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73-717: Dipterocarpaceae is a family of flowering plants with 22 genera and about 695 known species of mainly lowland tropical forest trees . Their distribution is pantropical , from northern South America to Africa , the Seychelles , India , Indochina , Indonesia , Malaysia and Philippines . The greatest diversity of Dipterocarpaceae occurs in Borneo . The largest genera are Shorea (196 species), Hopea (104 species), Dipterocarpus (70 species), and Vatica (65 species). Many are large forest-emergent species, typically reaching heights of 40–70 m, some even over 80 m (in

146-542: A broader aridification trend. The EMCI ended 18 million years ago, giving way to the Middle Miocene Warm Interval (MMWI), the warmest part of which was the MMCO that began 16 million years ago. As the world transitioned into the MMCO, carbon dioxide concentrations varied between 300 and 500 ppm. Global annual mean surface temperature during the MMCO was about 18.4 °C. MMCO warmth was driven by

219-529: A clade of large terrestrial predatory crocodyliformes distantly related to modern crocodilians, from which they likely diverged over 180 million years ago, are known from the Miocene of South America. The last Desmostylians thrived during this period before becoming the only extinct marine mammal order. The pinnipeds , which appeared near the end of the Oligocene, became more aquatic. A prominent genus

292-457: A consensus over time. The naming of families is codified by various international bodies using the following suffixes: The taxonomic term familia was first used by French botanist Pierre Magnol in his Prodromus historiae generalis plantarum, in quo familiae plantarum per tabulas disponuntur (1689) where he called the seventy-six groups of plants he recognised in his tables families ( familiae ). The concept of rank at that time

365-570: A cooler, drier climate. C 4 grasses, which are able to assimilate carbon dioxide and water more efficiently than C 3 grasses, expanded to become ecologically significant near the end of the Miocene between 6 and 7 million years ago, although they did not expand northward during the Late Miocene. The expansion of grasslands and radiations among terrestrial herbivores correlates to fluctuations in CO 2 . One study, however, has attributed

438-446: A family, yet in the realm of plants, these classifications often rely on both the vegetative and reproductive characteristics of plant species. Taxonomists frequently hold varying perspectives on these descriptions, leading to a lack of widespread consensus within the scientific community for extended periods. The continual publication of new data and diverse opinions plays a crucial role in facilitating adjustments and ultimately reaching

511-486: A good analogue for future warmer climates caused by anthropogenic global warming , with this being especially true of the global climate during the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum (MMCO), because the last time carbon dioxide levels were comparable to projected future atmospheric carbon dioxide levels resulting from anthropogenic climate change was during the MMCO. The Ross Sea margin of

584-435: A good model for a "living fossil". Eucalyptus fossil leaves occur in the Miocene of New Zealand , where the genus is not native today, but have been introduced from Australia . Both marine and continental fauna were fairly modern, although marine mammals were less numerous. Only in isolated South America and Australia did widely divergent fauna exist. In Eurasia, genus richness shifted southward to lower latitudes from

657-598: A major expansion of Antarctic glaciers. This severed the connection between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and formed the present land connection between Afro-Arabia and Eurasia. The subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea (known as the Messinian salinity crisis ) near

730-480: A major expansion of grass-grazer ecosystems . Herds of large, swift grazers were hunted by predators across broad sweeps of open grasslands , displacing desert, woodland, and browsers . The higher organic content and water retention of the deeper and richer grassland soils , with long-term burial of carbon in sediments, produced a carbon and water vapor sink. This, combined with higher surface albedo and lower evapotranspiration of grassland, contributed to

803-602: A significant drop in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. Both continental and oceanic thermal gradients in mid-latitudes during the Early Miocene were very similar to those in the present. Global cooling caused the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) to begin to take on its modern form during the Early Miocene. From 22.1 to 19.7 Ma, the Xining Basin experienced relative warmth and humidity amidst

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876-700: A significant local decline along the northeastern coast of Australia during the Tortonian, most likely due to warming seawater. Cetaceans attained their greatest diversity during the Miocene, with over 20 recognized genera of baleen whales in comparison to only six living genera. This diversification correlates with emergence of gigantic macro-predators such as megatoothed sharks and raptorial sperm whales . Prominent examples are O. megalodon and L. melvillei . Other notable large sharks were O. chubutensis , Isurus hastalis , and Hemipristis serra . Crocodilians also showed signs of diversification during

949-401: A source for plywood . The family name comes from the type genus Dipterocarpus which is derived from Greek words δι di "two", πτερόν pteron "wing", and καρπός karpós "fruit"; the words combined refer to the two-winged fruit available from trees of that genus, other related genera with winged fruits of more than two are included in the family as well. The dipterocarp family

1022-651: A zone of low rainfall in the Late Miocene. The Indian Plate continued to collide with the Eurasian Plate , creating new mountain ranges and uplifting the Tibetan Plateau , resulting in the rain shadowing and aridification of the Asian interior. The Tian Shan experienced significant uplift in the Late Miocene, blocking westerlies from coming into the Tarim Basin and drying it as a result. At

1095-437: Is generally divided into two subfamilies: Anisoptera Cotylelobium Dipterocarpus Stemonoporus Upuna Vateria Vateriopsis Vatica Anthoshorea Doona Dryobalanops Hopea Neobalanocarpus Neohopea Parashorea Pentacme Richetia Rubroshorea Shorea Marquesia Monotes Pseudomonotes A recent genetic study found that

1168-668: Is now found to be more closely related the Cistaceae and is placed there in the APG IV (2016) . Some 52-million-year-old amber found in the Gujarat province, India , containing a large amount of fossilized arthropods , was identified as sap from the family Dipterocarpaceae. Dipterocarpaceae species can be either evergreen or deciduous. Species occurring in Thailand grow from sea level to about 1300 m elevation. Environments in which

1241-465: The Genera Plantarum of George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker this word ordo was used for what now is given the rank of family. Families serve as valuable units for evolutionary, paleontological, and genetic studies due to their relatively greater stability compared to lower taxonomic levels like genera and species. Miocene As Earth went from the Oligocene through

1314-559: The Middle Miocene Climate Transition (MMCT). Abrupt increases in opal deposition indicate this cooling was driven by enhanced drawdown of carbon dioxide via silicate weathering. The MMCT caused a sea surface temperature (SST) drop of approximately 6 °C in the North Atlantic. The drop in benthic foraminiferal δ O values was most noticeable in the waters around Antarctica, suggesting cooling

1387-560: The carbon cycle occurred approximately 6 Ma, causing continental carbon reservoirs to no longer expand during cold spells, as they had done during cold periods in the Oligocene and most of the Miocene. At the end of the Miocene, global temperatures rose again as the amplitude of Earth's obliquity increased, which caused increased aridity in Central Asia. Around 5.5 Ma, the EAWM underwent a period of rapid intensification. Life during

1460-698: The genera Dryobalanops , Hopea and Shorea ), with the tallest known living specimen ( Shorea faguetiana ) 93.0 m tall. Name Menara, or tower in Malaysian, this specimen is a yellow meranti tree. It grows in Danum Valley in Sabah. The species of this family are of major importance in the timber trade . Some species are now endangered as a result of overcutting, extensive illegal logging , and habitat conversion. They provide valuable woods , aromatic essential oils , balsam, and resins , and are

1533-593: The geology of the Himalaya occurred during that epoch, affecting monsoonal patterns in Asia, which were interlinked with glacial periods in the northern hemisphere. The Miocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are typically named according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy : Regionally, other systems are used, based on characteristic land mammals; some of them overlap with

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1606-534: The " Zanclean flood ". Also during the early Miocene (specifically the Aquitanian and Burdigalian Stages), the apes first evolved, began diversifying, and became widespread throughout the Old World . Around the end of this epoch, the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees and had begun following their own evolutionary path during the final Messinian Stage (7.5–5.3 Ma) of

1679-659: The Asian dipterocarps share a common ancestor with the Sarcolaenaceae , a tree family endemic to Madagascar. This suggests that ancestor of the dipterocarps originated in the southern supercontinent of Gondwana , and that the common ancestor of the Asian dipterocarps and the Sarcolaenaceae was found in the India-Madagascar-Seychelles land mass millions of years ago, and were carried northward by India, which later collided with Asia and allowed

1752-710: The Central Paratethys, cut off from sources of freshwater input by its separation from the Eastern Paratethys. From 13.36 to 12.65 Ma, the Central Paratethys was characterised by open marine conditions, before the reopening of the Bârlad Strait resulted in a shift to brackish-marine conditions in the Central Paratethys, causing the Badenian-Sarmatian Extinction Event. As a result of the Bârlad Strait's reopening,

1825-837: The Early to the Middle Miocene. Europe's large mammal diversity significantly declined during the Late Miocene. In the Early Miocene, several Oligocene groups were still diverse, including nimravids , entelodonts , and three-toed equids. As in the previous Oligocene Epoch, oreodonts were still diverse, only to disappear in the earliest Pliocene. During the later Miocene mammals were more modern, with easily recognizable canids , bears , red pandas , procyonids , equids , beavers , deer , camelids , and whales , along with now-extinct groups like borophagine canids , certain gomphotheres , three-toed horses , and hornless rhinos like Teleoceras and Aphelos . The late Miocene also marks

1898-720: The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) was highly dynamic during the Early Miocene. The Miocene began with the Early Miocene Cool Event (Mi-1) around 23 million years ago, which marked the start of the Early Miocene Cool Interval (EMCI). This cool event occurred immediately after the Oligocene-Miocene Transition (OMT) during a major expansion of Antarctica's ice sheets, but was not associated with

1971-601: The East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM) became stronger synchronously with a southward shift of the subarctic front. Greenland may have begun to have large glaciers as early as 8 to 7 Ma, although the climate for the most part remained warm enough to support forests there well into the Pliocene. Zhejiang, China was noticeably more humid than today. In the Great Rift Valley of Kenya , there

2044-460: The LMC; extratropical sea surface temperatures dropped substantially by approximately 7–9 °C. 41 kyr obliquity cycles became the dominant orbital climatic control 7.7 Ma and this dominance strengthened 6.4 Ma. Benthic δ O values show significant glaciation occurred from 6.26 to 5.50 Ma, during which glacial-interglacial cycles were governed by the 41 kyr obliquity cycle. A major reorganisation of

2117-579: The Late Cretaceous, are known from the Miocene of Patagonia, represented by the mole-like Necrolestes . The youngest known representatives of metatherians (the broader grouping to which marsupials belong) in Europe, Asia and Africa are known from the Miocene, including the European herpetotheriid Amphiperatherium , the peradectids Siamoperadectes and Sinoperadectes from Asia, and

2190-705: The Late Miocene, the Earth's climate began to display a high degree of similarity to that of the present day . The 173 kyr obliquity modulation cycle governed by Earth's interactions with Saturn became detectable in the Late Miocene. By 12 Ma, Oregon was a savanna akin to that of the western margins of the Sierra Nevada of northern California . Central Australia became progressively drier, although southwestern Australia experienced significant wettening from around 12 to 8 Ma. The South Asian Winter Monsoon (SAWM) underwent strengthening ~9.2–8.5 Ma. From 7.9 to 5.8 Ma,

2263-574: The Miocene Epoch was mostly supported by the two newly formed biomes , kelp forests and grasslands . Grasslands allow for more grazers, such as horses , rhinoceroses , and hippos . Ninety-five percent of modern plants existed by the end of this epoch . Modern bony fish genera were established. A modern-style latitudinal biodiversity gradient appeared ~15 Ma. The coevolution of gritty , fibrous, fire-tolerant grasses and long-legged gregarious ungulates with high-crowned teeth , led to

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2336-523: The Miocene and into the Pliocene, the climate slowly cooled towards a series of ice ages . The Miocene boundaries are not marked by distinct global events but by regionally defined transitions from the warmer Oligocene to the cooler Pliocene Epoch. During the Early Miocene, Afro-Arabia collided with Eurasia, severing the connection between the Mediterranean and Indian Oceans, and allowing the interchange of fauna between Eurasia and Africa, including

2409-484: The Miocene. As in the Oligocene before it, grasslands continued to expand, and forests to dwindle. In the seas of the Miocene, kelp forests made their first appearance and soon became one of Earth's most productive ecosystems. The plants and animals of the Miocene were recognizably modern. Mammals and birds were well established. Whales , pinnipeds , and kelp spread. The Miocene is of particular interest to geologists and palaeoclimatologists because major phases of

2482-449: The Miocene. The largest form among them was a gigantic caiman Purussaurus which inhabited South America. Another gigantic form was a false gharial Rhamphosuchus , which inhabited modern age India . A strange form, Mourasuchus also thrived alongside Purussaurus . This species developed a specialized filter-feeding mechanism, and it likely preyed upon small fauna despite its gigantic size. The youngest members of Sebecidae ,

2555-550: The North American Great Plains and in Argentina . The global trend was towards increasing aridity caused primarily by global cooling reducing the ability of the atmosphere to absorb moisture, particularly after 7 to 8 million years ago. Uplift of East Africa in the late Miocene was partly responsible for the shrinking of tropical rain forests in that region, and Australia got drier as it entered

2628-656: The Oligocene–Miocene transgression. As the southern Andes rose in the Middle Miocene (14–12 million years ago) the resulting rain shadow originated the Patagonian Desert to the east. Far northern Australia was monsoonal during the Miocene. Although northern Australia is often believed to have been much wetter during the Miocene, this interpretation may be an artefact of preservation bias of riparian and lacustrine plants; this finding has itself been challenged by other papers. Western Australia, like today,

2701-617: The Qiongdongnan Basin in the northern South China Sea indicates the Pearl River was a major source of sediment flux into the sea during the Early Miocene and was a major fluvial system as in the present. During the Oligocene and Early Miocene, the coast of northern Brazil, Colombia, south-central Peru , central Chile and large swathes of inland Patagonia were subject to a marine transgression . The transgressions in

2774-497: The activity of the Columbia River Basalts and enhanced by decreased albedo from the reduction of deserts and expansion of forests. Climate modelling suggests additional, currently unknown, factors also worked to create the warm conditions of the MMCO. The MMCO saw the expansion of the tropical climatic zone to much larger than its current size. The July ITCZ, the zone of maximal monsoonal rainfall, moved to

2847-472: The aridity of the former. Unequivocally-recognizable dabbling ducks , plovers , typical owls , cockatoos and crows appear during the Miocene. By the epoch's end, all or almost all modern bird groups are believed to have been present; the few post-Miocene bird fossils which cannot be placed in the evolutionary tree with full confidence are simply too badly preserved, rather than too equivocal in character. Marine birds reached their highest diversity ever in

2920-638: The beginning of the Miocene, the northern margin of the Arabian plate, then part of the African landmass, collided with Eurasia; as a result, the Tethys seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish – Arabian region. The first step of this closure occurred 20 Ma, reducing water mass exchange by 90%, while the second step occurred around 13.8 Ma, coincident with

2993-514: The book's morphological section, where he delved into discussions regarding the vegetative and generative aspects of plants. Subsequently, in French botanical publications, from Michel Adanson 's Familles naturelles des plantes (1763) and until the end of the 19th century, the word famille was used as a French equivalent of the Latin ordo (or ordo naturalis ). In zoology ,

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3066-577: The course of this epoch . The youngest representatives of Choristodera , an extinct order of aquatic reptiles that first appeared in the Middle Jurassic , are known from the Miocene of Europe, belonging to the genus Lazarussuchus , which had been the only known surviving genus of the group since the beginning of the Eocene. The last known representatives of the archaic primitive mammal order Meridiolestida , which dominated South America during

3139-591: The dipterocarps to spread across Southeast Asia and Malaysia. Although associated with Southeast Asia in contemporary times, recent studies using fossil pollen and molecular data suggest an African origin in the mid-cretaceous. Prior to this research, the first dipterocarp pollen was found in Myanmar (which at that time was part of the Indian Plate ) and it dates from the upper Oligocene . The sample appears to slowly increase in terms of diversity and abundance across

3212-579: The dispersal of proboscideans and hominoids into Eurasia. During the late Miocene, the connections between the Atlantic and Mediterranean closed, causing the Mediterranean Sea to almost completely evaporate. This event is referred to as the " Messinian salinity crisis ". Then, at the Miocene–Pliocene boundary, the Strait of Gibraltar opened, and the Mediterranean refilled. That event is referred to as

3285-578: The end of the Miocene due to increased habitat uniformity. The expansion of grasslands in North America also led to an explosive radiation among snakes. Previously, snakes were a minor component of the North American fauna, but during the Miocene, the number of species and their prevalence increased dramatically with the first appearances of vipers and elapids in North America and the significant diversification of Colubridae (including

3358-422: The end of the Miocene. The Paratethys underwent a significant transgression during the early Middle Miocene. Around 13.8 Ma, during a global sea level drop, the Eastern Paratethys was cut off from the global ocean by the closure of the Bârlad Strait, effectively turning it into a saltwater lake. From 13.8 to 13.36 Ma, an evaporite period similar to the later Messinian salinity crisis in the Mediterranean ensued in

3431-637: The enigmatic Saint Bathans Mammal . Microbial life in the igneous crust of the Fennoscandian Shield shifted from being dominated by methanogens to being primarily composed of sulphate-reducing prokaryotes . The change resulted from fracture reactivation during the Pyrenean-Alpine orogeny, enabling sulphate-reducing microbes to permeate into the Fennoscandian Shield via descending surficial waters. Diatom diversity

3504-461: The evolution of both groups into modern representatives. The early Miocene Saint Bathans Fauna is the only Cenozoic terrestrial fossil record of the landmass, showcasing a wide variety of not only bird species, including early representatives of clades such as moa , kiwi and adzebills , but also a diverse herpetofauna of sphenodontians , crocodiles and turtles as well as a rich terrestrial mammal fauna composed of various species of bats and

3577-499: The expansion of grasslands not to a CO 2 drop but to the increasing seasonality and aridity, coupled with a monsoon climate, which made wildfires highly prevalent compared to before. The Late Miocene expansion of grasslands had cascading effects on the global carbon cycle, evidenced by the imprint it left in carbon isotope records. Cycads between 11.5 and 5 million years ago began to rediversify after previous declines in variety due to climatic changes, and thus modern cycads are not

3650-718: The extinction of the last-surviving members of the hyaenodonts . Islands began to form between South and North America in the Late Miocene, allowing ground sloths like Thinobadistes to island-hop to North America. The expansion of silica-rich C 4 grasses led to worldwide extinctions of herbivorous species without high-crowned teeth . Mustelids diversified into their largest forms as terrestrial predators like Ekorus , Eomellivora , and Megalictis and bunodont otters like Enhydriodon and Sivaonyx appeared. Eulipotyphlans were widespread in Europe, being less diverse in Southern Europe than farther north due to

3723-540: The family as a rank intermediate between order and genus was introduced by Pierre André Latreille in his Précis des caractères génériques des insectes, disposés dans un ordre naturel (1796). He used families (some of them were not named) in some but not in all his orders of "insects" (which then included all arthropods ). In nineteenth-century works such as the Prodromus of Augustin Pyramus de Candolle and

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3796-629: The findings of marine invertebrate fossils of both Atlantic and Pacific affinity in La Cascada Formation . Connection would have occurred through narrow epicontinental seaways that formed channels in a dissected topography . The Antarctic Plate started to subduct beneath South America 14 million years ago in the Miocene, forming the Chile Triple Junction . At first the Antarctic Plate subducted only in

3869-464: The human lineage) appeared in Africa at the very end of the Miocene, including Sahelanthropus , Orrorin , and an early form of Ardipithecus ( A. kadabba ). The chimpanzee–human divergence is thought to have occurred at this time. The evolution of bipedalism in apes at the end of the Miocene instigated an increased rate of faunal turnover in Africa. In contrast, European apes met their end at

3942-468: The impacts of climate change and land cover on the distribution of this important tree family in the Philippines. They used species distribution models (SDMs) for 19 species that were projected onto both current and future climate scenarios, with current land cover incorporated as well. They found that the current land cover alone reduced the species distributions by 67%, and 37% in protected areas. On

4015-606: The lake levels of the Eastern Paratethys dropped as it once again became a sea. The Fram Strait opened during the Miocene and acted as the only throughflow for Atlantic Water into the Arctic Ocean until the Quaternary period. Due to regional uplift of the continental shelf, this water could not move through the Barents Seaway in the Miocene. The modern day Mekong Delta took shape after 8 Ma. Geochemistry of

4088-547: The north, increasing precipitation over southern China whilst simultaneously decreasing it over Indochina during the EASM. Western Australia was at this time characterised by exceptional aridity. In Antarctica, average summer temperatures on land reached 10 °C. In the oceans, the lysocline shoaled by approximately half of a kilometre during warm phases that corresponded to orbital eccentricity maxima. The MMCO ended around 14 million years ago, when global temperatures fell in

4161-523: The origin of many modern genera such as Nerodia , Lampropeltis , Pituophis and Pantherophis ). Arthropods were abundant, including in areas such as Tibet where they have traditionally been thought to be undiverse. Neoisopterans diversified and expanded into areas they previously were absent from, such as Madagascar and Australia. In the oceans, brown algae , called kelp , proliferated, supporting new species of sea life, including otters , fish and various invertebrates . Corals suffered

4234-510: The other hand, climate change reduced species distributions by 16-27% in both protected and unprotected areas. There was also an upward shift in elevation of species distribution as a result of climate change, as habitats changed. They concluded that there was a need to improve protected area planning as refuges for critical species, with SDMs proving to be a useful tool for providing projections that can then be incorporated into this planning process. Another paper by Shishir et al. also investigated

4307-463: The possible herpetotheriid Morotodon from the late Early Miocene of Uganda. Approximately 100 species of apes lived during this time , ranging throughout Africa, Asia and Europe and varying widely in size, diet, and anatomy. Due to scanty fossil evidence it is unclear which ape or apes contributed to the modern hominid clade, but molecular evidence indicates this ape lived between 18 and 13 million years ago. The first hominins ( bipedal apes of

4380-486: The potential effects of climate change on a threatened Dipterocarp tree in Purbachal, Bangladesh. Using a model that incorporated nine different environmental variables such as climate, geography, and soil conditions, they looked at two climate scenarios. They found that precipitation and soil nitrogen were the largest determinants of distribution, and that suitable habitat for this species will decline by 21-28% relative to

4453-671: The preceding Oligocene and following Pliocene Epochs: Continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent, although South America was approaching the western subduction zone in the Pacific Ocean , causing both the rise of the Andes and a southward extension of the Meso-American peninsula. Mountain building took place in western North America , Europe , and East Asia . Both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines. Well studied continental exposures occur in

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4526-423: The present land area as a result of climate change. In Borneo, nearly all species of the Dipterocarp family are imperiled. Family (biology) Family ( Latin : familia , pl. : familiae ) is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy . It is classified between order and genus . A family may be divided into subfamilies , which are intermediate ranks between

4599-491: The ranks of family and genus. The official family names are Latin in origin; however, popular names are often used: for example, walnut trees and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae , but that family is commonly referred to as the "walnut family". The delineation of what constitutes a family— or whether a described family should be acknowledged— is established and decided upon by active taxonomists . There are not strict regulations for outlining or acknowledging

4672-441: The region into the mid- Miocene . Chemical traces of dipterocarp resins have been found dating back to the Eocene of India. The oldest fossil of the family are from the latest Cretaceous ( Maastrichtian ) aged Intertrappean Beds of India, assignable to the extant genus Dipterocarpus . Subfamily Pakaraimoideae containing the sole genus Pakaraimaea , formerly placed here and native to the Guaianan highlands of South America,

4745-531: The southernmost tip of Patagonia, meaning that the Chile Triple Junction lay near the Strait of Magellan . As the southern part of Nazca Plate and the Chile Rise became consumed by subduction the more northerly regions of the Antarctic Plate begun to subduct beneath Patagonia so that the Chile Triple Junction advanced to the north over time. The asthenospheric window associated to the triple junction disturbed previous patterns of mantle convection beneath Patagonia inducing an uplift of ca. 1 km that reversed

4818-511: The species of the family occur in Thailand include lowland dipterocarp forest 0–350 m, riparian fringe, limestone hills, and coastal hills. The dipterocarps has dominated the Borneo lowland rain forests for millions of years. As the dominant tree in Southeast Asia, the Dipterocarp family has seen extensive study relating to its conservation status. They are a keystone species of the native forests of this region, and are essential to their function and structure. One study by Pang et al. examined

4891-440: The west coast of South America are thought to be caused by a regional phenomenon while the steadily rising central segment of the Andes represents an exception. While there are numerous registers of Oligocene–Miocene transgressions around the world it is doubtful that these correlate. It is thought that the Oligocene–Miocene transgression in Patagonia could have temporarily linked the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, as inferred from

4964-423: Was Allodesmus . A ferocious walrus , Pelagiarctos may have preyed upon other species of pinnipeds including Allodesmus . Furthermore, South American waters witnessed the arrival of Megapiranha paranensis , which were considerably larger than modern age piranhas . New Zealand 's Miocene fossil record is particularly rich. Marine deposits showcase a variety of cetaceans and penguins , illustrating

5037-496: Was a gradual and progressive trend of increasing aridification, though it was not unidirectional, and wet humid episodes continued to occur. Between 7 and 5.3 Ma, temperatures dropped sharply again in the Late Miocene Cooling (LMC), most likely as a result of a decline in atmospheric carbon dioxide and a drop in the amplitude of Earth's obliquity, and the Antarctic ice sheet was approaching its present-day size and thickness. Ocean temperatures plummeted to near-modern values during

5110-405: Was arid, particularly so during the Middle Miocene. Climates remained moderately warm, although the slow global cooling that eventually led to the Pleistocene glaciations continued. Although a long-term cooling trend was well underway, there is evidence of a warm period during the Miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the Oligocene . The climate of the Miocene has been suggested as

5183-514: Was inversely correlated with carbon dioxide levels and global temperatures during the Miocene. Most modern lineages of diatoms appeared by the Late Miocene. There is evidence from oxygen isotopes at Deep Sea Drilling Program sites that ice began to build up in Antarctica about 36 Ma during the Eocene . Further marked decreases in temperature during the Middle Miocene at 15 Ma probably reflect increased ice growth in Antarctica. It can therefore be assumed that East Antarctica had some glaciers during

5256-646: Was most intense there. Around this time the Mi3b glacial event (a massive expansion of Antarctic glaciers) occurred. The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) markedly stabilised following the MMCT. The intensification of glaciation caused a decoherence of sediment deposition from the 405 kyr eccentricity cycle. The MMWI ended about 11 Ma, when the Late Miocene Cool Interval (LMCI) started. A major but transient warming occurred around 10.8-10.7 Ma. During

5329-488: Was not yet settled, and in the preface to the Prodromus Magnol spoke of uniting his families into larger genera , which is far from how the term is used today. In his work Philosophia Botanica published in 1751, Carl Linnaeus employed the term familia to categorize significant plant groups such as trees , herbs , ferns , palms , and so on. Notably, he restricted the use of this term solely within

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