest in the anecdote, it implies the widespread thought throughout antiquity about a significant animosity between

6942-425: The territory of the Labeatae , indicating a common hero-cult practice in those regions. Modern scholars suggest that the iconographic representation of the same mythological event includes the Illyrian cults of the serpent , of Cadmus , and of the horseman , the latter being a common Paleo-Balkan hero. The cult of Artemis under the epithet Άγρότα, Agrota was practiced in southern Illyria , in particular during

7031-519: The tribes of Parthini (who dwelled in the Shkumbin valley) and Atintanes (who inhabited in the mountain ranges between Asamus and Aous rivers). The extent of the territory of Dassaretii seems to have been considerable, since it included the entire region between the rivers Asamus and Eordaicus (whose union forms the Apsus ), the plateau of Korça locked by the fortress of Pelion and, towards

7120-438: The twentieth century. He and other scholars argued for a broad distribution of Illyrian peoples considerably beyond the Balkans , though in his later work, Krahe curbed his view of the extent of Illyrian settlement. The further refinements of Illyrian onomastic provinces for that Illyrian area included in the later Roman province were proposed by Géza Alföldy . He identified five principal groups: (1) "real Illyrians" south of

7209-408: The weakening of the kingdom of Enchelae resulted in their assimilation and inclusion into a newly established Illyrian realm at the latest in the 6th–5th centuries BC, marking the arising of the Dassaretii, who appear to have replaced the Enchelei in the lakeland area ( Ohrid and Prespa ). According to a historical reconstruction, Bardylis founded a powerful Illyrian dynasty among the Dassaretii in

7298-440: The years between 335 BC and 302 BC. According to some modern scholars the dynasty of Bardylis —the first attested Illyrian dynasty—was Dassaretan. There is also another historical reconstruction that considers Bardylis a Dardani a ruler, who during the expansion of his dominion included the region of Dassaretis in his realm, but this interpretation has been challenged by historians who consider Dardania too far north for

7387-501: Was a strong Hellenistic influence on the Illyrian tribe of Daors . Their capital was Daorson located in Ošanići near Stolac in Herzegovina , which became the main center of classical Illyrian culture. Daorson, during the 4th century BC, was surrounded by megalithic , 5 meter high stonewalls, composed out of large trapeze stones blocks. Daors also made unique bronze coins and sculptures. The Illyrians even conquered Greek colonies on

7476-605: Was an Indo-European language or group of languages spoken by the Illyrians in Southeast Europe during antiquity. The language is unattested with the exception of personal names and placenames. Just enough information can be drawn from these to allow the conclusion that it belonged to the Indo-European language family. In ancient sources, the term " Illyrian " is applied to a wide range of tribes settling in

7565-628: Was an Iron Age language spoken in Apulia by the Iapygians ( Messapians , Peucetians , Daunians ), which settled in Italy as part of an Illyrian migration from Illyria in the transitional period between the Bronze and Iron ages. As such, Messapic, as a distinct language, is considered to be part of the same Paleo-Balkan grouping as Illyrian. Eric Hamp has grouped them under "Messapo-Illyrian" which

7654-416: Was found in the area of lake Lychnidus in the territory of the Illyrian tribe of Dassaretii. It has been interpreted as a possible component of the equipment of a royal special force, suggesting also a financial activity of this king. Dating back to the 3rd century BC, the inscriptions of Monunius are considered the oldest known in the area. Before the year 229 the Illyrian tribe of Dassaretii had been under

7743-504: Was later discredited and they are no longer considered closely related. Scholars supporting the satem character of Illyrian highlight particular toponyms and personal names such as Asamum , Birzinimum , Zanatis etc. in which these scholars see satem-type reflexes of Indo-European roots. They also point to other toponyms including Osseriates derived from h₁éǵʰeros "lake" or Birziminium from PIE bʰergʰ- "project" or Asamum from PIE h₂eḱ- mo-s "sharp". Even if

7832-438: Was likely also close to the silver mines of Damastion . The territory of the Dassaretii, which is rich in iron ore, was one of the mining regions of the Illyrians. Evidence for the importance of metals for the Illyrians is provided by a 2nd century CE funerary stele found in Dassaretis, which represents two blacksmiths working metal and constitutes one of a kind case. The Dassaretii minted coins in Hellenistic times. Coins bearing

7921-485: Was the earliest to emerge among Illyrians. The earliest known Illyrian king – Bardylis – emerged in southern Illyria around 400 BC, most likely centered in Dassaretis , a region along Lake Ohrid and east to the Prespa Lakes , located on the border between Macedon and Epirus . He aimed to make Illyria a regional power interfering with Macedon. He united many southern Illyrian tribes under his realm and defeated

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