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Diploma Ottonianum

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The Diploma Ottonianum (also called the Pactum Ottonianum , Privilegium Ottonianum or simply Ottonianum ) was an 962 agreement between Pope John XII and Otto I, King of Germany and Italy . It confirmed the earlier Donation of Pepin , granting control of the Papal States to the Popes, regularizing Papal elections, and clarifying the relationship between the Popes and the Holy Roman Emperors .

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51-574: The forces of John XII, not yet 26 years of age, had been defeated in the war against Pandolfo Testa di Ferro of Capua , and at the same time many strongholds in the Papal States were occupied by Berengar of Ivrea , effectively if not completely legally King of Italy, and his son Adalbert. In this dilemma the Pope had recourse to Otto who reappeared in Italy at the head of a powerful army, as he had in

102-694: A high of 135 in February 2001 and again in October 2003. Three of Pope Benedict XVI 's five consistories resulted in more than 120 cardinal electors, the high being 125 in 2012. Pope Francis has exceeded the limit in all nine of his consistories , reaching as high as 137 in September 2023. Other changes to the college in the 20th century affected specific orders. The 1917 Code of Canon Law decreed that from then on only those who were priests or bishops could be chosen as cardinals, thus officially closing

153-623: A large bloc of territories that stretched as far north as Tuscany and as far south as the Gulf of Taranto . In 978, Pandulf confirmed that the Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo sul Gargano belonged the archbishopric of Benevento. This act was witnessed by two Byzantine officials. Pandulf's lands were partitioned among his sons, who fought endlessly over the inheritance. His son Landulf IV received Capua and Benevento and Pandulf II received Salerno. Otto II came down to Rome in 981, however, and Spoleto

204-571: A layman, as pope. The authenticity of the contents of this much-discussed document seems certain, even though, like other 10th century documents, the extant document seems to be only a duplicate of the original (Sickel, Das Privilegium Ottos I, für die römische Kirche , Innsbruck, 1883). The Diploma Ottonianum was reconfirmed in the Diploma Heinricianum co-signed at Easter, 1020, by Pope Benedict VIII (1012–1024) and Emperor Henry II (1002–1024), meeting at Bamberg on

255-531: A limit of 26 and complained about the size and quality of the college to his legates to the Council of Trent , and some French attendees advocated a limit of 24, that council did not prescribe a limit to the size of the college. By the papacy of Sixtus V (1585–1590), the number was set at seventy on 3 December 1586, divided among fourteen cardinal-deacons, fifty cardinal-priests, and six cardinal-bishops. Popes respected that limit until Pope John XXIII increased

306-602: A relatively rare phenomenon. Between 1791 and 2018, only one was removed from the college – Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne in 1791 – and five resigned: Tommaso Antici in 1798, Marino Carafa di Belevedere in 1807, Carlo Odescalchi in 1838, Louis Billot in 1927, and Theodore Edgar McCarrick in 2018. For the Middle Ages , sources concerning the size of the College of Cardinals are most frequently those relating to papal elections and conclaves . A function of

357-509: A treaty at Terracina . Gisulf and Pandulf had a strong alliance after that. In 961, Landulf II died and Pandulf and his brother became sole princes, though the elder Pandulf was by far the more domineering. The Chronicum Salernitanum affirms the co-regency, however, and the principle of the indivisibility of the united Capua-Benevento as declared by Atenulf I in 900, when it says Beneventanorum principatum eius filii Pandolfum et Landulfum bifarie regebant . . . communi indivisoque iure , that

408-663: Is "the Beneventan principality was reigned in jointly by Pandulf and Landulf under indivisible common jurisdiction." However, this system eventually collapsed and Pandulf ruled in Capua while Landulf ruled in Benevento. The Chronicum says Pandulf tenuit principatum una cum suo germanus annos octo , that is, "held the principality solely with his brother for eight years." Late in 965, a rebellion in Rome overthrew Pope John XIII , who

459-498: Is created a cardinal would no longer be assigned a titular church in Rome, but maintain his see and join the order of cardinal bishops, the rank previously reserved to the six cardinals assigned to the suburbicarian dioceses . He also required that the suburbicarian bishops elect one of themselves as the Dean and Vice-Dean of the college, instead of allowing them to select any member of the college. In June 2018, Pope Francis eased

510-593: The Battle of Stilo on 13 July 982. College of Cardinals God Schools Relations with: The College of Cardinals , more formally called the Sacred College of Cardinals , is the body of all cardinals of the Catholic Church . As of 25 November 2024, there are 232 cardinals , of whom 120 are eligible to vote in a conclave to elect a new pope . Cardinals are appointed by

561-763: The Liber Pontificalis is in the biography of Pope Stephen III when in the Roman Synod of 769, it was decided that the Roman pontiff should be elected from among the deacons and cardinal priests." In 845 the Council of Meaux–Paris "required Bishops to establish Cardinal titles or parishes in their towns and outlining districts". At the same time, the popes began referring to the cardinal priests of Rome to serve as legates and delegates within Rome at ceremonies, synods, councils, etc., as well as abroad on diplomatic missions and councils. Those who were assigned to

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612-516: The Western Schism by pontiffs now considered to be antipopes , and subject to some other sources of uncertainty), nearly half of whom were created after 1655. The word cardinal is derived from the Latin cardō , meaning "hinge". The office of cardinal as it is known today slowly evolved during the first millennium from the clergy of Rome. "The first time that the term cardinal appears in

663-582: The Byzantines and jailed in Constantinople . In 970, during his absence, the Byzantines besieged Capua and Marinus II of Naples ravaged the countryside. He was released later in the deal in which the Byzantine emperor John Tzimisces gave Theophanu in marriage to Otto's son Otto II . During his absence, the great principality had been administered by Landulf I, Archbishop of Benevento , and

714-592: The Church's property and rights which found expression there would surely have been advanced by the Curia in case of emergency on the ground of earlier confirmations without this gesture of Henry's...' (Mikoletzky, Heinrich II. und die Kirche , 1946, pp. 68–69, quoted by Miranda). Starting from the reign of Pope Leo IX , the Holy See started to gradually free itself from imperial interference. The Emperor's privileges over

765-560: The Pontiff's elections were formally rescinded by Pope Nicholas II through the papal bull In nomine Domini in 1059, which stated that the authority to elect a Pope exclusively belonged to a college of cardinals , meeting into a conclave . Pandulf Ironhead Pandulf I Ironhead ( Italian : Pandolfo Testadiferro ) (born c. 925 – died March 981) was the Prince of Benevento and Capua from 943 (or 944) until his death. He

816-541: The age limit, which was set for the first time in 1970 by Pope Paul VI at 80. The college has no ruling power except during the sede vacante (papal vacancy) period, and even then its powers are extremely limited by the terms of the current law, which is laid down in the Apostolic constitution Universi Dominici gregis (1996) and the Fundamental Law of Vatican City State . Historically, cardinals were

867-495: The age of 80 before the day the see becomes vacant are not eligible to vote. Canon law sets the general qualifications for a man to be appointed bishop quite broadly, requiring someone of faith and good reputation, at least thirty-five years old and with a certain level of education and five years' experience as a priest. The cardinals have nevertheless consistently elected the Bishop of Rome from among their own membership since

918-595: The beginning of the 12th century, the College of Cardinals started to meet as such, when the cardinal bishops, cardinal priests and cardinal deacons ceased acting as separate groups. In the Catholic church, the Dean of the College of Cardinals and the Cardinal Vice-Dean are the president and vice-president of the college. Both are elected by and from the cardinal bishops (cardinals of the highest order, including those holding suburbicarian dioceses ), but

969-488: The clergy serving parishes of the city of Rome under its bishop , the pope. The college acquired particular importance following the crowning of Henry IV as King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor at the age of six, after the unexpected death of Henry III in 1056. Until then, the Holy See was often bitterly fought for among Rome's aristocratic families and external secular authorities had significant influence over who

1020-486: The college is to advise the pope about church matters when he summons them to an ordinary consistory , a term derived from the Roman Emperor 's crown council. It also attends various functions as a matter of protocol, for example, during the canonization process. It also convenes on the death or resignation of a pope as a papal conclave to elect a successor, but is then restricted to eligible Cardinals under

1071-451: The college to twenty members. In the ensuing century, increasing the size of the college became a method for the pope to raise funds for construction or war, cultivate European alliances, and dilute the strength of the college as a spiritual and political counterweight to papal supremacy. The conclave capitulation of the 1352 papal conclave limited the size of the college to twenty, and decreed that no new cardinals could be created until

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1122-733: The election requires papal confirmation. Except for presiding and delegating administrative tasks, they have no authority over the cardinals, acting as primus inter pares (first among equals). The Secretary of Roman Curia , the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church , the Vicar General of Rome , and the Patriarchs of Venice and Lisbon , are usually cardinals, with few, usually temporary, exceptions. The Fundamental Law of Vatican City State requires that appointees to

1173-640: The emperor marched out of Rome with his army to resume the war against Berengar and Adalbert. The Pope now quickly changed his mind, while Otto on his part pressed his imperial authority to excessive limits, and the brief alliance dissolved in wrangling. John sent envoys to the Magyars and the Byzantine Empire to form a league against Otto, who returned to Rome in November 963, and convened a synod of bishops that deposed John and crowned Pope Leo VIII ,

1224-416: The historical period in which some cardinals could be clergy who had only received first tonsure and minor order , or the major orders of deacon and subdeacon without a further ordination to the priesthood. In 1961 Pope John XXIII reserved to the pope the right to assign any member of college to one of the suburbicarian sees and the rank of cardinal bishop. Previously only the senior cardinal priest and

1275-403: The latter roles were given the titles of Legatus a latere (Cardinal Legate) and Missus Specialis (Special Missions). During the pontificate of Stephen V (816–17), the three classes of the college that are present today began to form. Stephen decreed that all cardinal-bishops were bound to sing Mass on rotation at the high altar at St. Peter's Basilica , one per Sunday. The first class to form

1326-408: The lives of cardinals, did not consider the size of the college. In 1517 Pope Leo X added another thirty-one cardinals, bringing the total to sixty-five so that he could have a supportive majority in the College of Cardinals. Paul IV brought the total to seventy. His immediate successor, Pope Pius IV (1559–1565), raised the limit to seventy-six. Although Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor sought

1377-408: The number of cardinal electors to its full complement of 120. All of Paul's successors have at times exceeded the 120 maximum (except for Pope John Paul I , who did not hold any consistory during his very short pontificate). Pope John Paul II reiterated the 120 maximum in 1996, yet his appointments to the college resulted in more than 120 cardinal electors on 4 of his nine consistories , reaching

1428-561: The number of cardinals several times to 88 in January 1961 and Pope Paul VI continued this expansion, reaching 134 at his third consistory in April 1969. The total size of the college lost its significance when Paul VI decided to allow only cardinals under the age of 80 to vote in a conclave from 1971 onward. Then, in 1975, Paul set the maximum number of those under 80, the cardinal electors, at 120. His next consistory in 1976 brought

1479-469: The occasion of a papal journey. Hanns Leo Mikoletzky calls it a "frequently overrated document", and says that Henry would have not been overly concerned with the problem of its many binding stipulations. "For the content of these privileges had taken on a rigid form, whose confirmation was perhaps a question of prestige for the papacy but no longer an exalted obligation for the German king. The recognition of

1530-693: The pallium on the Archbishop of Salzburg and Archbishop of Trier , and confirmed the appointment of Rather as Bishop of Verona . The next day, the emperor issued a decree, the famous Diploma Ottonianum , in which he confirmed the Roman Church in its possessions, particularly those granted by the Donation of Pepin and by Charlemagne, and provided at the same time that in the future, the Popes should be elected in canonical form, though their consecration

1581-471: The papacy, a requirement that has since lapsed. In 1130, under Innocent II , all the classes were permitted to take part in papal elections; up to this point, only cardinal-bishops had this role. From the 13th to 15th centuries, the size of the College of Cardinals never exceeded thirty, although there were more than thirty parishes and diaconal districts which could potentially have a titular holder; Pope John XXII (1316–1334) formalized this norm by limiting

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1632-543: The pope back with a Capuan escort. In 967, the Emperor Otto I came down to Rome and granted Pandulf the vacant Duchy of Spoleto and Camerino and charged him with prosecuting the war against the Byzantine Empire . Pandulf and Landulf introduced Prince Gisulf of Salerno to the emperor at this time. They then took part in the imperial campaign of 968, but Landulf retired in illness and died at Benevento leaving two sons: Pandulf and Landulf . Even though Pandulf Ironhead

1683-511: The pope for life but eligibility to vote ceases at the age of 80. Since the emergence of the College of Cardinals in the Early Middle Ages , the size of the body has historically been limited by popes , ecumenical councils ratified by the pope, and even the college itself. The total number of cardinals from 1099 to 1986 has been about 2,900 (excluding possible undocumented 12th-century cardinals and pseudocardinals appointed during

1734-454: The previous decade, now ostensibly as a papal champion . Berengar, however, did not risk an encounter, but retired to his fortified castles. Thus, without conclusive military encounters, on January 31, 962, Otto reached Rome. He took an oath to recognize John as Pope and ruler of Rome; to issue no decrees without the Pope's consent; and, in case he should deliver the command in Italy to anyone else, to exact from such person an oath to defend to

1785-588: The rules governing the rank of cardinal bishop to open that rank to anyone of the pope's choosing, granting such cardinals the same privileges as those assigned suburbicarian sees. Pope Francis adjusted the rules regarding the Dean in December 2019, so they now serve for a term of five years which can be renewed by the Pope. No change was made regarding the Vice-Dean. The resignation or removal of members has been

1836-425: The senior cardinal deacon had the privilege of requesting such an appointment ( jus optionis ) when a vacancy occurred. In 1962 he established that all cardinals should be bishops, ending the identification of the order of cardinal deacon with cardinals who were not bishops. He consecrated the twelve non-bishop members of the college himself. In February 1965, Pope Paul VI decided that an Eastern Rite Patriarch who

1887-624: The size of the college had dropped to 16; however, Pope Innocent VI declared the capitulation invalid the following year. By the end of the 14th century, the practice of having solely Italian cardinals had ceased. Between the 14th and 17th centuries, there was much struggle for the college between the cardinals and the reigning popes. Although some popes increased the number of cardinals in order to guarantee allies, Pope Benedict XII often refused to do so and created six new cardinals on only one occasion, in 1338. The Council of Basel (1431–1437, later transferred to Ferrara and then Florence) limited

1938-458: The size of the college to 24, as did the capitulation of the 1464 papal conclave . The capitulations of the 1484 ( Pope Innocent VIII ) and 1513 ( Pope Leo X ) conclaves contained the same restriction. The capitulation of the 1492 papal conclave also contained a restriction on the creation of new cardinals. The Fifth Council of the Lateran (1512–1517), despite its detailed regulation of

1989-486: The state's legislative body , the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State , be cardinals. Under the terms of Pope Paul VI 's 1970 motu proprio Ingravescentem aetatem , cardinals who reached the age of 80 before a conclave opened had no vote in papal elections. Pope John Paul II 's Universi Dominici gregis of 22 February 1996 modified that rule slightly, so that cardinals who have reached

2040-577: The utmost of his ability the Pope and the Patrimony of Peter. The Pope for his part swore to keep faith with Otto and to conclude no alliance with Berengar and Adalbert. Subsequently, on February 2 Otto was solemnly crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope. Ten days later at a Roman synod, John, at Otto's desire, founded the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Merseburg , bestowed

2091-626: The young Landulf, with help from his mother, Pandulf's wife, Aloara . Benevento had been made an archdiocese in 969. In the 960s, Byzantium had been trying to supplant German influence in Salerno and to this end may have engineered the rebellion which temporarily unseated John XIII, a pro-German pope. Prince Gisulf of Salerno, however, was allied both to the Greeks and to his Lombard neighbour Pandulf, whom he had rescued some years before and who was, in fact, staunchly pro-German and anti-Greek. When Gisulf

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2142-413: Was an ancestor of Sancho I . His mother was Yvantia. He co-reigned with his father, Landulf II , from 943, when his grandfather Landulf I died, and with his brother Landulf III from 959. Sometime about 955, Pope John XII led an army of Romans , Tuscans , and Spoletans against Landulf II and Pandulf, but Gisulf I of Salerno came to their rescue and no battle was given. The pope and Gisulf made

2193-464: Was arrested and carted off to imprisonment in Campania . Whether he escaped or was released, he arrived in Capua not much later, seeking the protection of Pandulf, who gladly gave it. In return, and for the favour of the citizens, he erected Capua into an archdiocese and gave Pandulf's brother John the pallium. After ten months of exile, another revolt in Rome gave opportunity for return and Pandulf sent

2244-530: Was deposed and removed from office by Pandulf's cousin, Landulf of Conza , in 973, Pandulf restored Gisulf as his vassal. When Gisulf died childless in 977 or 978, Pandulf succeeded in Salerno as per their prior agreement. The policy of the Greeks was a thorough failure and Pandulf (and his Germans) was the winner in southern Italy. He had united all three of the Lombard principalities – Benevento, Capua, and Salerno – and had even gained Spoleto and Camerino. He ruled

2295-473: Was given to Thrasimund IV , Duke of Camerino. Then, Pandulf's nephew Pandulf was given Benevento in a partition of Landulf's territory, in which Landulf kept Capua. Finally, Manso I of Amalfi dispossessed the younger Pandulf of Salerno and was confirmed by the Emperor. Pandulf had several other sons: Landenulf , who succeeded Landulf IV in Capua; Laidulf , who succeeded Landenulf; and Atenulf, who died at

2346-664: Was made Duke of Spoleto and Camerino in 967 and succeeded as Prince of Salerno in 977 or 978. He was an important nobleman in the fight with the Byzantines and Saracens for control of the Mezzogiorno in the centuries after the collapse of Lombard and Carolingian authority on the Italian Peninsula . He established himself over almost the whole of the southern half of Italia before his death in March 981. He

2397-559: Was part of a larger power struggle, which became known as the Investiture Controversy , as the Church and the Emperor each attempted to gain more control over the appointment of bishops, and in doing so wield more influence in the lands and governments they were appointed to. Reserving to the cardinals the election of the pope represented a significant shift in the balance of power in the Early Medieval world. From

2448-528: Was that of the cardinal-deacons, direct theological descendants of the original seven ordained in Acts 6, followed by the cardinal-priests, and finally, the cardinal-bishops. The college played an integral part in various reforms within the Church as well, as early as the pontificate of Pope Leo IX (1050). In the 12th century, the Third Lateran Council declared that only Cardinals could assume

2499-553: Was to be appointed pope, and the Holy Roman Emperor in particular had the special power to appoint him. This was significant as the aims and views of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Church did not always coincide. Churchmen involved in what has become known as the Gregorian Reform took advantage of the new king's lack of power and in 1059 reserved the election of the pope to the clergy of the Church in Rome. This

2550-475: Was to take place only after the necessary pledges had been given to the emperor or his ambassadors. In essence, the Emperor was to be the guarantor of Papal independence, but to retain the right to confirm Papal elections. Historians debate, in terms of power and prestige, whether the Diploma Ottonianum was a prestigious advantage for the papacy or a political triumph for the emperor. On 14 February

2601-408: Was with the emperor on the border of Calabria when news of his brother's death reached him, he quickly returned to Benevento and associated with him his own eldest son Landulf , who was crowned prince in the church of Sancta Sophia, before rejoining the imperial campaign. In that year, Otto left the siege of Bari in the charge of Pandulf, but the Lombard was captured in the Battle of Bovino (969) by

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