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115-527: Dietrichs Flucht (Dietrich's Flight) or Das Buch von Bern (The Book of Verona) is an anonymous 13th-century Middle High German poem about the legendary hero Dietrich von Bern , the legendary counterpart of the historical Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great in Germanic heroic legend . It is part of the so-called "historical" Dietrich material and is closely related to, and always transmitted together with

230-461: A new exhibition centre and business district . At the end of 1978 the construction of a tower block and several diverse buildings and structures started. In 1985 the headquarters of the regional government of Emilia-Romagna moved in the new district. In 1977, Bologna was the scene of rioting linked to the Movement of 1977 , a spontaneous political movement of the time. The police shooting of

345-487: A Bolognese, tried to reverse the decline of the city with a series of reforms intended to stimulate the economy and promote the arts. However, these reforms achieved only mixed results. The pope's efforts to stimulate the decaying textile industry had little success, while he was more successful in reforming the tax system, liberalising trade and relaxing the oppressive system of censorship. The economic and demographic decline of Bologna became even more noticeable starting in

460-626: A Metropolitan Council formed by 18 mayors of municipalities within the Metro municipality. The Metropolitan City of Bologna is headed by the metropolitan mayor ( sindaco metropolitano ) and by the Metropolitan Council ( Consiglio metropolitano ). Since 21 June 2016 Virginio Merola , as mayor of the capital city, has been the mayor of the Metropolitan City. Until the late 19th century, when a large-scale urban renewal project

575-576: A bigger market for the massive agricultural production of the Emilian plains. Indeed, Bologna gave Italy one of its first prime ministers, Marco Minghetti . After World War I , Bologna was heavily involved in the Biennio Rosso socialist uprisings. As a consequence, the traditionally moderate elites of the city turned their back on the progressive faction and gave their support to the rising Fascist movement of Benito Mussolini . Dino Grandi ,

690-416: A bull deposing and excommunicating Bentivoglio and placing the city under interdict . When the papal troops, along with a contingent sent by Louis XII of France , marched against Bologna, Bentivoglio and his family fled. Julius II entered the city triumphantly on 10 November. The period of Papal rule over Bologna (1506–1796) has been generally evaluated by historians as one of severe decline. However, this

805-582: A careful restoration and conservation policy which began at the end of the 1970s. In 2000, it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, a UNESCO "City of Music" and became part of the Creative Cities Network . In 2021, UNESCO recognized the lengthy porticoes of the city as a World Heritage Site . Bologna is an important agricultural, industrial, financial and transport hub, where many large mechanical, electronic and food companies have their headquarters as well as one of

920-436: A centre for the study of medieval Roman law under major glossators , including Irnerius. It numbered Dante , Boccaccio and Petrarch among its students. The medical school was especially renowned. By 1200, Bologna was a thriving commercial and artisanal centre of about 10,000 people. During a campaign to support the imperial cities of Modena and Cremona against Bologna, Frederick II 's son, King Enzo of Sardinia ,

1035-406: A date for when the poem was reworked by the author of these portions, Heinrich der Vogler (see below). Dietrichs Flucht is about 10000 lines long. The poem is unusual in that it is written in rhyming couplets rather than in stanzas, as is the case with most German heroic epics. It may indicate that the author was trying to make his work more similar to either courtly romance , or, more probably to

1150-515: A far-left activist, Francesco Lorusso , sparked two days of street clashes. On 2 August 1980, at the height of the " years of lead ", a terrorist bomb was set off in the central railway station of Bologna killing 85 people and wounding 200, an event which is known in Italy as the Bologna massacre . In 1995, members of the neo-fascist group Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari were convicted for carrying out

1265-454: A four-line tramway network is planned. The large commuter rail service centred on Bologna is branded as the Bologna metropolitan railway service . The average length of time people spend commuting with public transit in Bologna, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 53 min. 9% of public transit riders ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average length of time people wait at

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1380-490: A high-ranking Fascist party official and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, remembered for being an Anglophile, was from Bologna. During the interwar years , Bologna developed into an important manufacturing centre for food processing, agricultural machinery and metalworking. The Fascist regime poured in massive investments, for example with the setting up of a giant tobacco manufacturing plant in 1937. Bologna suffered extensive damage during World War II . The strategic importance of

1495-541: A pre-existing poem and connected it with the Rabenschlacht . Hoffmann is highly critical of what he believes is Heinrich's work, pointing to numerous inconsistencies within Dietrichs Flucht (e.g. the hero Alphart dies twice) and between Dietrichs Flucht and Rabenschlacht . Sebastian Coxon argues that Heinrich's naming himself is a strategy to grant authorial authority to the excursus, in the same way as

1610-486: A realistic geography of Northern Italy, with Norbert Voorwinden noting that the poem contains more Italian place names than any other medieval German source. He concludes that all of this indicates the work intends to imitate a chronicle. These claims appear to have been taken seriously, as the World Chronicle of Heinrich von München describes the life of the historical Theoderic according to Dietrichs Flucht . At

1725-475: A rhymed chronicle . Alternatively, the choice of couplets may suggest a nearness to the genre of chivalric romance . The poem unites figures from various German heroic traditions, including the Nibelungenlied , Wolfdietrich , and Ortnit . Dietrichs Flucht begins with a long history of Dietrich's ancestors, who all live exceptionally long, Methuselan and virtuous lives and leave a single heir to

1840-414: A rhyming chronicle . With a single exception near the beginning, the narrator is absolutely insistent about the veracity of his story, repeating over and over again that what he is telling is true. His claims of both written and oral sources might serve to convince his audience that he is narrating historical truth while still providing the poem with the authority of the oral tradition. The poem also features

1955-544: A second Dietrich poem, the Rabenschlacht . A Heinrich der Vogler is named as author in an excursus of the poem. Earlier scholarship considered him to be the author of Dietrichs Flucht and possibly also of the Rabenschlacht , however more recent scholarship believes he is only author of this excursus. Dietrichs Flucht describes the rule of Dietrich's ancestors in his kingdom in northern Italy; his betrayal and exile by his wicked uncle Ermenrich , and his flight to

2070-456: A sort of fall from grace and is described as the first figure to bring evil into the world. Dietrich is nevertheless unable to defeat him, showing that evil cannot be removed from the world. The long list of Dietrich's ancestors serves to legitimate his rule in Italy. Lienert notes that, although the poem clearly supports Dietrich over Ermenrich, it nevertheless questions some of his decisions. For instance, Dietrich decides to go into exile to save

2185-430: A stop or station for public transit is 12 min, while 16% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 5.4 km (3.4 mi), while 7% travel for over 12 km (7.5 mi) in a single direction. At the end of 2016, the city proper had a population of 388,254 (while 1 million live in the greater Bologna area), located in

2300-431: A supra-regional literary language ( mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache ) based on Swabian , an Alemannic dialect. This historical interpretation is complicated by the tendency of modern editions of MHG texts to use normalised spellings based on this variety (usually called "Classical MHG"), which make the written language appear more consistent than it actually is in the manuscripts. Scholars are uncertain as to whether

2415-417: A third and final set of ramparts built in the 13th century, of which numerous sections survive. No more than twenty medieval defensive towers remain out of up to 180 that were built in the 12th and 13th centuries before the arrival of unified civic government. The most famous of the towers of Bologna are the central Due Torri ( Asinelli and Garisenda ), whose iconic leaning forms provide a popular symbol of

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2530-792: A third of its GDP and occupies 265,000 people in the Emilia-Romagna region. Bologna is home to the Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport , the seventh busiest Italian airport for passenger traffic (8 million passengers served in 2017). Bologna Centrale railway station is one of Italy's most important train hubs thanks to the city's strategic location as a crossroad between north–south and east–west routes. It serves 58 million passengers annually. The city hosts several minor railway stations (see List of railway stations in Bologna ). Bologna San Donato classification yard , with 33 railway tracks, used to be

2645-618: A total population of 70,000) who lived in poverty. In the revolutions of 1848 the Austrian garrisons which controlled the city on behalf of the pope were temporarily expelled, but eventually came back and crushed the revolutionaries. Papal rule finally ended in the aftermath of Second War of Italian Independence , when the French and Piedmontese troops expelled the Austrians from Italian lands, on 11 and 12 March 1860, Bologna voted to join

2760-400: Is Fiera District , a tower complex designed by Japanese architect Kenzo Tange in 1985. According to the last governmental dispositions concerning administrative reorganisation, the urban area of Bologna is one of the 15 metropolitan municipalities ( città metropolitane ), new administrative bodies fully operative since 1 January 2015. The new Metro municipalities, giving large urban areas

2875-443: Is also increasing its investment in sustainability as part of a 2022-2024 program that integrates gender perspectives into urban planning, with an emphasis on sustainable mobility, public infrastructure, and green spaces. Traces of human habitation in the area of Bologna go back to the 3rd millennium BCE, with significant settlements from about the 9th century BCE ( Villanovan culture ). The influence of Etruscan civilization reached

2990-478: Is characterised by a massive rise in population, terminated by the demographic catastrophe of the Black Death (1348). Along with the rise in population comes a territorial expansion eastwards ( Ostsiedlung ), which saw German-speaking settlers colonise land previously under Slavic control. Linguistically, the transition to Early New High German is marked by four vowel changes which together produce

3105-417: Is considered the centre of the so-called "packaging valley", an area well known for its high concentration of firms specialised in the manufacturing of automatic packaging machines ( Coesia  [ it ] , IMA ). Furthermore, Bologna is well known for its dense network of cooperatives , a feature that dates back to the social struggles of farmers and workers in the 1800s and that today produces up to

3220-478: Is forced to invade with an army. Dietrich defeats Ermenrich decisively in battle at Milan , capturing Ermenrich's son Friderich. He is left without any money to reward his soldiers, so he sends a group of vassals to fetch some. This group falls into an ambush by Witege , a former vassal of Dietrich's who switched sides. This results in the capture of Dietrich's best warriors, among them Hildebrand and Wolfhart. Ermenrich refuses Dietrich's offer to exchange Friderich for

3335-520: Is in this period that legendary Bishop Petronius , according to ancient chronicles, rebuilt the ruined town and founded the basilica of Saint Stephen . Petronius is still revered as the patron saint of Bologna. In 727–28, the city was sacked and captured by the Lombards under King Liutprand , becoming part of that kingdom. These Germanic conquerors built an important new quarter, called addizione longobarda (Italian meaning 'Longobard addition') near

3450-417: Is nominated and presided over by a directly elected mayor . The current mayor of Bologna is Matteo Lepore ( PD ), elected on 4 October 2021 with 61.9% of the votes. The municipality of Bologna is subdivided into six administrative boroughs ( quartieri ), down from the former nine before the 2015 administrative reform. Each borough is governed by a Council ( Consiglio ) and a president, elected contextually to

3565-653: Is not a complete archive for the Borgo Panigale area): The legislative body of the municipality is the City Council ( Consiglio Comunale ), which is composed by 48 councillors elected every five years with a corrected proportional system (granting the majority to the list or alliance of lists which receives more votes), contextually to the mayoral elections. The executive body is the City Committee ( Giunta Comunale ), composed by 12 assessors , that

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3680-418: Is not uncommon between late November and early March; one of the snowiest months of the past decade was February 2012. Here are climate normals for the weather station of Bologna Borgo Panigale (at the airport), unaffected by the heat dome of the city, for both 1961–1990 and 1991–2020 periods, in order to highlight changes between the two periods ( snow averages are referred to the city of Bologna, since there

3795-440: Is now generally discounted, as it he is not named at the beginning or end of the text. Victor Millet notes, furthermore, that the excursus has some stylistic characteristics otherwise absent in the romance. Heinzle suggests that it is still possible that Heinrich is the author of Dietrichs Flucht , but finds it more likely that he merely wrote the excursus where he is named. Werner Hoffmann believes that Heinrich reworked and expanded

3910-619: Is the capital and largest city of the Emilia-Romagna region in northern Italy . It is the seventh most populous city in Italy , with about 400,000 inhabitants and 150 different nationalities. Its metropolitan area is home to more than 1,000,000 people. Bologna is most famous for being the home to the oldest university in continuous operation , the University of Bologna , established in AD ;1088. Originally Etruscan ,

4025-409: Is the capital of the eponymous metropolitan city and of Emilia-Romagna , one of the twenty regions of Italy. While the province of Bologna has a population of 1,007,644, making it the twelfth most populated province of Italy, Emilia-Romagna ranks as the sixth most populated region of Italy, with about 4.5 million inhabitants, more than 7% of the national total. The seat of the regional government

4140-997: Is the opening strophe of the Nibelungenlied ( c.  1204 ). Middle High German Uns ist in alten mæren    wunders vil geseit von helden lobebæren,    von grôzer arebeit, von freuden, hôchgezîten,    von weinen und von klagen, von küener recken strîten    muget ir nu wunder hœren sagen. Modern German translation In alten Erzählungen wird uns viel Wunderbares berichtet von ruhmreichen Helden, von hartem Streit, von glücklichen Tagen und Festen, von Schmerz und Klage: vom Kampf tapferer Recken: Davon könnt auch Ihr nun Wunderbares berichten hören. Bologna Bologna ( / b ə ˈ l oʊ n j ə / bə- LOHN -yə , UK also / b ə ˈ l ɒ n j ə / bə- LON -yə , Italian: [boˈloɲɲa] ; Emilian : Bulåggna [buˈlʌɲɲɐ] ; Latin : Bononia )

4255-427: Is the tenth-largest church in the world by volume, 132 metres long and 66 metres wide, while the vault reaches 45 metres inside and 51 metres in the facade. With its volume of 258,000 m , it is the largest (Gothic or otherwise) church built of bricks of the world. The Basilica of Saint Stephen and its sanctuary are among the oldest structures in Bologna, having been built starting from the 8th century, according to

4370-509: The Huns , where he is warmly received by Etzel and his wife Helche . With Etzel's help, Dietrich makes two attempts to reclaim his kingdom from Ermenrich, but each time his victory is pyrrhic and he is forced to return to exile with the Huns. Unlike most German heroic poems, the poem is written in rhyming couplets, suggesting that it may have been intended to be read as a historical document like

4485-616: The Papal States . Papal rule was contested in the uprisings of 1831 . The insurrected provinces planned to unite as the Province Italiane Unite with Bologna as the capital. Pope Gregory XVI asked for Austrian help against the rebels. Metternich warned French king Louis Philippe I against intervention in Italian affairs, and in the spring of 1831, Austrian forces marched across the Italian peninsula, defeating

4600-457: The Peace of Constance in 1183. Subsequently, the town began to expand rapidly and became one of the main commercial trade centres of northern Italy thanks to a system of canals that allowed barges and ships to come and go. Believed to have been established in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered the world's oldest university in continuous operation . The university originated as

4715-444: The Rabenschlacht and Dietrichs Flucht were viewed as a single work by contemporaries. Most scholarship holds the Rabenschlacht to be the older of the two poems, providing a model for the third battle and end of Dietrichs Flucht , though Millet questions this interpretation. It is clear, at any rate, that both works were deliberate brought together and adapted to be transmitted together, possibly by Heinrich der Vogler. Unlike for

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4830-583: The Western Schism prevented the papacy from restoring its domination over Bologna, so it remained relatively independent for some decades as an oligarchic republic. In 1401, Giovanni I Bentivoglio took power in a coup with the support of Milan, but, having turned his back on them and allied with Florence, the Milanese marched on Bologna and had Giovanni killed the following year. In 1442, Hannibal I Bentivoglio , Giovanni's nephew, recovered Bologna from

4945-492: The alte maeren of the Nibelungenlied . Dietrich's repeated failed attempts to reclaim his homeland and his proclamations that he is armer Dieterich (poor Dietrich) may also derive from Dietrich's monologue in the Nibelungenlied upon losing his men. At the same time, the poem excludes any references to any tales found in the fantastical Dietrich poems. Heinzle suggests that these poems may not have seemed historical to

5060-660: The 7th Brigade of the Gruppi d'Azione Patriottica against Fascist and Nazi occupation forces, did not succeed in triggering a general uprising, despite being one of the largest resistance-led urban conflicts in the European theatre. Resistance forces entered Bologna on the morning of 21 April 1945. By this time, the Germans had already largely left the city in the face of the Allied advance, spearheaded by Polish forces advancing from

5175-543: The Milanese, only to be assassinated in a conspiracy plotted by Pope Eugene IV three years later. But the signoria of the Bentivoglio family was then firmly established, and the power passed to his cousin Sante Bentivoglio , who ruled until 1462, followed by Giovanni II . Giovanni II managed to resist the expansionist designs of Cesare Borgia for some time, but on 7 October 1506, Pope Julius II issued

5290-782: The Senate, which however had to swear fealty to the short-lived Cispadane Republic , created as a client state of the French First Republic at the congress of Reggio (27 December 1796 – 9 January 1797) but succeeded by the Cisalpine Republic on 9 July 1797, later by the Italian Republic and finally the Kingdom of Italy . After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 restored Bologna to

5405-521: The Via Emilia still runs straight through the city under the changing names of Strada Maggiore, Rizzoli, Ugo Bassi, and San Felice. Due to its Roman heritage, the central streets of Bologna, today largely pedestrianized, follow the grid pattern of the Roman settlement. The original Roman ramparts were supplanted by a high medieval system of fortifications, remains of which are still visible, and finally by

5520-572: The Visconti family, Bologna was recovered by the papacy in 1363 by Cardinal Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz after a long negotiation involving a huge indemnity paid to Bernabò Visconti , Giovanni's heir, who died in 1354. In 1376, Bologna again revolted against Papal rule and joined Florence in the unsuccessful War of the Eight Saints . However, extreme infighting inside the Holy See after

5635-541: The World Chronicle of Heinrich von München. The origins of the earliest manuscripts as well as the dialect of the poem indicate that it was composed in Austria, sometime before 1300. Given several allusions to the ways that the dukes of Austria are reducing the rights of their vassals, the poem is typically dated to after the beginning of the rule of the Habsburgs in Austria in 1282. Alternatively, this may simply provide

5750-440: The administrative powers of a province, are conceived for improving the performance of local administrations and to slash local spending by better co-ordinating the municipalities in providing basic services (including transport, school and social programs) and environment protection. In this policy framework, the mayor of Bologna is designated to exercise the functions of a metropolitan mayor ( sindaco metropolitano ), presiding over

5865-528: The advice of his vassals and Rüdiger, however, Dietrich forgives Witige, makes him governor of Ravenna , and gives him the horse Schemming as a gift. Dietrich then heads back to Etzel's residence at Etzelburg . Etzel and Helche suggest that Dietrich marry Helche's niece and lady-in-waiting Herrat, which Dietrich initially refuses. Hildebrand and Rüdiger eventually convince him to accept the offer. Now Eckehart arrives and tells Dietrich that Witege has betrayed him, handing Ravenna over to Ermenrich who has killed all

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5980-435: The approximate values of /ei/ , /iə/ , /ou/ , /øy/ , /eu/ , /yə/ , /uə/ , respectively. Middle High German pronouns of the first person refer to the speaker; those of the second person refer to an addressed person; and those of the third person refer to a person or thing of which one speaks. The pronouns of the third person may be used to replace nominal phrases . These have the same genders , numbers and cases as

6095-652: The area in the 7th to 6th centuries, and the Etruscan city of Felsina was established at the site of Bologna by the end of the 6th century. By the 4th century BCE, the site was occupied by the Gaulish Boii , and it became a Roman colony and municipium with the name of Bonōnia in 196 BCE. During the waning years of the Western Roman Empire Bologna was repeatedly sacked by the Goths . It

6210-399: The attack, while Licio Gelli —Grand Master of the underground Freemason lodge Propaganda Due (P2)—was convicted for hampering the investigation, together with three agents of the secret military intelligence service SISMI (including Francesco Pazienza and Pietro Musumeci ). Commemorations take place in Bologna on 2 August each year, culminating in a concert in the main square. In 1999,

6325-422: The author. Several of Dietrich's ancestors nevertheless fight against dragons—the only time this occurs in the historical Dietrich poems. Stylistically, the poem is notable for its portrayal of escalating violence: each battle that Dietrich fights is bloodier and deadlier than the last. The battle scenes are described in drastic terms, as the heroes literally wade in blood. Despite its drastic portrayal of warfare,

6440-739: The church is commonly called, to the city centre. Its porticos provide shelter for the traditional procession which every year since 1433 has carried a Byzantine icon of the Madonna with Child attributed to Luke the Evangelist down to the Bologna Cathedral during the Feast of the Ascension . In 2021, the porticoes were named as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . San Petronio Basilica , built between 1388 and 1479 (but still unfinished),

6555-423: The city as an industrial and railway hub connecting northern and central Italy made it a target for the Allied forces . On 24 July 1943, a massive aerial bombardment destroyed a significant part of the historic city centre and killed about 200 people. The main railway station and adjoining areas were severely hit, and 44% of the buildings in the centre were listed as having been destroyed or severely damaged. The city

6670-658: The city has been an important urban center for centuries, first under the Etruscans (who called it Felsina ), then under the Celts as Bona , later under the Romans ( Bonōnia ), then again in the Middle Ages , as a free municipality and later signoria , when it was among the largest European cities by population . Famous for its towers, churches and lengthy porticoes , Bologna has a well-preserved historical centre, thanks to

6785-487: The city mayor. The urban organization is governed by the Italian Constitution (art. 114). The boroughs have the power to advise the mayor with nonbinding opinions on a large spectrum of topics (environment, construction, public health, local markets) and exercise the functions delegated to them by the City Council; in addition, they are supplied with an autonomous founding to finance local activities. Bologna

6900-497: The city was administered under Anna Maria Cancellieri (as a state-appointed prefect ), Virginio Merola was elected as mayor, leading a left-wing coalition comprising the Democratic Party , Left Ecology Freedom and Italy of Values . In 2016 , Merola was confirmed mayor, defeating the conservative candidate, Lucia Borgonzoni . In 2021, after ten years of Merola's mayorship, one of his closest allies, Matteo Lepore ,

7015-529: The complex of St. Stephen. In the last quarter of the 8th century, Charlemagne , at the request of Pope Adrian I , invaded the Lombard Kingdom, causing its eventual demise. Occupied by Frankish troops in 774 on behalf of the papacy, Bologna remained under imperial authority and prospered as a frontier mark of the Carolingian empire . Bologna was the center of a revived study of law, including

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7130-519: The country among his children, Dietmar receiving Bern ( Verona ). Ermenrich is the father of Friderich, Dietmar of Dietrich and Diether (II), and Diether of the two Harlungen. Dietmar places his children into Ermenrich's care when he dies, however, Ermenrich proves treacherous. First he murders the two Harlungen and takes over their country, failing to capture their regent Eckehart, then invites Dietrich to visit him in order to murder him as well. Ermenrich's messenger warns Dietrich, however, and so Ermenrich

7245-580: The east during the Battle of Bologna which had been fought since 9 April. First to arrive in the centre was the 87th Infantry Regiment of the Friuli Combat Group under general Arturo Scattini , who entered the centre from Porta Maggiore to the south. Since the soldiers were dressed in British outfits, they were initially thought to be part of the allied forces; when the local inhabitants heard

7360-688: The example of Good King Arthur who with knightly spirit knew how to strive for praise. In his day He lived so well That he wore the crown of honour And his name still does so. The truth of this is known To his countrymen: They affirm that he still lives today: He won such fame that Although his body died His name lives on. Of sinful shame He will forever be free Who follows his example. Commentary: This text shows many typical features of Middle High German poetic language. Most Middle High German words survive into modern German in some form or other: this passage contains only one word ( jehen 'say' 14) which has since disappeared from

7475-670: The exception of Thuringian, the East Central German dialects are new dialects resulting from the Ostsiedlung and arise towards the end of the period. Middle High German texts are written in the Latin alphabet . There was no standardised spelling, but modern editions generally standardise according to a set of conventions established by Karl Lachmann in the 19th century. There are several important features in this standardised orthography which are not characteristics of

7590-468: The execution of his nephew Conradin in 1268, he was the last of the Hohenstaufen heirs. During the late 1200s, Bologna was affected by political instability when the most prominent families incessantly fought for the control of the town. The free commune was severely weakened by decades of infighting, allowing the pope to impose the rule of his envoy Cardinal Bertrand du Pouget in 1327. Du Pouget

7705-436: The first of whom was Giuseppe Dozza . At the end of the 1960s the city authorities, worried by massive gentrification and suburbanisation, asked Japanese starchitect Kenzo Tange to sketch a master plan for a new town north of Bologna; however, the project that came out in 1970 was evaluated as too ambitious and expensive. Eventually the city council, in spite of vetoing Tange's master plan, decided to keep his project for

7820-456: The following consonant spellings: The charts show the vowel and consonant systems of classical MHG. The spellings indicated are the standard spellings used in modern editions; there is much more variation in the manuscripts. Notes: MHG diphthongs are indicated by the spellings ⟨ei⟩ , ⟨ie⟩ , ⟨ou⟩ , ⟨öu⟩ and ⟨eu⟩ , ⟨üe⟩ , ⟨uo⟩ , and they have

7935-507: The following vowel spellings: Grammars (as opposed to textual editions) often distinguish between ⟨ë⟩ and ⟨e⟩ , the former indicating the mid-open /ɛ/ which derived from Germanic /e/ , the latter (often with a dot beneath it) indicating the mid-close /e/ which results from primary umlaut of short /a/ . No such orthographic distinction is made in MHG manuscripts. The standardised orthography of MHG editions uses

8050-533: The global centres of trade shifted towards the Atlantic. The traditional silk industry was in a critical state. The university was losing students, who once came from all over Europe, because of the illiberal attitudes of the Church towards culture (especially after the trial of Galileo ). Bologna continued to suffer a progressive deindustrialisation also in the 18th century. In the mid-1700s, Pope Benedict XIV ,

8165-552: The highest point in the province is the peak of Corno alle Scale (in Lizzano in Belvedere ) at 1,945 metres (6,381 ft) above sea level. Bologna has a mid-latitude , four-season temperate climate ( Köppen climate classification : Cfa ). Here are other classifications for the climate of this city: Annual precipitation is around 650–750 mm (25.5–29.5 in), with the majority generally falling in spring and autumn. Snow

8280-1113: The impetus for this set of social changes came largely from France, many of the new words were either loans from French or influenced by French terms. The French loans mainly cover the areas of chivalry, warfare and equipment, entertainment, and luxury goods: Two highly productive suffixes were borrowed from French in this period: The text is the opening of Hartmann von Aue 's Iwein ( c.  1200 ) Swer an rehte güete wendet sîn gemüete, dem volget sælde und êre. des gît gewisse lêre künec Artûs der guote, der mit rîters muote nâch lobe kunde strîten. er hât bî sînen zîten gelebet alsô schône daz er der êren krône dô truoc und noch sîn name treit. des habent die wârheit sîne lantliute: sî jehent er lebe noch hiute: er hât den lop erworben, ist im der lîp erstorben, sô lebet doch iemer sîn name. er ist lasterlîcher schame iemer vil gar erwert, der noch nâch sînem site vert. [1] [5] [10] [15] [20] Whoever to true goodness Turns his mind He will meet with fortune and honour. We are taught this by

8395-572: The inhabitants. Dietrich despairs, but Etzel is enraged and puts together a large army, which marches and defeats Ermenrich outside Bologna. Ermenrich flees into the city, but Dietrich's victory is Pyrrhic , as he has lost many good warriors. Dietrich is particularly saddened by the death of Wolfhart's brother Alphart . He is forced to return to Etzel. Dietrichs Flucht is transmitted together with tee Rabenschlacht in four complete manuscripts and alone in one fragmentary manuscript: Excerpts from Dietrichs Flucht are also transmitted in some manuscripts of

8510-495: The kingdom. They are native to Italy (called Lomparten or Rœmischlant ) and spend their lives acquiring brides and fighting dragons. This easy line of inheritance is broken first by Ortnit , who is killed by a dragon, but the succession is restored by Wolfdietrich , who marries Ortnit's widow and becomes king. Wolfdietrich has 56 children, but all die except for Hugdietrich. Hugdietrich's son Amelung , has three sons: Ermenrich, Dietmar, and Diether. When Hugdietrich dies, he divides

8625-401: The language. But many words have changed their meaning substantially. Muot (6) means 'state of mind' (cognates with mood ), where modern German Mut means courage. Êre (3) can be translated with 'honour', but is quite a different concept of honour from modern German Ehre ; the medieval term focuses on reputation and the respect accorded to status in society. The text

8740-468: The largest freight hub in Italy by size and traffic. Since 2018, it has been repurposed as the Bologna San Donato railway test circuit . The city is also served by a large network of public bus lines, including trolleybus lines , operated since 2012 by Trasporto Passeggeri Emilia-Romagna (TPER). As of May 2023, the first line of the new Bologna tramway is under construction. Overall,

8855-642: The largest permanent trade fairs in Europe. According to recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index (E-REGI) of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city and the 47th European city in terms of its economic growth rate; in 2022, Il Sole 24 Ore named Bologna the best city in Italy for overall quality of life. Bologna intends to become carbon neutral by 2040 and raise female employment rates, focussing on sustainable and equitable urban development. The city

8970-422: The late 16th to early 17th century reduced the population of the city from some 72,000 in the mid-16th century to about 47,000 by 1630. During the 1629–1631 Italian plague alone, Bologna lost up to a third of its population. In the mid-17th century, the population stabilized at roughly 60,000, slowly increasing to some 70,000 by the mid-18th century. The economy of Bologna started to show signs of severe decline as

9085-617: The latter also featuring Renaissance artworks such as the Bentivoglio Altarpiece by Lorenzo Costa . Finally, the Church of San Michele in Bosco is a 15th century religious complex located on a hill not far from the city's historical center. In terms of total GDP, the Metropolitan City of Bologna generated a value of about €35 billion ($ 40.6 billion) in 2017, equivalent to €34,251 ($ 40,165) per capita,

9200-584: The literary language reflected a supra-regional spoken language of the courts. An important development in this period was the Ostsiedlung , the eastward expansion of German settlement beyond the Elbe - Saale line which marked the limit of Old High German . This process started in the 11th century, and all the East Central German dialects are a result of this expansion. "Judeo-German",

9315-524: The long tradition of left-wing mayors was interrupted by the victory of independent centre-right candidate Giorgio Guazzaloca . However, Bologna reverted to form in 2004 when Sergio Cofferati , a former trade union leader, unseated Guazzaloca. The next centre-left mayor, Flavio Delbono , elected in June 2009, resigned in January 2010 after being involved in a corruption scandal. After a 15-month period in which

9430-482: The men Ermenrich had captured against the advice of his vassals. His pardon of Witege, while advised by his vassals, far exceeds their advice by appointing Witege governor of Ravenna in his absence. A certain Heinrich der Vogler names himself as author in an excursus against princely caprice in the middle of Dietrichs Flucht . He is not attested elsewhere and may have been a wandering poet or minstrel . His authorship

9545-726: The neuter singular, is used only with prepositions : von diu , ze diu , etc. In all the other genders and in the plural it is substituted with the dative: von dëm , von dër , von dën . Middle High German nouns were declined according to four cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative ), two numbers (singular and plural ) and three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), much like Modern High German, though there are several important differences. Verbs were conjugated according to three moods ( indicative , subjunctive (conjunctive) and imperative ), three persons, two numbers (singular and plural ) and two tenses ( present tense and preterite ) There

9660-425: The new Kingdom of Italy . In the last decades of the 19th century, Bologna once again thrived economically and socially. In 1863 Naples was linked to Rome by railway, and the following year Bologna to Florence. Bolognese moderate agrarian elites, that supported liberal insurgencies against the papacy and were admirers of the British political system and of free trade, envisioned a unified national state that would open

9775-485: The original manuscripts : A particular problem is that many manuscripts are of much later date than the works they contain; as a result, they bear the signs of later scribes having modified the spellings, with greater or lesser consistency, in accord with conventions of their time. In addition, there is considerable regional variation in the spellings that appear in the original texts, which modern editions largely conceal. The standardised orthography of MHG editions uses

9890-435: The original nominal phrase. The possessive pronouns mîn, dîn, sîn, ir, unser, iuwer are used like adjectives and hence take on adjective endings following the normal rules. The inflected forms of the article depend on the number, the case and the gender of the corresponding noun. The definite article has the same plural forms for all three genders. Definite article (strong) The instrumental case , only existing in

10005-596: The phonemic system of modern German, though not all dialects participated equally in these changes: The centres of culture in the ENHG period are no longer the courts but the towns. The dialect map of Germany by the end of the Middle High German period was much the same as that at the start of the 20th century, though the boundary with Low German was further south than it now is: Central German ( Mitteldeutsch ) Upper German ( Oberdeutsch ) With

10120-470: The poem does not seem to criticize violence or warfare; while leaving little room for the heroic warrior ethos in the traditional sense, it nonetheless portrays battle as a tool that a ruler must use. Thematically, the poem largely deals with the topic of loyalty, especially between vassal and lord, with Dietrich and Etzel representing fealty, while Ermenrich, his deceitful advisor Sibeche, and the treacherous Witige represent disloyalty. Ermenrich appears to bring

10235-455: The poem's frequent recourse to oral and fictionalized written sources for its narrative. The excursus appears to describe the situation in Austria at the time of the poem's composition. Early scholarship believed that both Dietrichs Fluch and the Rabenschlacht had a single author; however, the formal and stylistic differences between the two epics have caused this theory to be abandoned. The manuscript transmission nevertheless makes clear that

10350-523: The precursor of the Yiddish language, is attested in the 12th–13th centuries, as a variety of Middle High German written in Hebrew characters. The Middle High German period is generally dated from 1050 to 1350. An older view puts the boundary with (Early) New High German around 1500. There are several phonological criteria which separate MHG from the preceding Old High German period: Culturally,

10465-548: The prisoners and says he will only release Dietrich's men if the latter leaves the country, which, against the advice of his remaining warriors, Dietrich chooses to do. All the inhabitants of Bern leave the city, including women and children. Dietrich goes into exile with 50 warriors, making his way to the court of Etzel , King of the Huns , at Gran . There with the help of Rüdiger and Etzel's wife Helche, Dietrich receives Etzel's support to return to Italy. Dietrich's vassal Amelolt comes to Etzel's court at this time and announces he

10580-434: The province of Bologna, Emilia-Romagna, of whom 46.7% were male and 53.3% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 12.86 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 27.02 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners). The average age of Bologna resident is 51 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007,

10695-452: The rebellion by 26 April. By the mid-1840s, unemployment levels were very high and traditional industries continued to languish or disappear; Bologna became a city of economic disparity with the top 10 percent of the population living off rent, another 20 percent exercising professions or commerce and 70 percent working in low-paid, often insecure manual jobs. The Papal census of 1841 reported 10,000 permanent beggars and another 30,000 (out of

10810-473: The restoration of older ones. At this time, Bologna had ninety-six convents, more than any other Italian city. Painters working in Bologna during this period established the Bolognese School which includes Annibale Carracci , Domenichino , Guercino , and others of European fame. It was only towards the end of the 16th century that severe signs of decline began to manifest. A series of plagues in

10925-401: The same episode (Dietrich's failed return from exile) by the poet in order to expand his material. The scholar Norbert Voorwinden has suggested that the entire poem is the invention of an author inspired by the Italian campaigns of Emperor Frederick II . Middle High German While there is no standard MHG, the prestige of the Hohenstaufen court gave rise in the late 12th century to

11040-527: The same time, the poem seeks to create something like a complete tale of the heroic world, including figures from Wolfdietrich , Ortnit , and the Nibelungenlied in Dietrich's genealogy. Moreover, Siegfried , Gunther, and Gernot all appear as figures in the poem. The opening lines of the poem also take their inspiration from the Nibelungenlied , but the opening of Dietrichs Flucht instead proclaims that it will tell newe maeren (new tales) rather than

11155-583: The scholar Irnerius ( c.  1050 – after 1125) and his famous students, the Four Doctors of Bologna . After the death of Matilda of Tuscany in 1115, Bologna obtained substantial concessions from Emperor Henry V . However, when Frederick Barbarossa subsequently attempted to strike down the deal, Bologna joined the Lombard League , which then defeated the imperial armies at the Battle of Legnano and established an effective autonomy at

11270-503: The second half of the 18th century. In 1790, the city had 72,000 inhabitants, ranking as the second largest in the Papal States; however, this figure had remained unchanged for decades. During this period, Papal economic policies included heavy customs duties and concessions of monopolies to single manufacturers. Napoleon entered Bologna on 19 June 1796. Napoleon briefly reinstated the ancient mode of government, giving power to

11385-578: The soldiers were speaking Italian, they poured out onto the streets to celebrate. In the post-war years, Bologna became a thriving industrial centre as well as a political stronghold of the Italian Communist Party . Between 1945 and 1999, the city was helmed by an uninterrupted succession of mayors from the PCI and its successors, the Democratic Party of the Left and Democrats of the Left ,

11500-411: The supposedly older Rabenschlacht, the connection between Dietrichs Flucht and the oral tradition is disputed. Some debate exists over whether the oral tradition merely contained Dietrich's exile prior to the events of the Rabenschlacht , or whether or not tales of at least one failed attempt to return prior to the events of that poem existed. Dietrichs Flucht is sometimes seen as a stringing together of

11615-670: The third highest figure among Italian provinces (after Milan and Bolzano/Bozen ). The economy of Bologna is characterized by a flourishing industrial sector, traditionally centered on the transformation of agricultural and zootechnical products ( Eridania , Granarolo , Segafredo Zanetti , Conserve Italia  [ it ] ), machinery ( Coesia  [ it ] , IMA , Sacmi ), construction equipment ( Maccaferri ); energy ( Hera Group ), automotive ( Ducati , Lamborghini ), footwear, textile, engineering, chemical, printing and publishing ( Cappelli , il Mulino , Monrif Group  [ it ] , Zanichelli ). In particular, Bologna

11730-444: The town. The cityscape is further enriched by its elegant and extensive porticoes , for which the city is famous. In total, there are some 38 kilometres (24 miles) of porticoes in the city's historical centre (over 45 km (28 mi) in the city proper), which make it possible to walk for long distances sheltered from the elements. The Portico di San Luca is possibly the world's longest. It connects Porta Saragozza (one of

11845-428: The tradition on the site of an ancient temple dedicated to Egyptian goddess Isis . The Basilica of Saint Dominic is an example of Romanic architecture from the 13th century, enriched by the monumental tombs of great Bolognese glossators Rolandino de'Passeggeri and Egidio Foscherari. Basilicas of St Francis , Santa Maria dei Servi and San Giacomo Maggiore are other magnificent examples of 14th century architecture,

11960-647: The twelve gates of the ancient walls built in the Middle Ages, which circled a 7.5 km (4.7 mi) part of the city) with the Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca , a church begun in 1723 on the site of an 11th century edifice which had already been enlarged in the 14th century, prominently located on a hill (289 metres (948 feet)) overlooking the town, which is one of Bologna's main landmarks. The winding 666 vault arcades, almost four kilometres (3,796 m or 12,454 ft) long, effectively links San Luca , as

12075-520: The two periods are distinguished by the transition from a predominantly clerical written culture, in which the dominant language was Latin , to one centred on the courts of the great nobles, with German gradually expanding its range of use. The rise of the Hohenstaufen dynasty in Swabia makes the South West the dominant region in both political and cultural terms. Demographically, the MHG period

12190-407: The vowels in brackets were dropped in rapid speech. The preterite conjugation went as follows: The present tense conjugation went as follows: The vowels in brackets were dropped in rapid speech. The preterite conjugation went as follows: In the Middle High German period, the rise of a courtly culture and the changing nature of knighthood was reflected in changes to the vocabulary. Since

12305-706: The western edge of the Po Plain on the border with Ferrara to the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines. The centre of the town is 54 metres (177 ft) above sea level (while elevation within the municipality ranges from 29 metres (95 ft) in the suburb of Corticella to 300 metres (980 ft) in Sabbiuno and the Colle della Guardia). The province of Bologna stretches from the Po Plain into the Apennines;

12420-427: Was a present participle, a past participle and a verbal noun that somewhat resembles the Latin gerund , but that only existed in the genitive and dative cases. An important distinction is made between strong verbs (that exhibited ablaut ) and weak verbs (that didn't). Furthermore, there were also some irregular verbs. The present tense conjugation went as follows: The bold vowels demonstrate umlaut ;

12535-503: Was able to recapture Bern. Dietrich sets out immediately with the Hunnish army and his remaining warriors, followed by a large army commanded by Rüdiger. They defeat Ermenrich once again in battle at Milan, and Ermenrich fleas to Ravenna , where Dietrich besieges him. Ermenrich is able to slip out of the city to Bologna , however. Ermenrich ransoms his captured men, except for Witige, whom Dietrich refuses to release due to his treachery. On

12650-457: Was defeated and captured on 26 May 1249 at the Battle of Fossalta . Although the emperor demanded his release, Enzo was thenceforth kept a knightly prisoner in Bologna, in a palace that came to be named Palazzo Re Enzo after him. Every attempt to escape or to rescue him failed, and he died after more than 22 years in captivity. After the death of his half-brothers Conrad IV in 1254, Frederick of Antioch in 1256 and Manfred in 1266, as well as

12765-680: Was elected mayor with 61.9% of votes, becoming the most voted mayor of Bologna since the introduction of the direct elections in 1995. Bologna is situated on the edge of the Po Plain at the foot of the Apennine Mountains , at the meeting of the Reno and Savena river valleys. As Bologna's two main watercourses flow directly to the sea, the town lies outside of the drainage basin of the River Po . The province of Bologna stretches from

12880-409: Was eventually ousted by a popular rebellion and Bologna became a signoria under Taddeo Pepoli in 1334. By the arrival of the Black Death in 1348, Bologna had 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, reduced to just 20,000 to 25,000 after the plague. In 1350, Bologna was conquered by archbishop Giovanni Visconti , the new lord of Milan. But following a rebellion by the town's governor, a renegade member of

12995-472: Was heavily bombed again on 25 September. The raids, which this time were not confined to the city centre, left 2,481 people dead and 2,000 injured. By the end of the war, 43% of all buildings in Bologna had been destroyed or damaged. After the armistice of 1943 , the city became a key centre of the Italian resistance movement . On 7 November 1944, a pitched battle around Porta Lame , waged by partisans of

13110-697: Was not evident in the 1500s, which were marked by some major developments in Bologna. In 1530, Emperor Charles V was crowned in Bologna, the last of the Holy Roman Emperors to be crowned by the pope. In 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio , the main building of the university. The period of Papal rule saw also the construction of many churches and other religious establishments, and

13225-477: Was undertaken, Bologna was one of the few remaining large walled cities in Europe; to this day and despite having suffered considerable bombing damage in 1944, Bologna's 142 hectares (350 acres) historic centre is Europe's second largest, containing an immense wealth of important medieval, renaissance, and baroque artistic monuments. Bologna developed along the Via Emilia as an Etruscan and later Roman colony;

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