A duma ( Russian : дума ) is a Russian assembly with advisory or legislative functions.
87-651: The term boyar duma is used to refer to advisory councils in Russia from the 10th to 17th centuries. Starting in the 18th century, city dumas were formed across Russia. The first formally constituted state duma was the Imperial State Duma introduced to the Russian Empire by Emperor Nicholas II in 1905. The Emperor retained an absolute veto and could dismiss the State Duma at any time for
174-542: A massacre and his realisation that there was insufficient military force available to pursue alternative options. He regretted signing the document, saying that he felt "sick with shame at this betrayal of the dynasty ... the betrayal was complete". When the manifesto was proclaimed, there were spontaneous demonstrations of support in all the major cities. The strikes in Saint Petersburg and elsewhere officially ended or quickly collapsed. A political amnesty
261-550: A central role in the 1905 revolution, would write several proclamations urging for improved economic conditions , political rights and the use of strike action against the Tsarist regime on behalf of workers. Many socialists view this as a period when the rising revolutionary movement was met with rising reactionary movements. As Rosa Luxemburg stated in 1906 in The Mass Strike , when collective strike activity
348-733: A citywide general strike) and Tiflis , where commercial workers gained a reduction in the working day, and were joined by factory workers. In 1904, massive strike waves broke out in Odessa in the spring, in Kyiv in July, and in Baku in December. This all set the stage for the strikes in St. Petersburg in December 1904 to January 1905 seen as the first step in the 1905 revolution. Another contributing factor behind
435-492: A constitution. In November 1904 a Zemsky Congress [ ru ] ( Russian : Земский съезд )—a gathering of zemstvo delegates representing all levels of Russian society—called for a constitution, civil liberties and a parliament . On 13 December [ O.S. 30 November] 1904, the Moscow City Duma passed a resolution demanding the establishment of an elected national legislature, full freedom of
522-403: A crash governmental program was proposed to promote industrialization. His policies included heavy government expenditures for railroad building and operations, subsidies and supporting services for private industrialists, high protective tariffs for Russian industries (especially heavy industry), an increase in exports, currency stabilization, and encouragement of foreign investments. His plan
609-403: A function of birth." This policy only succeeded in producing or aggravating feelings of disloyalty. There was growing impatience with their inferior status and resentment against " Russification ". Russification is cultural assimilation definable as "a process culminating in the disappearance of a given group as a recognizably distinct element within a larger society". Besides the imposition of
696-548: A general strike at Rostov-on-Don in November 1902. Daily meetings of 15,000 to 20,000 heard openly revolutionary appeals for the first time, before a massacre defeated the strikes. But reaction to the massacres brought political demands to purely economic ones. Luxemburg described the situation in 1903 by saying: "the whole of South Russia in May, June and July was aflame", including Baku (where separate wage struggles culminated in
783-591: A manifesto promising the broadening of the zemstvo system and more authority for local municipal councils, insurance for industrial workers, the emancipation of Inorodtsy and the abolition of censorship. The crucial demand—that for a representative national legislature—was missing in the manifesto. Worker strikes in the Caucasus broke out in March 1902. Strikes on the railways, originating from pay disputes, took on other issues and drew in other industries, culminating in
870-742: A minute proportion of the population. "The tactics of the left-wing students proved to be remarkably effective, far beyond what any of the students would have dreamed. Sensing that neither the university administrations nor the government possessed the will or authority to enforce regulations, radicals simply went ahead with their plans to turn the schools into centres of political activity for students and non-students alike." They took up problems that were unrelated to their "proper employment", and displayed defiance and radicalism by boycotting examinations, rioting, arranging marches in sympathy with strikers and political prisoners , circulating petitions , and writing anti-government propaganda . This disturbed
957-521: A petition to the Tsar on Sunday, 22 January [ O.S. 9 January] 1905. The troops guarding the Palace were ordered to tell the demonstrators not to pass a certain point, according to Sergei Witte , and at some point, troops opened fire on the demonstrators, causing between 200 (according to Witte) and 1,000 deaths. The event became known as Bloody Sunday , and is considered by many scholars as
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#17327657403161044-400: A professional and a rebellious student body in centers of political power, industrialization infuriated both these new forces and the traditional rural classes." The government policy of financing industrialization through taxing peasants forced millions of peasants to work in towns. The "peasant worker" saw his labor in the factory as the means to consolidate his family's economic position in
1131-460: A resolution, asking for popular representation at the national level. On 6 June [ O.S. 24 May] 1905, Nicholas II had received a Zemstvo deputation. Responding to speeches by Prince Sergei Nikolaevich Trubetskoy and Mr Fyodrov, the Tsar confirmed his promise to convene an assembly of people's representatives. Tsar Nicholas II agreed on 2 March [ O.S. 18 February] to
1218-514: A special problem. Jews constituted only about 4% of the population but were concentrated in the western borderlands . Like other minorities in Russia, the Jews lived "miserable and circumscribed lives, forbidden to settle or acquire land outside the cities and towns, legally limited in attendance at secondary school and higher schools, virtually barred from legal professions, denied the right to vote for municipal councilors, and excluded from services in
1305-607: A suitable reason. Nicholas dismissed the First State Duma (1906) within 75 days; elections for a second Duma took place the following year. The Russian Provisional Government dissolved the last Imperial State Duma (the fourth Duma) in 1917 during the Russian Revolution . Since 1993, the State Duma ( Государственная дума , Gosudarstvennaya Duma ) has functioned as the lower legislative house of
1392-458: A system of proportional representation and one half were elected by plurality in single member districts . However, the 2007 Duma elections were carried out in a new format: all 450 deputies were elected by a system of proportional representation. Russian citizens at least 21 years old are eligible to run for the Duma (Article 97). City duma A city duma ( Russian : Городская дума )
1479-519: A third of the duma. Under the reign of Catherine II , reforms to local government led to city dumas being established in Russian cities. Under the reign of Alexander II, several reforms were enacted during the 1860s and 1870s. These included the creation of local political bodies known as zemstvos . All owners of houses, tax-paying merchants and workmen are enrolled on lists in a descending order according to their assessed wealth. The total valuation
1566-563: A transition to constitutional monarchy and thus betray the revolution; instead he argued that the proletariat would have to build an alliance with the peasantry to overthrow the Tsarist regime and establish the "provisional revolutionary democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry." In December 1904, a strike occurred at the Putilov plant (a railway and artillery supplier) in St. Petersburg. Sympathy strikes in other parts of
1653-514: A uniform Russian culture throughout the empire, the government's pursuit of Russification, especially during the second half of the nineteenth century, had political motives. After the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, the Russian state was compelled to take into account public opinion, but the government failed to gain the public's support. Another motive for Russification policies was the Polish uprising of 1863 . Unlike other minority nationalities,
1740-708: Is a city-level legislature in Russia, first established in the 18th century. Originated in Russia on the basis of a decree issued on 21 April 1785 by Empress Catherine II " The instruments on the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire " which included the creation of the "General City Duma". General Duma has elected an executive body, "Шестигласная дума" consisting of the mayor and six councilors , one of six "bits" of urban inhabitants. "Шестигласная дума" have been replaced by "всесословные общие" and sometimes "распорядительные думa" (first in St. Petersburg (1846), Moscow (1862), and Odessa), and after
1827-676: Is also related to the Russian verb dumat′ ( думать ) meaning "to think". The term boyar duma ( боярская дума , boyarskaya duma ) is used to refer to the councils of boyars and junior boyars ( boyar scions ) which advised the prince on state matters during the times of Kievan Rus' and the Tsardom of Russia (then tsar). In 1711 Peter the Great transferred its functions to the Governing Senate . Contemporary sources always refer simply to "the boyars" or to "the duma", but never to
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#17327657403161914-550: Is the lower house of the Federal Assembly of Russia ( parliament ), the upper house being the Federation Council of Russia . Under Russia's 1993 constitution, there are 450 deputies of the State Duma (Article 95), each elected to a term of four years (Article 96); this was changed to a five-year term in late 2008. In previous elections of 1993, 1995, 1999 and 2003 one half of the deputies were elected by
2001-410: Is then divided into three equal parts, representing three groups of electors very unequal in number, each of which elects an equal number of delegates to the municipal duma. The executive is in the hands of an elective mayor and an uprava , which consists of several members elected by the duma. Under Alexander III , however, by laws promulgated in 1892 and 1894, the municipal dumas were subordinated to
2088-661: The Caucasus resulted in Armenian–Tatar massacres , heavily damaging the cities and the Baku oilfields . With the unsuccessful and bloody Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) there was unrest in army reserve units. On 2 January 1905, Port Arthur was lost; in February 1905, the Russian army was defeated at Mukden , losing almost 80,000 men. On 27–28 May 1905, the Russian Baltic Fleet was defeated at Tsushima . Witte
2175-462: The Imperial Guard or Navy, and limiting their attendance in schools. A nascent industrial working class resented the government for doing too little to protect them, as it banned strikes and organizing into labor unions . University students developed a new consciousness after discipline was relaxed in the institutions, and as increasingly radical ideas gained attention. Significantly, this
2262-557: The Iskra split would see the likes of Julius Martov and Georgi Plekhanov spar with Lenin . Leon Trotsky , who felt a strong connection to the Bolsheviki, had not given up a compromise but spearheaded strike action in over 200 factories. By 26 October [ O.S. 13 October] 1905, over 2 million workers were on strike and there were almost no active railways in all of Russia. Growing inter-ethnic confrontation throughout
2349-1016: The Russian Federation . The Russian word is inherited from the Proto-Slavic word *duma which is of disputed origin. Its origin has many proposed theories that provide convincing evidence to support each proposed origin. Mladenov, Stender-Petersen: From Proto-Indo-European *dʰewh₂- (“to smoke”), akin to Proto-Slavic *duti (“to blow, to inflate”), *dymъ (“smoke”), perhaps originally meaning “breath, spirit”. Compare Ancient Greek θῡμός (thūmós, “soul, emotion”), occasionally also “thought, mind”. Vaillant: Contracted from hypothetical *douma < *do- + *umъ (“mind”) + *-a. Compare *douměti (“to comprehend”) (whence Russian надоу́мить (nadoúmitʹ, “to advise”)). Machek: From an inversion of root *mewHdʰ-, otherwise yielding Proto-Slavic *myslь (“thought”), Ancient Greek μῦθος (mûthos, “word, fable”). Also thought to be derived from Proto-Germanic *dōmaz . The word
2436-685: The Russian populist tradition, and the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (founded in 1898). In late 1904 liberals started a series of banquets (modeled on the campagne des banquets leading up to the French Revolution of 1848 ), nominally celebrating the 40th anniversary of the liberal court statutes, but actually an attempt to circumvent laws against political gatherings. The banquets resulted in calls for political reforms and
2523-832: The Russification undertaken since Alexander II . The Poles, Finns, and the Baltic provinces all sought autonomy, and also freedom to use their national languages and promote their own culture. Muslim groups were also active, founding the Union of the Muslims of Russia in August 1905. Certain groups took the opportunity to settle differences with each other rather than the government. Some nationalists undertook anti-Jewish pogroms , possibly with government aid, and in total over 3,000 Jews were killed. The number of prisoners throughout
2610-508: The State Duma , the multi-party system , and the Russian Constitution of 1906 . Despite popular participation in the Duma, the parliament was unable to issue laws of its own, and frequently came into conflict with Nicholas. The Duma's power was limited and Nicholas continued to hold the ruling authority. Furthermore, he could dissolve the Duma, which he did three times in order to get rid of the opposition. The 1905 revolution
2697-624: The Urals and beyond. In March, all higher academic institutions were forcibly closed for the remainder of the year, adding radical students to the striking workers. A strike by railway workers on 21 October [ O.S. 8 October] 1905 quickly developed into a general strike in Saint Petersburg and Moscow. This prompted the setting up of the short-lived Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Delegates, an admixture of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks headed by Khrustalev-Nossar and despite
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2784-483: The emancipation reform of 1861 , but their lives were generally quite limited. The government hoped to develop the peasants as a politically conservative, land-holding class by enacting laws to enable them to buy land from nobility by paying small installments over many decades. Such land, known as "allotment land", would not be owned by individual peasants but by the community of peasants; individual peasants would have rights to strips of land to be assigned to them under
2871-447: The open field system . A peasant could not sell or mortgage this land, so in practice he could not renounce his rights to his land, and he would be required to pay his share of redemption dues to the village commune. This plan was intended to prevent peasants from becoming part of the proletariat . However, the peasants were not given enough land to provide for their needs: Their earnings were often so small that they could neither buy
2958-413: The "boyar duma". Originally there were ten to twelve boyars and five or six okolnichies . By 1613 the duma had increased to twenty boyars and eight okolnichies . Lesser nobles, "duma gentlemen" ( dumnye dvoriane ) and secretaries, were added to the duma and the number of okolnichies rose in the latter half of the 17th century. In 1676, the number of boyars increased to 50 – by then they constituted only
3045-586: The "victory of the October Revolution in 1917 would have been impossible". Many factors contributed to unrest across the Russian Empire of 1905. Newly emancipated peasants earned too little and were not allowed to sell or mortgage their allotted land. Ethnic and national minorities resented the policy of "Russification " of the Empire: this represented discrimination and repression against national minorities, such as banning them from voting, serving in
3132-837: The Bolsheviks split completely with the Mensheviks; many Bolsheviks refused, and both groups attended the Third RSDLP Congress , held in London in April 1905 at the Brotherhood Church . Lenin presented many of his ideas in the pamphlet Two Tactics of Social Democracy in the Democratic Revolution , published in August 1905. Here, he predicted that Russia's liberal bourgeoisie would be sated by
3219-694: The Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907) ). Half of European Russia's industrial workers went on strike in 1905, and 93.2% in Poland. There were also strikes in Finland and the Baltic coast. In Riga , 130 protesters were killed on 26 January [ O.S. 13 January] 1905, and in Warsaw a few days later over 100 strikers were shot on the streets. By February, there were strikes in the Caucasus , and by April, in
3306-656: The Minister of the Interior, Pyotr Sviatopolk-Mirsky , on 18 February [ O.S. 5 February] 1905. He appointed a government commission "to enquire without delay into the causes of discontent among the workers in the city of St Petersburg and its suburbs" in view of the strike movement. The commission was headed by Senator Nikolay Shidlovsky, a member of the State Council , and included officials, chiefs of government factories, and private factory owners. It
3393-582: The Navy or the Guards". The government's treatment of Jews, although considered a separate issue, was similar to its policies in dealing with all national and religious minorities. Historian Theodore Weeks notes: "Russian administrators, who never succeeded in coming up with a legal definition of ' Pole ', despite the decades of restrictions on that ethnic group, regularly spoke of individuals 'of Polish descent' or, alternatively, 'of Russian descent', making identity
3480-535: The Poles, in the eyes of the Tsar, were a direct threat to the empire's stability. After the rebellion was crushed, the government implemented policies to reduce Polish cultural influences. In the 1870s the government began to distrust German elements on the western border. The Russian government felt that the unification of Germany would upset the power balance among the great powers of Europe and that Germany would use its strength against Russia. The government thought that
3567-470: The Romanians returned her to Imperial Russian authorities on the following day. Some sources claim over 2,000 sailors died in the suppression. The mutinies were disorganised and quickly crushed. Despite these mutinies, the armed forces were largely apolitical and remained mostly loyal, if dissatisfied—and were widely used by the government to control the 1905 unrest. Nationalist groups had been angered by
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3654-529: The Russian Empire, which had peaked at 116,376 in 1893, fell by over a third to a record low of 75,009 in January 1905, chiefly because of several mass amnesties granted by the Tsar; the historian S G Wheatcroft has wondered what role these released criminals played in the 1905–06 social unrest. On 12 January 1905, the Tsar appointed Dmitri Feodorovich Trepov as governor in St Petersburg and dismissed
3741-653: The Russian Federation " dated 06.10.2003, № 131-FZ), under which the exclusive competence of the City Council are: Russian Revolution of 1905 [REDACTED] Russian Empire Supported by: [REDACTED] Revolutionaries Supported by: The Russian Revolution of 1905 , also known as the First Russian Revolution , began on 22 January 1905. A wave of mass political and social unrest then began to spread across
3828-439: The Russian economy until the 1890s. Meanwhile, "agricultural productivity stagnated, while international prices for grain dropped, and Russia's foreign debt and need for imports grew. War and military preparations continued to consume government revenues. At the same time, the peasant taxpayers' ability to pay was strained to the utmost, leading to widespread famine in 1891 ." In the 1890s, under Finance Minister Sergei Witte ,
3915-612: The Russian-controlled Congress Poland culminated in June 1905 in the Łódź insurrection . Surprisingly, only one landlord was recorded as killed. Far more violence was inflicted on peasants outside the commune: 50 deaths were recorded. Anti-tsarist protests displaced onto Jewish communities in the October 1905 Kishinev pogrom . The October Manifesto , written by Sergei Witte and Alexis Obolenskii,
4002-486: The State Duma, and endow the Duma with legislative and oversight powers. However, Nicholas II was determined to retain his autocratic power. Just before the creation of the Duma in May 1906, the Tsar issued the Fundamental Laws . It stated in part that the Tsar's ministers could not be appointed by, and were not responsible to, the Duma, thus denying responsible government at the executive level. Furthermore,
4089-537: The Tsar had the power to dismiss the Duma and announce new elections whenever he wished. At this first meeting of the Duma members proposed that political prisoners should be released, trade unions given rights and land reform be introduced. Nicholas II rejected these suggestions and dissolved the assembly in July, 1906. The imperial State Duma was elected four times: in 1906, twice in 1907, and in 1912. The State Duma (Russian: Государственная дума, Gosudarstvennaya Duma , common abbreviation: Госдума, Gosduma ) in Russia
4176-664: The Tsar made new concessions. On 2 March [ O.S. 18 February] 1905 he published the Bulygin Rescript , which promised the formation of a consultative assembly, religious tolerance , freedom of speech (in the form of language rights for the Polish minority) and a reduction in the peasants' redemption payments. On 24 and 25 May [ O.S. 11 and 12 May] 1905, about 300 Zemstvo and municipal representatives held three meetings in Moscow, which passed
4263-531: The administrative reform in 1870, the City Duma in all the cities (in the small towns of the empire also used a simplified urban governance without the city Council). In 1991 the Russian law "On Local Self-Government in the RSFSR" was adopted, which actually allowed the creation instead of the city councils of people's deputies of urban duma. In 2003, a new federal law (" On General Principles of Local Government in
4350-463: The borders would be defended better if the borderland were more "Russian" in character. The culmination of cultural diversity created a cumbersome nationality problem that plagued the Russian government in the years leading up to the revolution. The economic situation in Russia before the revolution presented a grim picture. The government had experimented with laissez-faire capitalist policies, but this strategy largely failed to gain traction within
4437-466: The city raised the number of strikers to 150,000 workers in 382 factories. By 21 January [ O.S. 8 January] 1905, the city had no electricity and newspaper distribution was halted. All public areas were declared closed. Controversial Orthodox priest Georgy Gapon , who headed a police-sponsored workers' association, led a huge workers' procession to the Winter Palace to deliver
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#17327657403164524-451: The committees could not find solutions that were both sensible and "acceptable" to the government. Russia was a multi-ethnic empire. Nineteenth-century Russians saw cultures and religions in a clear hierarchy. Non-Russian cultures were tolerated in the empire but were not necessarily respected. Culturally, Europe was favored over Asia, as was Orthodox Christianity over other religions. For generations, Russian Jews had been considered
4611-589: The countryside was prosperous; some parts, especially the fertile areas known as the " black-soil region ", were in decline. Although cultivated acreage had increased in the last half century, the increase had not been proportionate to the growth of the peasant population, which had doubled. "There was general agreement at the turn of the century that Russia faced a grave and intensifying agrarian crisis due mainly to rural overpopulation with an annual excess of fifteen to eighteen live births over deaths per 1,000 inhabitants." The investigations revealed many difficulties but
4698-444: The creation of a State Duma of the Russian Empire but with consultative powers only. When its slight powers and limits on the electorate were revealed, unrest redoubled. The Saint Petersburg Soviet was formed and called for a general strike in October, refusal to pay taxes, and the en masse withdrawal of bank deposits. In June and July 1905, there were many peasant uprisings in which peasants seized land and tools. Disturbances in
4785-401: The end of 1903. The Minister of the Interior, Plehve, designated schools as a pressing problem for the government, but he did not realize it was only a symptom of antigovernment feelings among the educated class. Students of universities, other schools of higher learning, and occasionally of secondary schools and theological seminaries were part of this group. Student radicalism began around
4872-412: The exception of night work in glass factories. Employment of children aged 12 to 15 was prohibited on Sundays and holidays. Workers had to be paid in cash at least once a month, and limits were placed on the size and bases of fines for tardy workers. Employers were prohibited from charging workers for the cost of lighting of the shops and plants. Despite these labour protections, the workers believed that
4959-499: The first ever student demonstration, held in St. Petersburg , which led to a two-year closure of the university. The consequent conflict with the state was an important factor in the chronic student protests over subsequent decades. The atmosphere of the early 1860s gave rise to political engagement by students outside universities that became a tenet of student radicalism by the 1870s. Student radicals described "the special duty and mission of
5046-535: The five years preceding the Revolution of 1905. The Tsarist government did recognise some of these problems, albeit shortsightedly. The Minister of the Interior Vyacheslav von Plehve had said in 1903 that, after the agrarian problem, the most serious issues plaguing the country were those of the Jews, the schools, and the workers, in that order. Any residual popular loyalty to Tsar Nicholas II
5133-411: The food they needed nor keep up the payment of taxes and redemption dues they owed the government for their land allotments. By 1903 their total arrears in payments of taxes and dues was 118 million rubles. The situation worsened as masses of hungry peasants roamed the countryside looking for work and sometimes walked hundreds of kilometers to find it. Desperate peasants proved capable of violence. "In
5220-489: The government, but it believed the cause was lack of training in patriotism and religion . Therefore, the curriculum was "toughened up" to emphasize classical language and mathematics in secondary schools, but defiance continued. Expulsion , exile , and forced military service also did not stop students. "In fact, when the official decision to overhaul the whole educational system was finally made, in 1904, and to that end Vladimir Glazov , head of General Staff Academy,
5307-619: The governors in the same way as the zemstvos. In 1894 municipal institutions, with still more restricted powers, were granted to several towns in Siberia, and in 1895 to some in Caucasia. Under the pressure of the Russian Revolution of 1905 , on 6 August 1905, Sergei Witte issued a manifesto about the convocation of the Duma, initially thought to be an advisory organ. In the subsequent October Manifesto , Nicholas II pledged to introduce basic civil liberties , provide for broad participation in
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#17327657403165394-469: The idea of police socialism failed. From 1900 to 1903, the period of industrial depression caused many firm bankruptcies and a reduction in the employment rate. Employees were restive: they would join legal organisations but turn the organisations toward an end that the organisations' sponsors did not intend. Workers used legitimate means to organise strikes or to draw support for striking workers outside these groups. A strike that began in 1902 by workers in
5481-560: The laws were not enough to free them from unfair and inhumane practices. At the start of the 20th century, Russian industrial workers worked on average 11-hours per day (10 hours on Saturday), factory conditions were perceived as grueling and often unsafe, and attempts at independent unions were often not accepted. Many workers were forced to work beyond the maximum of 11 + 1 ⁄ 2 hours per day. Others were still subject to arbitrary and excessive fines for tardiness , mistakes in their work, or absence. Russian industrial workers were also
5568-583: The lowest-wage workers in Europe. Although the cost of living in Russia was low, "the average worker's 16 rubles per month could not buy the equal of what the French worker's 110 francs would buy for him." Furthermore, the same labour laws prohibited the organisation of trade unions and strikes. Dissatisfaction turned into despair for many impoverished workers, which made them more sympathetic to radical ideas. These discontented, radicalized workers became key to
5655-496: The monarchy narrowly survived the Revolution of 1905, but its events foreshadowed what was to come in the 1917 Russian Revolution . Many historians contend that the 1905 revolution set the stage for the 1917 Russian Revolution, which saw the monarchy abolished and the Tsar executed. Calls for radicalism were present in the 1905 revolution, but many of the revolutionaries who were in a position to lead were either in exile or in prison while it took place. The events in 1905 demonstrated
5742-428: The precarious position in which the Tsar found himself. As a result, Tsarist Russia did not undergo sufficient reform, which had a direct impact on the radical politics brewing in the Russian Empire. Although the radicals were still in the minority of the populace, their momentum was growing. Vladimir Lenin , a revolutionary himself, would later say that the Revolution of 1905 was "The Great Dress Rehearsal", without which
5829-471: The press , and freedom of religion . Similar resolutions and appeals from other city dumas and zemstvo councils followed. Emperor Nicholas II made a move to meet many of these demands, appointing liberal Pyotr Dmitrievich Sviatopolk-Mirsky as Minister of the Interior after the July 1904 assassination of Vyacheslav von Plehve . On 25 December [ O.S. 12 December] 1904, the Emperor issued
5916-432: The provinces of Kharkov and Poltava in 1902, thousands of them, ignoring restraints and authority, burst out in a rebellious fury that led to extensive destruction of property and looting of noble homes before troops could be brought to subdue and punish them." These violent outbreaks caught the attention of the government, so it created many committees to investigate the causes. The committees concluded that no part of
6003-471: The railroad shops in Vladikavkaz and Rostov-on-Don created such a response that by the next summer, 225,000 in various industries in southern Russia and Transcaucasia were on strike. These were not the first illegal strikes in the country's history but their aims, and the political awareness and support among workers and non-workers, made them more troubling to the government than earlier strikes. The government responded by closing all legal organisations by
6090-659: The revolution by participating in illegal strikes and revolutionary protests. The government responded by arresting labour agitators and enacting more "paternalistic" legislation. Introduced in 1900 by Sergei Zubatov , head of the Moscow security department, "police socialism" planned to have workers form workers' societies with police approval to "provide healthful, fraternal activities and opportunities for cooperative self-help together with 'protection' against influences that might have inimical effect on loyalty to job or country". Some of these groups organised in Moscow , Odessa , Kyiv , Mykolaiv , and Kharkiv , but these groups and
6177-491: The revolution was the Bloody Sunday massacre of protesters that took place in January 1905 in St. Petersburg sparked a spate of civil unrest in the Russian Empire. Lenin urged Bolsheviks to take a greater role in the events, encouraging violent insurrection. In doing so, he adopted SR slogans regarding "armed insurrection", "mass terror", and "the expropriation of gentry land", resulting in Menshevik accusations that he had deviated from orthodox Marxism. In turn, he insisted that
6264-562: The start of the active phase of the revolution. The events in St. Petersburg provoked public indignation and a series of massive strikes that spread quickly throughout the industrial centers of the Russian Empire. Polish socialists—both the PPS and the SDKPiL —called for a general strike. By the end of January 1905, over 400,000 workers in Russian Poland were on strike (see Revolution in
6351-550: The student as such to spread the new word of liberty . Students were called upon to extend their freedoms into society, to repay the privilege of learning by serving the people, and to become in Nikolai Ogarev 's phrase 'apostles of knowledge'." During the next two decades, universities produced a significant share of Russia's revolutionaries. Prosecution records from the 1860s and 1870s show that more than half of all political offences were committed by students despite being
6438-549: The time Tsar Alexander II came to power. Alexander abolished serfdom and enacted fundamental reforms in the legal and administrative structure of the Russian empire, which were revolutionary for their time. He lifted many restrictions on universities and abolished obligatory uniforms and military discipline. This ushered in a new freedom in the content and reading lists of academic courses. In turn, that created student subcultures, as youth were willing to live in poverty in order to receive an education. As universities expanded, there
6525-474: The vast areas of the Russian Empire . The unrest was directed primarily against the Tsar , the nobility, and the ruling class. It included worker strikes , peasant unrest, and military mutinies . In response to the public pressure, Tsar Nicholas II was forced to go back on his earlier authoritarian stance and enact some reform (issued in the October Manifesto ). This took the form of establishing
6612-451: The village and played a role in determining the social consciousness of the urban proletariat. The new concentrations and flows of peasants spread urban ideas to the countryside, breaking down isolation of peasants on communes. Industrial workers began to feel dissatisfaction with the Tsarist government despite the protective labour laws the government decreed. Some of those laws included the prohibition of children under 12 from working, with
6699-542: Was a period of disaffection in the Russian military. Soldiers returning from a bloody and disgraceful defeat with Japan found inadequate factory pay, shortages, and general disarray, and organized in protest. Because the Russian economy was tied to European finances, the contraction of Western money markets in 1899–1900 plunged Russian industry into a deep and prolonged crisis; it outlasted the dip in European industrial production. This setback aggravated social unrest during
6786-471: Was a rapid growth of newspapers , journals , and an organisation of public lectures and professional societies . The 1860s was a time when the emergence of a new public sphere was created in social life and professional groups. This created the idea of their right to have an independent opinion. The government was alarmed by these communities, and in 1861 tightened restrictions on admission and prohibited student organisations; these restrictions resulted in
6873-584: Was also meant to have included workers' delegates elected according to a two-stage system. Elections of the workers delegates were, however, blocked by the socialists who wanted to divert the workers from the elections to the armed struggle. On 5 March [ O.S. 20 February] 1905, the commission was dissolved without having started work. Following the assassination of his uncle, the Grand Duke Sergei Aleksandrovich , on 17 February [ O.S. 4 February] 1905,
6960-456: Was also offered. The concessions came hand-in-hand with renewed, and brutal, action against the unrest. There was also a backlash from the conservative elements of society, with right-wing attacks on strikers, left-wingers, and Jews. While the Russian liberals were satisfied by the October Manifesto and prepared for upcoming Duma elections, radical socialists and revolutionaries denounced the elections and called for an armed uprising to destroy
7047-479: Was dispatched to make peace, negotiating the Treaty of Portsmouth (signed 5 September [ O.S. 23 August] 1905). In 1905, there were naval mutinies at Sevastopol (see Sevastopol Uprising ), Vladivostok , and Kronstadt , peaking in June with the mutiny aboard the battleship Potemkin . The mutineers eventually surrendered the battleship to Romanian authorities on 8 July in exchange for asylum, then
7134-523: Was lost on 22 January 1905 , when his soldiers fired upon a crowd of protesting workers, led by Georgy Gapon , who were marching to present a petition at the Winter Palace. Every year, thousands of nobles in debt mortgaged their estates to the noble land bank or sold them to municipalities, merchants, or peasants. By the time of the revolution, the nobility had sold off one-third of its land and mortgaged another third. The peasants had been freed by
7221-551: Was met with what is perceived as repression from an autocratic state, economic and political demands grew into and reinforced each other. Russian progressives formed the Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists in 1903 and the Union of Liberation in 1904, which called for a constitutional monarchy. Russian socialists formed two major groups: the Socialist Revolutionary Party (founded in 1902), which followed
7308-619: Was presented to the Tsar on 14 October [ O.S. 1 October]. It closely followed the demands of the Zemstvo Congress in September, granting basic civil rights , allowing the formation of political parties, extending the franchise towards universal suffrage , and establishing the Duma as the central legislative body. The Tsar waited and argued for three days, but finally signed the manifesto on 30 October [ O.S. 17 October] 1905, citing his desire to avoid
7395-422: Was selected as Minister of Education, the students had grown bolder and more resistant than ever." The events of 1905 came after progressive and academic agitation for more political democracy and limits to Tsarist rule in Russia, and an increase in strikes by workers against employers for radical economic demands and union recognition, (especially in southern Russia ). As an example, Trotsky who would assume
7482-498: Was set off by the international humiliation that resulted from the Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese War , which ended in the same year. Calls for revolution were intensified by the growing realisation of the need for reform by a variety of sectors of society. Politicians such as Sergei Witte had succeeded in partially industrializing Russia but failed to adequately meet the needs of the population. Tsar Nicholas II and
7569-399: Was successful and during the 1890s "Russian industrial growth averaged 8 percent per year. Railroad mileage grew from a very substantial base by 40 percent between 1892 and 1902." Ironically, Witte's success in implementing this program helped spur the 1905 revolution and eventually the 1917 revolution because it exacerbated social tensions . "Besides dangerously concentrating a proletariat,
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