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123-419: The early history of digital libraries is not well documented, but several key thinkers are connected to the emergence of the concept. Predecessors include Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine 's Mundaneum , an attempt begun in 1895 to gather and systematically catalogue the world's knowledge, with the hope of bringing about world peace. The visions of the digital library were largely realized a century later during

246-436: A web series is a television-like show that is shown exclusively and/or initially on the internet. This does not include the streaming of pre-existing traditional television shows. Examples include Dr. Horrible's Sing Along Blog , The Lizzie Bennett Diaries , The Guild , and The Twilight Zone (2019) . Digital sound recordings have played a role since the 1970s with the acceptance of pulse-code modulation (PCM) in

369-410: A digital form. This is in contrast to digital reformatting , through which analog materials become digital , as in the case of files created by scanning physical paper records. It is most often used in relation to digital libraries and the issues that go along with said organizations, such as digital preservation and intellectual property . However, as technologies have advanced and spread,

492-576: A subscription to have access to the CAD library 3D models. Generative Ai CAD libraries are being developed using linked open data of schematics and diagrams . CAD libraries can have assets such as 3D models , materials/ textures , bump maps , trees/plants, HDRIs , and different Computer graphics lighting sources to be rendered . A 2D graphics repository/library are vector graphics or raster graphics images/ icons that can be free use or proprietary . The advantages of digital libraries as

615-523: A biography of Otlet (1975) that was translated into Russian (1976) and Spanish (1996, 1999, and 2005). In 1985, Belgian academic André Canonne raised the possibility of recreating the Mundaneum as an archive and museum devoted to Otlet and others associated with them; his idea initially was to house it in the Belgian city of Liège . Cannone, with substantial help from others, eventually managed to open

738-510: A bit-stream environment, the digital library contains a built-in proxy server and search engine so the digital materials can be accessed using an Internet browser . Also, the materials are not preserved for the future. The eGranary is intended for use in places or situations where Internet connectivity is very slow, non-existent, unreliable, unsuitable or too expensive. In the past few years, procedures for digitizing books at high speed and comparatively low cost have improved considerably with

861-421: A book, " La Fin de la Guerre " ("The End of War") that defined a "World Charter of Human Rights" as the basis for an international federation. In 1910, Otlet and La Fontaine first envisioned a "city of knowledge", which Otlet originally named the " Palais Mondial " ("World Palace"), that would serve as a central repository for the world's information. In 1919, soon after the end of World War I, they convinced

984-408: A combined result consisting of the most relevant found items. Searching over previously harvested metadata involves searching a locally stored index of information that has previously been collected from the libraries in the federation. When a search is performed, the search mechanism does not need to make connections with the digital libraries it is searching—it already has a local representation of

1107-610: A court victory on proceeding with their book-scanning project that was halted by the Authors' Guild. This helped open the road for libraries to work with Google to better reach patrons who are accustomed to computerized information. According to Larry Lannom, Director of Information Management Technology at the nonprofit Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI), "all the problems associated with digital libraries are wrapped up in archiving". He goes on to state, "If in 100 years people can still read your article, we'll have solved

1230-652: A database of education citations, abstracts and texts that was created in 1964 and made available online through DIALOG in 1969. In 1994, digital libraries became widely visible in the research community due to a $ 24.4 million NSF managed program supported jointly by DARPA 's Intelligent Integration of Information (I3) program, NASA , and NSF itself. Successful research proposals came from six U.S. universities. The universities included Carnegie Mellon University , University of California-Berkeley , University of Michigan , University of Illinois , University of California-Santa Barbara , and Stanford University . Articles from

1353-640: A desk with two screens, switches and buttons, and a keyboard. He named this the " Memex ". This way individuals would be able to access stored books and files at a rapid speed. In 1956, Ford Foundation funded Licklider to analyze how libraries could be improved with technology. Almost a decade later, his book entitled " Libraries of the Future " included his vision. He wanted to create a system that would use computers and networks so human knowledge would be accessible for human needs and feedback would be automatic for machine purposes. This system contained three components,

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1476-666: A digital library can be much lower than that of a traditional library. A physical library must spend large sums of money paying for staff, book maintenance, rent, and additional books. Digital libraries may reduce or, in some instances, do away with these fees. Both types of library require cataloging input to allow users to locate and retrieve material. Digital libraries may be more willing to adopt innovations in technology providing users with improvements in electronic and audio book technology as well as presenting new forms of communication such as wikis and blogs; conventional libraries may consider that providing online access to their OP AC catalog

1599-485: A fellow lawyer with shared interests in bibliography and international relations, and the two became good friends. They were commissioned in 1892 by Belgium's Societé des Sciences sociales et politiques (Society of social and political sciences) to create bibliographies for various of the social sciences; they spent three years doing this. In 1895, they discovered the Dewey Decimal Classification ,

1722-757: A halt due to the outbreak of World War I . Otlet returned to Belgium, but quickly fled after it became occupied by the Germans; he spent the majority of the war in Paris and various cities in Switzerland . Both his sons fought in the Belgian army, and one of them, Jean, died during the war in the Battle of the Yser . Otlet spent much of the war trying to bring about peace, and the creation of multinational institutions that he felt could avert future wars. In 1914, he published

1845-416: A law degree on 15 July 1890. He married his step-cousin, Fernande Gloner, soon afterward, on 9 December 1890. He then clerked with famed lawyer Edmond Picard , a friend of his father's. Otlet soon became dissatisfied with his legal career, and began to take an interest in bibliography . His first published work on the subject was the essay "Something about bibliography", written in 1892. In it he expressed

1968-421: A library classification system that had been invented in 1876. They decided to try to expand this system to cover the classification of facts that Otlet had previously imagined. They wrote to the system's creator, Melvil Dewey , asking for permission to modify his system in this way; he agreed, so long as their system was not translated into English. They began work on this expansion soon afterwards and thus created

2091-517: A library's content. Popular open-source solutions include DSpace , Greenstone Digital Library (GSDL) , EPrints , Digital Commons , and the Fedora Commons -based systems Islandora and Samvera . Legal deposit is often covered by copyright legislation and sometimes by laws specific to legal deposit, and requires that one or more copies of all material published in a country should be submitted for preservation in an institution, typically

2214-477: A license to lend their resources. This may involve the restriction of lending out only one copy at a time for each license, and applying a system of digital rights management for this purpose. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 was an act created in the United States to attempt to deal with the introduction of digital works. This Act incorporates two treaties from the year 1996. It criminalizes

2337-400: A means of easily and rapidly accessing books, archives and images of various types are now widely recognized by commercial interests and public bodies alike. Traditional libraries are limited by storage space; digital libraries have the potential to store much more information, simply because digital information requires very little physical space to contain it. As such, the cost of maintaining

2460-404: A network of libraries, but public access is only available in the reading rooms in the libraries. The Australian National edeposit system has the same features, but also allows for remote access by the general public for most of the content. Physical archives differ from physical libraries in several ways. Traditionally, archives are defined as: The technology used to create digital libraries

2583-410: A physical, analog form, they are not truly born-digital. However, others maintain that while these materials will often not have a subsequent physical counterpart, having one does not bar them from being classified as 'born-digital'. For instance, Mahesh and Mittal identify two types of born-digital content, "exclusive digital" and "digital for print", allowing for a broader base of classification than

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2706-460: A prosperous family, and to the Verhaeren family, of which Emile Verhaeren was one of the most important Belgian poets. His father kept him out of school, hiring tutors instead, until he was 11, believing that classrooms were a stifling environment. Otlet, as a child, had few friends, and played regularly only with his younger brother Maurice. He soon developed a love of reading and books. At

2829-433: A scale inconceivable for traditional print and physical materials. Again, the first-sale doctrine , which, from a consumer standpoint, allows purchasers of materials to sell or give away items (such as books and CDs ), is not yet applied effectively to digital objects. Three reasons for this have been identified by Victor Calaba: "...first, license agreements imposed by software manufacturers typically prohibit exercise of

2952-724: A search interface which allows resources to be found. These resources are typically deep web (or invisible web) resources since they frequently cannot be located by search engine crawlers . Some digital libraries create special pages or sitemaps to allow search engines to find all their resources. Digital libraries frequently use the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH) to expose their metadata to other digital libraries, and search engines like Google Scholar , Yahoo! and Scirus can also use OAI-PMH to find these deep web resources. As with physical libraries, very relatively little

3075-439: A team of more than fifteen journalists, web developers, and designers to build. Digital preservation involves the conservation and maintenance of digital content. As with other digital objects , preservation must be a continuous and regular undertaking, as these materials do not show the same signs of degradation that print and other physical materials do. Invisible processes such as bit rot can lead to irreparable damage. In

3198-521: A utopian city dedicated to international institutions was largely inspired by the contemporary publication in 1913 by the Norwegian-American sculptor Hendrik Christian Andersen and the French architect Ernest Hébrard of an impressive series of Beaux-Arts plans for a World Centre of Communication (1913). For the design of his World City, Otlet collaborated with several architects. In this way

3321-894: A whole series of designs for the World City was developed. The most elaborated plans were: the design of a Mundaneum (1928) and a World City (1929) by Le Corbusier in Geneva next to the palace of the League of Nations, by Victor Bourgeois in Tervuren (1931) next to the Congo Museum, again by Le Corbusier (in collaboration with Huib Hoste ) on the left bank in Antwerp (1933), by Maurice Heymans in Chesapeake Bay near Washington (1935), and by Stanislas Jassinski and Raphaël Delville on

3444-411: A work if its format becomes obsolete. Copyright issues persist. As such, proposals have been put forward suggesting that digital libraries be exempt from copyright law. Although this would be very beneficial to the public, it may have a negative economic effect and authors may be less inclined to create new works. Another issue that complicates matters is the desire of some publishing houses to restrict

3567-466: Is Radiohead's 2007 release In Rainbows , released initially as a digital download. The music industry has changed dramatically with the increase in digital music, specifically digital downloads . The digital format and consumers' growing comfort with it has led to rising sales in single tracks . This growth is clearly still underway, with all of the ten best-selling singles since 2000 having been released since 2007. This does not necessarily signal

3690-433: Is a conflict of interest between libraries and the publishers who may wish to create online versions of their acquired content for commercial purposes. In 2010, it was estimated that twenty-three percent of books in existence were created before 1923 and thus out of copyright. Of those printed after this date, only five percent were still in print as of 2010. Thus, approximately seventy-two percent of books were not available to

3813-608: Is a type of semantic digital library. Keywords-based and semantic search are the two main types of searches. A tool is provided in the semantic search that create a group for augmentation and refinement for keywords-based search. Conceptual knowledge used in DjDL is centered around two forms; the subject ontology and the set of concept search patterns based on the ontology. The three type of ontologies that are associated to this search are bibliographic ontologies , community-aware ontologies, and subject ontologies. In traditional libraries,

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3936-421: Is also affected by licensing laws — the lack of ownership of their digital collections leaves libraries with nothing when their license expires, despite the costs already paid. Laws created to protect the intellectual property were written for analog works; as such, provisions such as the first-sale doctrine of US copyright law , which enables libraries to lend materials to patrons, have not been applied to

4059-603: Is an example of such a database, built in response to scientific communication needs in light of the pandemic. Beyond academia, digital collections have also recently been developed to appeal to a more general audience, as is the case with the Selected General Audience Content of the Internet-First University Press developed by Cornell University. This general-audience database contains specialized research information but

4182-414: Is an umbrella term for art created with a computer. Types include visual media, digital animation , computer-aided design , 3D models and interactive art . Webcomics , comics published primarily on the internet, are an example of exclusively born-digital art. Webcomics follow the tradition of user-generated content and may later be printed by the creator, but as they were originally disseminated through

4305-493: Is digitally organized for accessibility. The establishment of these archives has facilitated specialized forms of digital recordkeeping to fulfill various niches in online, research-based communication. Paul Otlet Paul Marie Ghislain Otlet ( / ɒ t ˈ l eɪ / ; French: [pɔl maʁi ɡilɛ̃ ɔtlɛ] ; 23 August 1868 – 10 December 1944) was a Belgian author, entrepreneur, lawyer and peace activist; predicting

4428-465: Is even more revolutionary for archives since it breaks down the second and third of these general rules. In other words, "digital archives" or "online archives" will still generally contain primary sources, but they are likely to be described individually rather than (or in addition to) in groups or collections. Further, because they are digital, their contents are easily reproducible and may indeed have been reproduced from elsewhere. The Oxford Text Archive

4551-526: Is generally considered to be the oldest digital archive of academic physical primary source materials. Archives differ from libraries in the nature of the materials held. Libraries collect individual published books and serials, or bounded sets of individual items. The books and journals held by libraries are not unique, since multiple copies exist and any given copy will generally prove as satisfactory as any other copy. The material in archives and manuscript libraries are "the unique records of corporate bodies and

4674-411: Is known about how users actually select books. There are two general strategies for searching a federation of digital libraries: distributed searching and searching previously harvested metadata . Distributed searching typically involves a client sending multiple search requests in parallel to a number of servers in the federation. The results are gathered, duplicates are eliminated or clustered, and

4797-480: Is particularly favorable to independent authors, because the digital marketplace creates a more direct connection between authors, their works, and the audience. Some publishing houses , including major ones such as Harlequin , have formed imprints for digital-only books in response to this trend. Publishers also offer digital-exclusive publications for use on e-book readers, such as the Kindle . One example of this

4920-860: Is sometimes used for libraries that have both physical collections and electronic collections. For example, American Memory is a digital library within the Library of Congress . Some important digital libraries also serve as long term archives, such as arXiv and the Internet Archive . Others, such as the Digital Public Library of America , seek to make digital information from various institutions widely accessible online. Many academic libraries are actively involved in building repositories of their institution's books, papers, theses, and other works that can be digitized or were 'born digital'. Many of these repositories are made available to

5043-689: Is sufficient. An important advantage to digital conversion is increased accessibility to users. They also increase availability to individuals who may not be traditional patrons of a library, due to geographic location or organizational affiliation. Digital libraries offer a variety of software packages, including those tailored for kids' educational games . Institutional repository software, which focuses primarily on ingest, preservation and access of locally produced documents, particularly locally produced academic outputs, can be found in Institutional repository software . This software may be proprietary, as

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5166-418: Is that harvesting and indexing systems are more resource-intensive and therefore expensive. Digital preservation aims to ensure that digital media and information systems are still interpretable into the indefinite future. Each necessary component of this must be migrated, preserved or emulated . Typically lower levels of systems ( floppy disks for example) are emulated, bit-streams (the actual files stored in

5289-470: Is the case with the Library of Congress which uses Digiboard and CTS to manage digital content. The design and implementation in digital libraries are constructed so computer systems and software can make use of the information when it is exchanged. These are referred to as semantic digital libraries. Semantic libraries are also used to socialize with different communities from a mass of social networks. DjDL

5412-492: The BBC Archives . In 1906, with his father Édouard near death and his businesses falling apart, Paul and his brother and five step-siblings formed a company, Otlet Frères ("Otlet Brothers") to try to manage these businesses, which included mines and railways. Paul, though he was consumed with his bibliographic work, became president of the company. In 1907, Édouard died, and the family struggled to maintain all parts of

5535-769: The Belgian Congo by drawing together "all the ne’er-do-wells of the various tribes of the Colony, aside from some hundreds of labourers". The Palais Mondial was briefly shuttered in 1922, due to lack of support from the government of Prime Minister Georges Theunis , but was reopened after lobbying from Otlet and La Fontaine. Otlet renamed the Palais Mondial to the Mundaneum in 1924. The RBU steadily grew to 13 million index cards in 1927; by its final year, 1934, it had reached more than 15 million. Index cards were stored in custom-designed cabinets, and indexed according to

5658-570: The COVID-19 pandemic , libraries and higher education institutions have launched digital archiving projects to document life during the pandemic, thus creating a digital, cultural record of collective memories from the period. Researchers have also utilized digital archiving to create specialized research databases . These databases compile digital records for use on international and interdisciplinary levels. COVID CORPUS, launched in October 2020,

5781-601: The Catholic Party (until 1900). His father remarried to Valerie Linden, daughter of famed botanist Jean Jules Linden ; the two eventually had five additional children. The family travelled often during this time, going on holidays and business trips to Italy , France and Russia . Otlet was educated at the Catholic University of Leuven and at the Free University of Brussels , where he earned

5904-566: The Concilium Bibliographicum for Zoology, and completed this initial publication in 1907. The system defines not only detailed subject classifications, but also an algebraic notation for referring to the intersection of several subjects; for example, the notation "31:[622+669](485)" refers to the statistics of mining and metallurgy in Sweden . The UDC is an example of an analytico-synthetic classification, i.e., it permits

6027-532: The League of Nations and its International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation (the forerunner of UNESCO ). Otlet and La Fontaine witnessed an unprecedented proliferation of information, resulting in the creation of new kinds of international organization. They saw in this organization an emerging global polity , and wished to help solidify it. La Fontaine won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1913. Otlet

6150-585: The Million Book Project , and Internet Archive . With continued improvements in book handling and presentation technologies such as optical character recognition and development of alternative depositories and business models, digital libraries are rapidly growing in popularity. Just as libraries have ventured into audio and video collections, so have digital libraries such as the Internet Archive. In 2016, Google Books project received

6273-760: The Universal Decimal Classification . During this time, Otlet and his wife then had two sons, Marcel and Jean, in quick succession. Otlet founded the Institut International de Bibliographie (IIB) in 1895, later renamed as (in English) the International Federation for Information and Documentation (FID). In 1894, he had Art Nouveau architect Octave van Rysselberghe build his mansion in Brussels,

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6396-657: The national library . Since the advent of electronic documents , legislation has had to be amended to cover the new formats, such as the 2016 amendment to the Copyright Act 1968 in Australia. Since then various types of electronic depositories have been built. The British Library 's Publisher Submission Portal and the German model at the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek have one deposit point for

6519-474: The scientific method , an objective view of the world can be gained. According to W. Boyd Rayward, his ideas placed him culturally and intellectually in the Belle Époque period of pre–World War I Europe, a period of great "cultural certitude". Otlet's writings have sometimes been called prescient of the current World Wide Web . His vision of a great network of knowledge was centered on documents and included

6642-566: The 1980s, the success of these endeavors resulted in OPAC replacing the traditional card catalog in many academic, public and special libraries. This permitted libraries to undertake additional rewarding co-operative efforts to support resource sharing and expand access to library materials beyond an individual library. An early example of a digital library is the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC),

6765-621: The 5S model to define a digital archive as a specific case of digital library able to take into consideration the peculiar features of archives. A computer-aided design library or CAD library is a cloud based repository of 3D models or parts for computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided engineering (CAE), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), or Building information modeling (BIM). Examples of CAD libraries are GrabCAD , Sketchup 3D Warehouse , Sketchfab , McMaster-Carr , TurboSquid , Chaos Cosmos , and Thingiverse . The models can be free and open source or proprietary and have to pay

6888-433: The Mundaneum as best as they could, and there it remained until it was forced to move again in 1972, well after Otlet's death. The World City or Cité Mondiale is a utopian vision by Paul Otlet of a city which like a universal exhibition brings together all the leading institutions of the world. The World City would radiate knowledge to the rest of the world and construct peace and universal cooperation. Otlet’s idea to design

7011-540: The Universal Decimal Classification. The collection also grew to include files (including letters, reports, newspaper articles, etc.) and images, contained in separate rooms; the index cards were meant to catalog all of these as well. The Mundaneum eventually contained 100,000 files and millions of images. In 1934, the Belgian government again cut off funding for the project, and the offices were closed. (Otlet protested by keeping vigil outside

7134-672: The ability to find works of interest is directly related to how well they were cataloged. While cataloging electronic works digitized from a library's existing holding may be as simple as copying or moving a record from the print to the electronic form, complex and born-digital works require substantially more effort. To handle the growing volume of electronic publications, new tools and technologies have to be designed to allow effective automated semantic classification and searching. While full-text search can be used for some items, there are many common catalog searches which cannot be performed using full text, including: Most digital libraries provide

7257-465: The age of six, a temporary decline in his father's wealth caused the family to move to Paris . At the age of 11, Paul went to school for the first time, a Jesuit school in Paris, where he stayed for the next three years. The family then returned to Brussels, and Paul studied at the prestigious Collège Saint-Michel in Brussels. In 1894, his father became a senator in the Belgian Senate for

7380-484: The arrival of the internet before World War II, he is among those considered to be the father of information science , a field he called "documentation". Otlet created the Universal Decimal Classification , which would later become a faceted classification . Otlet was responsible for the development of an early information retrieval tool, the " Repertoire Bibliographique Universel " (RBU) which utilized 3x5 inch index cards , used commonly in library catalogs around

7503-407: The attempt to circumvent measures which limit access to copyrighted materials. It also criminalizes the act of attempting to circumvent access control. This act provides an exemption for nonprofit libraries and archives which allows up to three copies to be made, one of which may be digital. This may not be made public or distributed on the web, however. Further, it allows libraries and archives to copy

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7626-537: The availability of the computer networks the information resources are expected to stay distributed and accessed as needed, whereas in Vannevar Bush 's essay As We May Think (1945) they were to be collected and kept within the researcher's Memex . The term virtual library was initially used interchangeably with digital library, but is now primarily used for libraries that are virtual in other senses (such as libraries which aggregate distributed content). In

7749-602: The belief that books were an inadequate way to store information, because the arrangement of facts contained within them was an arbitrary decision on the part of the author, making individual facts difficult to locate. A better storage system, Otlet wrote in his essay, would be cards containing individual "chunks" of information, that would allow "all the manipulations of classification and continuous interfiling." In addition would be needed "a very detailed synoptic outline of knowledge" that could allow classification of all of these chunks of data. In 1891, Otlet met Henri La Fontaine ,

7872-507: The business. In April 1908, Paul Otlet and his wife began divorce proceedings. Otlet remarried in 1912, to Cato Van Nederhesselt. In 1913, La Fontaine won the Nobel Peace Prize , and invested his winnings into Otlet and La Fontaine's bibliographic ventures, which were suffering from lack of funding. Otlet journeyed to the United States in early 1914 to try to get additional funding from the U.S. Government, but his efforts soon came to

7995-479: The case of born-digital content, deterioration can occur in the form of bit rot , a process in which digital files degrade over time, and link rot , a process in which URLs link to pages on the internet that are no longer available. Incompatibility is also a concern, in regard to the eventual obsolescence of both hardware and software capable of making sense of the documents. Many questions arise regarding what should be archived and preserved and who should undertake

8118-472: The concept of being born-digital has also been discussed in relation to personal consumer-based sectors, with the rise of e-books and evolving digital music. Other terms that might be encountered as synonymous include "natively digital", "digital-first", and "digital-exclusive". There exists some inconsistency in defining born-digital materials. Some believe such materials must exist in digital form exclusively; in other words, if they can be transferred into

8241-579: The context by means of the archival bond . Archival descriptions are the fundamental means to describe, understand, retrieve and access archival material. At the digital level, archival descriptions are usually encoded by means of the Encoded Archival Description XML format. The EAD is a standardized electronic representation of archival description which makes it possible to provide union access to detailed archival descriptions and resources in repositories distributed throughout

8364-470: The corpus of knowledge, the question, and the answer. Licklider called it a procognitive system. In 1980 the role of the library in an electronic society was the focus of a clinic on library applications of data processing . Participants included Frederick Wilfrid Lancaster , Derek De Solla Price , Gerard Salton , and Michael Gorman) . Early projects centered on the creation of an electronic card catalogue known as Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC). By

8487-412: The demise of CDs, as they are still more popular than digital albums , but it does show that this changing born-digital content is having a significant influence on sales and the industry. WebExhibits are websites that act as virtual museums for any variety of content. These often use both primary and secondary historical sources, maps, timelines, infographics, and other data visualizations to showcase

8610-1167: The desire of a digital library to become expanded to include best sellers, but publisher licensing may hinder the process. Many digital libraries offer recommender systems to reduce information overload and help their users discovering relevant literature. Some examples of digital libraries offering recommender systems are IEEE Xplore , Europeana , and GESIS Sowiport . The recommender systems work mostly based on content-based filtering but also other approaches are used such as collaborative filtering and citation-based recommendations. Beel et al. report that there are more than 90 different recommendation approaches for digital libraries, presented in more than 200 research articles . Typically, digital libraries develop and maintain their own recommender systems based on existing search and recommendation frameworks such as Apache Lucene or Apache Mahout . Digital libraries, or at least their digital collections, also have brought their own problems and challenges in areas such as: There are many large scale digitisation projects that perpetuate these problems. Large scale digitization projects are underway at Google ,

8733-578: The development of both the League of Nations and the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, which was later merged into UNESCO . At several occasions, Otlet published racist statements dressed up as scientific facts, starting at the beginning of his career with L'Afrique Aux Noirs (1888) where he argued that white people or 'westernized' blacks were to be tasked with 'civilising' Africa. Similarly, in Monde (1935), near

8856-435: The digital realm and preliminary versions of work are increasingly made available, knowing when to archive presents further complications. For digital libraries and repositories that are used as reference materials, such as PBS LearningMedia , which provides educational resources for teachers, staying relevance is of utmost importance. The information must be factually accurate and include context, while staying current to

8979-429: The digital realm. Therefore, certain copyrighted digital content that is licensed rather than owned, as is common with many digital materials, is often of limited use since it cannot be transmitted to patrons at various computers or lent through an interloan agreement. However, with regards to the preservation functions of libraries and archives and the subsequent need to make copies of born-digital materials,

9102-484: The disks) are preserved and operating systems are emulated as a virtual machine . Only where the meaning and content of digital media and information systems are well understood is migration possible, as is the case for office documents. However, at least one organization, the Wider Net Project, has created an offline digital library, the eGranary , by reproducing materials on a 6 TB hard drive . Instead of

9225-743: The early 1990s, new interest arose in Otlet's speculations and theories about the organization of knowledge, the use of information technologies, and globalization. His 1934 masterpiece, the Traité de documentation , was reprinted in 1989 by the Centre de Lecture publique de la Communauté française in Belgium. (Neither the Traité nor its companion work, "Monde" (World) has been translated into English so far.) In 1990 Professor W. Boyd Rayward published an English translation of some of Otlet's writings. He also published

9348-439: The early days of digital libraries, there was discussion of the similarities and differences among the terms digital , virtual , and electronic . A distinction is often made between content that was created in a digital format, known as born-digital , and information that has been converted from a physical medium, e.g. paper, through digitization . Not all electronic content is in digital data format. The term hybrid library

9471-455: The effects they have. However, some universals do exist across these definitions. All make clear the fact that born-digital media must originate digitally. Also, they agree that this media must be able to be utilized in a digital form (whether exclusively or otherwise), while they do not have to exist or be used as analog materials. The term "born digital" is of uncertain origin. While it may have occurred to multiple people at various times, it

9594-566: The end of his life, he claimed the biological superiority of white people. His interest in advancing 'The African Issue' was fuelled by a firm conviction of the superiority of European culture and intelligence which fitted the Enlightenment project that he was dedicated to. Otlet’s organisational support to the 1921 Pan-African Congress at the Palais Mondial (later: Mundaneum ) therefore needs to be considered in connection with

9717-628: The first sale doctrine; second, traditional copyright law may not support application of the first sale doctrine to digital works; finally, the [Digital Millennium Copyright Act ] functionally prevents users from making copies of digitized works and prohibits the necessary bypassing of access control mechanisms to facilitate a transfer." Increasingly, institutions are more interested in subscribing to digital versions of journals, something observed as some scholarly journals have unbundled their print and electronic editions and allowed for separate subscription; these trends have created questions about

9840-453: The former definition provides. Furthermore, it has been pointed out that certain works may incorporate components that are both born-digital and digitized , further blurring the lines between what should and should not be considered 'born-digital.' For example, a digital video created may utilize historical film footage that has been converted. It is important to be aware of these discrepancies when thinking about born-digital materials and

9963-420: The general public with few restrictions, in accordance with the goals of open access , in contrast to the publication of research in commercial journals, where the publishers usually limit access rights. Irrespective of access rights, institutional, truly free, and corporate repositories can be referred to as digital libraries. Institutional repository software is designed for archiving, organizing, and searching

10086-527: The government of Belgium to give them the space and funding for this project, arguing that it would help Belgium bolster its bid to house the League of Nations headquarters. They were given space in the left wing of the Palais du Cinquantenaire , a government building in Brussels . They then hired staff to help add to their Universal Bibliographic Repertory. In 1921 Otlet wrote to W. E. B. Du Bois offering

10209-455: The great expansion of the Internet. Vannevar Bush and J.C.R. Licklider are two contributors that advanced this idea into then current technology. Bush had supported research that led to the bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima . After seeing the disaster, he wanted to create a machine that would show how technology can lead to understanding instead of destruction. This machine would include

10332-609: The historical past. One example is Clio Visualizing History 's Click! The Ongoing Feminist Revolution , a web exhibit about the American women's movement from the 1940s to the present. Clio Visualizing History was founded by Lola Van Wagenen in 1996 to meet the growing need for innovative history projects in multi-media platforms. As existing print publications migrated to born-digital releases, digital native news websites such as HuffPo and Buzzfeed News have grown substantially. This trend toward web-exclusive content has seen

10455-494: The information. This approach requires the creation of an indexing and harvesting mechanism which operates regularly, connecting to all the digital libraries and querying the whole collection in order to discover new and updated resources. OAI-PMH is frequently used by digital libraries for allowing metadata to be harvested. A benefit to this approach is that the search mechanism has full control over indexing and ranking algorithms, possibly allowing more consistent results. A drawback

10578-474: The internet, they are considered to be born-digital media. Many webcomics are published on existing social media websites, while others use webcomic-specific platforms or their own domains. E-books are books that can be read through the digital screens of computers, smartphones, or dedicated devices . The e-book sector of the book industry has flourished in recent years, with increasing numbers of e-books and e-book readers being developed and sold. E-publishing

10701-598: The invention and dissemination of mobile phones capable of photography , sales of digital cameras eventually surpassed that of analog cameras. The early to mid 2000s saw the rise of photo storage websites, such as Flickr and Photobucket , and social media websites dedicated primarily to sharing digital photographs, including Instagram , Pinterest , Imgur , and Tumblr . Digital image files include Joint Photographic Experts Group ( JPEG ), Tagged Image File Format ( TIFF ), Portable Network Graphics ( PNG ), Graphic Interchange Format ( GIF ), and raw image format . Digital art

10824-418: The job. Vast amounts of born-digital content are created constantly and institutions are forced to decide what and how much should be saved. Because linking plays such a large role in the digital setting, whether a responsibility exists to maintain access to links (and therefore context) is debated, especially when considering the scope of such a task. Additionally, since publishing is not as delineated in

10947-516: The laws of many countries have been changing, allowing for agreements to be made between these institutions and the rights holders of born-digital content. Consumers have also had to deal with intellectual property as it concerns their ownership of and ability to control the born-digital material that they buy. Piracy proves to be a bigger problem with digital objects, including those that are born-digital, because such materials can be copied and spread in perfect condition with speed and distance on

11070-545: The left bank in Antwerp (1941). In these different designs the program of the World City stayed more or less fixed, containing a World Museum, a World University, a World Library and Documentation Centre, Offices for the International Associations, Offices or Embassies for the Nations, an Olympic Centre, a residential area, and a park. Otlet integrated new media, as they were invented, into his vision of

11193-403: The limit is reached, the library can repurchase access rights at a lower cost than the original price." While from a publishing perspective, this sounds like a good balance of library lending and protecting themselves from a feared decrease in book sales, libraries are not set up to monitor their collections as such. They acknowledge the increased demand of digital materials available to patrons and

11316-517: The linking of one concept to another. Although some have described it as faceted, it is not, though there are some faceted elements in it. A truly faceted classification consists solely of simple concepts; there are many compound concepts listed in the UDC. It is still used by many libraries and bibliographic services outside the English-speaking world, and in some non-traditional contexts such as

11439-510: The locked offices, but to no avail.) The collection remained untouched within those offices, however, until 1940, when Germany invaded Belgium. Requisitioning the Mundaneum's quarters to hold a collection of Third Reich art and destroying substantial amounts of its collections in the process, the Germans forced Otlet and his colleagues to find a new home for the Mundaneum. In a large but decrepit building in Leopold Park they reconstituted

11562-486: The master copy. At various times between 1900 and 1914, attempts were made to send full copies of the RBU to cities such as Paris, Washington, D.C. and Rio de Janeiro ; however, difficulties in copying and transportation meant that no city received more than a few hundred thousand cards. In 1904, Otlet and La Fontaine began to publish their classification scheme, which they termed the Universal Decimal Classification . The UDC

11685-504: The networked knowledge-base of the future. In the early 1900s, Otlet worked with engineer Robert Goldschmidt on storing bibliographic data on microfilm (then known as "micro-photography"). These experiments continued into the 1920s, and by the late 1920s he attempted along with colleagues to create an encyclopedia printed entirely on microfilm, known as the Encyclopaedia Microphotica Mundaneum , which

11808-500: The new Mundaneum in Mons , Belgium in 1998. This museum is still in operation, and contains the personal papers of Otlet and La Fontaine and the archives of the various organizations they created along with other collections important to the modern history of Belgium. Otlet scholar W. Boyd Rayward has written that Otlet's thinking is a product of the 19th century and the philosophy of positivism , which holds that, through careful study and

11931-579: The notions of hyperlinks , search engines , remote access, and social networks —although these notions were described by different names. In 1934, Otlet laid out this vision of the computer and internet in what he called "Radiated Library" vision. Paul Otlet's grave is located in the Etterbeek Cemetery, in Wezembeek-Oppem , Flemish Brabant, Belgium. Born-digital The term born-digital refers to materials that originate in

12054-413: The papers of individuals and families". A fundamental characteristic of archives is that they have to keep the context in which their records have been created and the network of relationships between them in order to preserve their informative content and provide understandable and useful information over time. The fundamental characteristic of archives resides in their hierarchical organization expressing

12177-877: The problem." Daniel Akst , author of The Webster Chronicle , proposes that "the future of libraries—and of information—is digital". Peter Lyman and Hal Variant , information scientists at the University of California, Berkeley , estimate that "the world's total yearly production of print, film, optical, and magnetic content would require roughly 1.5 billion gigabytes of storage". Therefore, they believe that "soon it will be technologically possible for an average person to access virtually all recorded information". Digital archives are an evolving medium and they develop under various circumstances. Alongside large scale repositories, other digital archiving projects have also evolved in response to needs in research and research communication on various institutional levels. For example, during

12300-402: The products of the vast amount of information created by organizations and individuals on computers, data sets and electronic records must exist in the context of other activities. Common content includes: Digital photography has allowed larger groups of people to participate in the process, art form, and pastime of photography. With the advent of digital cameras in the late 1980s, followed by

12423-609: The projects summarized their progress at their halfway point in May 1996. Stanford research, by Sergey Brin and Larry Page , led to the founding of Google . Early attempts at creating a model for digital libraries included the DELOS Digital Library Reference Model and the 5S Framework. The term digital library was first popularized by the NSF / DARPA / NASA Digital Libraries Initiative in 1994. With

12546-444: The public. There is a dilution of responsibility that occurs as a result of the distributed nature of digital resources. Complex intellectual property matters may become involved since digital material is not always owned by a library. The content is, in many cases, public domain or self-generated content only. Some digital libraries, such as Project Gutenberg , work to digitize out-of-copyright works and make them freely available to

12669-539: The public. An estimate of the number of distinct books still existent in library catalogues from 2000 BC to 1960, has been made. The Fair Use Provisions (17 USC § 107) under the Copyright Act of 1976 provide specific guidelines under which circumstances libraries are allowed to copy digital resources. Four factors that constitute fair use are "Purpose of the use, Nature of the work, Amount or substantiality used and Market impact". Some digital libraries acquire

12792-568: The racist statements that he published both before and after the event. In 1933, Otlet proposed building in Belgium near Antwerp a "gigantic neutral World City " to employ a massive number of workers, in order to alleviate the unemployment generated by the Great Depression . Otlet died in 1944, not long before the end of World War II, having seen his major project, the Mundaneum, shuttered, and having lost all his funding sources. According to Otlet scholar W. Boyd Rayward : And: In

12915-601: The recording process. Since then, numerous means of storing and delivering digital audio have been developed, including web streams , compact discs and mp3 audio files. Increasingly, digital audio are only available via download , lacking any kind of tangible counterpart. One example of this trend is the 2008 recording of Hector Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique by Los Angeles Philharmonic under Gustavo Dudamel. Available through download only, it has presented problems for libraries which may want to carry this work but cannot due to licensing limitations. Another example

13038-456: The remaining items are sorted and presented back to the client. Protocols like Z39.50 are frequently used in distributed searching. A benefit to this approach is that the resource-intensive tasks of indexing and storage are left to the respective servers in the federation. A drawback to this approach is that the search mechanism is limited by the different indexing and ranking capabilities of each database; therefore, making it difficult to assemble

13161-426: The requesters copies of the relevant index cards for each query; scholar Charles van den Heuvel has referred to the service as an "analog search engine ". By 1912, this service responded to over 1,500 queries a year. Users of this service were even warned if their query was likely to produce more than 50 results per search. Otlet envisioned a copy of the RBU in each major city around the world, with Brussels holding

13284-468: The result that it is now possible to digitize millions of books per year. The Google book-scanning project is also working with libraries to offer digitize books pushing forward on the digitize book realm. Digital libraries are hampered by copyright law because, unlike with traditional printed works, the laws of digital copyright are still being formed. The republication of material on the web by libraries may require permission from rights holders, and there

13407-529: The rise of "news applications," or news articles built with interactive features that cannot be replicated on print. "News Apps" are often heavily data-driven , using interactive graphics custom-built for the story by a team of software specialists in addition to the core group of writers and editors. Examples include Baltimore Homicides from The Baltimore Sun , Do No Harm from the Las Vegas Sun , and Snow Fall from The New York Times , which took

13530-454: The so-called Hotel Otlet . In 1895, Otlet and La Fontaine also began the creation of a collection of index cards, meant to catalog facts, that came to be known as the " Repertoire Bibliographique Universel " (RBU), or the "Universal Bibliographic Repertory". By the end of 1895 it had grown to 400,000 entries; later it would reach more than 15 million entries. In 1896, Otlet set up a fee-based service to answer questions by mail, by sending

13653-458: The use of digit materials such as e-books purchased by libraries. Whereas with printed books, the library owns the book until it can no longer be circulated, publishers want to limit the number of times an e-book can be checked out before the library would need to repurchase that book. "[HarperCollins] began licensing use of each e-book copy for a maximum of 26 loans. This affects only the most popular titles and has no practical effect on others. After

13776-681: The use of the Palais Mondial for the 2nd Pan-African Congress . Although both Otlet and Fontaine offered a warm welcome to the Congress, these sentiments were not shared across all of Belgian society. The Brussels-based paper Neptune stated that the organisers – particularly the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People were funded by the Bolsheviks – and raised concern that it might lead to difficulties in

13899-462: The wake of World War II , the contributions of Otlet to the field of information science were lost sight of in the rising popularity of the ideas of American information scientists such as Vannevar Bush , Douglas Engelbart , Ted Nelson and by such theorists of information organization as Seymour Lubetzky . Beginning in the 1980s, and especially after the advent of the World Wide Web in

14022-508: The website's main goals. As in the case of preservation, bit rot, link rot, and incompatibility negatively affect how users might access born-digital records, while mere functionality, e.g. video quality and legibility of any text, is also a concern. Additionally, considerations on how digital content can be inclusive of people with disabilities should be made, particularly in conjunction with assistive technologies such as screen readers , screen magnifiers , and speech-to-text software . Access

14145-554: The world (now largely displaced by the advent of the online public access catalog (OPAC)). Otlet wrote numerous essays on how to collect and organize the world's knowledge, culminating in two books, the Traité de Documentation (1934) and Monde: Essai d'universalisme (1935). In 1907, following a huge international conference, Otlet and Henri La Fontaine created the Central Office of International Associations, which

14268-430: The world. Given the importance of archives, a dedicated formal model, called NEsted SeTs for Object Hierarchies (NESTOR), built around their peculiar constituents, has been defined. NESTOR is based on the idea of expressing the hierarchical relationships between objects through the inclusion property between sets, in contrast to the binary relation between nodes exploited by the tree. NESTOR has been used to formally extend

14391-584: Was a firm believer in international cooperation to promote both the spread of knowledge and peace between nations. A self-identified liberal, universalist and pacifist, his endeavor to catalog and classify is an expression of the commitment to the Eurocentric project to structure knowledge according to universal categories and taxonomies, of which the Universal Decimal Classification is an example. The Union of International Associations, which he had founded in 1907 with Henri La Fontaine, later participated to

14514-459: Was born in Brussels , Belgium on 23 August 1868, the oldest child of Édouard Otlet (Brussels 13 June 1842- Blanquefort , France , 20 October 1907) and Maria (née Van Mons). His father, Édouard, was a wealthy businessman who made his fortune selling trams around the world. His mother died in 1871 at the age of 24, when Otlet was three. Through his mother, he was related to the Van Mons family,

14637-509: Was coined independently by web developer Randel (Rafi) Metz in 1993, who acquired the domain name "borndigital.com" then and sustained it as a personal website for 18 years until 2011. The domain is now owned by a web developer in New Zealand. The original website is archived here . Much of the grey literature that exists today are almost entirely conducted online, due in part to the accessibility and speed of internet communications. As

14760-538: Was housed in the Mundaneum. In the 1920s and 1930s, he wrote about radio and television as other forms of conveying information, writing in the 1934 Traité de documentation that "one after another, marvellous inventions have immensely extended the possibilities of documentation." In the same book, he predicted that media that would convey feel, taste and smell would also eventually be invented, and that an ideal information-conveyance system should be able to handle all of what he called "sense-perception documents". Otlet

14883-549: Was originally based on Melvil Dewey's Decimal classification system. Otlet and La Fontaine contacted Melvil Dewey to inquire if they could modify the Dewey Decimal System to suit the parameters of their bibliographic project, namely, organizing information in the social and natural sciences. Dewey granted them permission as long as it substantially differed from his original version. They worked with numerous subject experts, for example with Herbert Haviland Field at

15006-516: Was renamed to the Union of International Associations in 1910, and which is still located in Brussels . They also created a great international center called at first Palais Mondial (World Palace), later, the Mundaneum to house the collections and activities of their various organizations and institutes. Otlet and La Fontaine were peace activists who endorsed the internationalist politics of

15129-468: Was with the simultaneous launch of Amazon's Kindle 2 with the Stephen King novelette Ur . In recent years, however, the sale of e-books from traditional publishers has decreased, due in part to increasing prices. Videos that are born-digital vary in type and usage. Vlogs , an amalgamation of "video" and "blog," are streamed and consumed on video-sharing websites such as YouTube . Similarly,

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