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71-469: Engineering Magazine was a popular journal about engineering , technology , and industry . It described the system of manufacturing which has come to be known as distinctively American. Several leading authors of the efficiency movement published the first versions of their seminal works in the Engineering Magazine . With Frederick W. Taylor named the father of scientific management ,

142-698: A broad range of more specialized fields of engineering , each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics , applied science , and types of application. See glossary of engineering . The term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium , meaning "cleverness". The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET ) has defined "engineering" as: The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate

213-407: A commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals , specialty chemicals , petroleum refining , microfabrication , fermentation , and biomolecule production . Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings. Civil engineering

284-533: A count of 2,000. There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining , mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier. The foundations of electrical engineering in

355-420: A demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools . Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until John Wilkinson invented his boring machine , which is considered the first machine tool . Other machine tools included the screw cutting lathe , milling machine , turret lathe and the metal planer . Precision machining techniques were developed in

426-704: A funeral at St. Thomas Episcopal Church in which pall bearers included the President of the Lackawanna Railroad , Orlando Harriman Jr. and various distinguished military officers, he was interred at Arlington National Cemetery , and his widow awarded a pension based on his military service. In the 1912 article "The unit system on the Harriman Lines" in the Engineering Magazine Hine wrote: Organization has been termed

497-616: A lieutenant in the 6th United States Infantry . While stationed at Newport Barracks in northern Kentucky, he completed a bachelor of laws degree at Cincinnati Law School in 1893. He married Helen Underwood on March 27, 1915. She was the daughter of former lieutenant governor of Kentucky John C. Underwood . Leaving the Army in August 1895 to enter railway service, Hine worked as freight brakeman, switchman, yardmaster, emergency conductor, chief clerk to superintendent, and trainmaster . When

568-664: A people. The periodical is published under this title until October 1916. Sequentially from Nov. 1916 to 1927 it was published as Industrial Management. In Jan. 1928 the magazine was absorbed in Factory and Industrial Management , short Factory , which was absorbed in Manufacturing Industries in Mar. 1929, and eventually absorbed in Factory Management and Maintenance , which ran until the early 1950s. It

639-400: A result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers. If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result. It is generally insufficient to build

710-469: A smaller sister of sociology, the science of human nature. Industrial organization, including that of transportation and commerce, reflects and typifies in a greater or less degree the sociological development of a people." His series of articles were republished in the 1912 book, entitled "Modern Organization: An Exposition of the Unit System." In this work Hine also stated: The greatest present need

781-411: A technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements. Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety , marketability, productivity, and serviceability . By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for

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852-643: A testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Pharos of Alexandria , were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East . The wedge and

923-909: A useful purpose. Examples of bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals, and tissue-engineered organs. Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle branches of the practice. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering fields are manufacturing engineering , acoustical engineering , corrosion engineering , instrumentation and control , aerospace , automotive , computer , electronic , information engineering , petroleum , environmental , systems , audio , software , architectural , agricultural , biosystems , biomedical , geological , textile , industrial , materials , and nuclear engineering . These and other branches of engineering are represented in

994-644: A way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline of military engineering . The pyramids in ancient Egypt , ziggurats of Mesopotamia , the Acropolis and Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts , Via Appia and Colosseum, Teotihuacán , and the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur , among many others, stand as

1065-513: Is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, he or she may become multi-disciplined through experience. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches: chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering. Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on

1136-414: Is an antidote for the unwillingness of men to profit by the previous experience of others. It would be amusing, were it not so expensive, to watch the gropings of many corporation officers for methods to test efficiency. Ignorant of fundamental principles, intolerant of outside suggestions, unable to detect the analogy in other undertakings, they repeat the expensive experiments of the past. A 1913 review in

1207-734: Is associated with anything constructed on or within the Earth. This discipline applies geological sciences and engineering principles to direct or support the work of other disciplines such as civil engineering , environmental engineering , and mining engineering . Geological engineers are involved with impact studies for facilities and operations that affect surface and subsurface environments, such as rock excavations (e.g. tunnels ), building foundation consolidation, slope and fill stabilization, landslide risk assessment, groundwater monitoring, groundwater remediation , mining excavations, and natural resource exploration. One who practices engineering

1278-497: Is called an engineer , and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer , Chartered Engineer , Incorporated Engineer , Ingenieur , European Engineer , or Designated Engineering Representative . In the engineering design process, engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. Engineers need proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As

1349-736: Is one last time renamed to Modern Manufacturing . Several notable people participated in the organization of the Engineering Magazine : Notable editors Authors who published articles in the Engineering Magazine : French (1914) stated, that the Engineering Magazine Co. has published a number of well-known books on works management. Some notable examples: The Engineering Magazine Co. in New York also published some important indexes, such as The Engineering index annual. A 1966 review in Business Week summarized, that

1420-400: Is that the organizations are founded upon principles that are in accord with modern progressive ideas and that tend to bring out the latent intelligence, loyalty and strength of all its members. The other is that the important details of factory work are cared for by systems which are homogeneous, flexible and efficient; systems which leave nothing to chance, but which care for the smallest and

1491-428: Is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace / aircraft products, weapon systems , transportation products, engines , compressors , powertrains , kinematic chains , vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing , robotics, turbines, audio equipments, and mechatronics . Bioengineering is the engineering of biological systems for

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1562-664: Is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines, including structural engineering , environmental engineering , and surveying . It is traditionally considered to be separate from military engineering . Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as broadcast engineering , electrical circuits , generators , motors , electromagnetic / electromechanical devices, electronic devices , electronic circuits , optical fibers , optoelectronic devices , computer systems, telecommunications , instrumentation , control systems , and electronics . Mechanical engineering

1633-455: The Journal of Accountancy stated that Hines was "a firm believer in the personal equation in industry, commerce and all departments of business. Basing his argument to a great extent upon the successful operation of the unit system as applied on the so-called "Harriman lines" he goes step by step through the ideal method of management and operation to what he considers the practical solution of

1704-445: The Engineering Magazine founded by Dunlap in 1891 "had long before become the quality magazine in the field of business management. If Frederick W. Taylor was the father of scientific management, the Engineering Magazine was most certainly the mother of the entire management movement — the family forum for every pioneer in management 20 years before efficiency became a national fad." Tsoukas & Knudsen (2005) added, that "during

1775-517: The Engineering Magazine has been called "the mother of the entire management movement." The Engineering Magazine started as an illustrated monthly magazine devoted to industrial progress, with its first number published in April 1891. An 1891 review explained, that the magazine is devoted to the popular treatment of engineering in all its branches, and is "certainly worthy of support by all who desire to keep pace with industrial development throughout

1846-681: The Interstate Commerce Commission . In 1907 Hine assisted in the revising the business methods of the Department of the Interior at Washington, D.C. Then he was appointed bankruptcy receiver of the Washington, Arlington & Falls Church Electric Railway . In 1910, Hine became temporary special representative of President Taft , planning ways to improve the organization and methods of the executive departments of

1917-864: The Neo-Assyrian period (911–609) BC. The Egyptian pyramids were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza . The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep . As one of the officials of the Pharaoh , Djosèr , he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid ) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. The earliest practical water-powered machines,

1988-547: The Newcomen steam engine . Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of ' hydraulic lime ' (a form of mortar which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern cement , because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to

2059-754: The Southern Pacific Lines in Mexico and the Arizona Eastern, responsible for about 1,600 miles of railway. During World War I, on August 5, 1917, Hine (then living in New York City) was drafted to serve as Colonel of Infantry for New York's National Guard . His unit was sent overseas, and participated at Saint-Mihiel before the war ended and he was honorably discharged on January 10, 1919. Hine died in Manhattan in 1927. After

2130-595: The Spanish–American War began in 1898 he quit railway service and participated in the Santiago campaign as a major of volunteers. After the war he re-entered railway work, rising to trainmaster and later general superintendent. Subsequently, he did special railway work in various staff positions for both large and small railways in the United States, Canada and Mexico. Hine inspected safety appliances for

2201-455: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium ( c.  1250 ), meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention." Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering entered the lexicon as

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2272-528: The inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times. The wheel , along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC. The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East , where it was used in a simple balance scale , and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology . The lever was also used in

2343-566: The shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia c.  3000 BC , and then in ancient Egyptian technology c.  2000 BC . The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC, and ancient Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1802 BC). The screw , the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during

2414-639: The water wheel and watermill , first appeared in the Persian Empire , in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC. Kush developed the Sakia during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of human energy. Hafirs were developed as a type of reservoir in Kush to store and contain water as well as boost irrigation. Sappers were employed to build causeways during military campaigns. Kushite ancestors built speos during

2485-412: The 14th century when an engine'er (literally, one who builds or operates a siege engine ) referred to "a constructor of military engines". In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, i.e. , a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult ). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, e.g. ,

2556-426: The 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta , Michael Faraday , Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872. The theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwell's equations ) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics . The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated

2627-603: The 36 licensed member institutions of the UK Engineering Council . New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, Earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including engineering studies , environmental science , engineering ethics and philosophy of engineering . Aerospace engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of aircraft , satellites and rockets . Marine engineering covers

2698-576: The 9th century. In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable automata / robots . He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine , where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns. Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights , clockmakers , instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology. A standard reference for

2769-546: The Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing , two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are widely used in fields such as robotics and automotive engineering . Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hunnic armies employed military machines and inventions such as artillery which

2840-484: The Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC. Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism , an early known mechanical analog computer , and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes , are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as

2911-410: The Harriman Lines" by Charles DeLano Hine (1867–1927) was one of the first to acknowledge the study of organizations as a separate fields of study. Hine wrote, that organization has been termed a smaller sister of sociology, the science of human nature. Industrial organization, including that of transportation and commerce, reflects and typifies in a greater or less degree the sociological development of

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2982-546: The United States government. Meantime, in July, 1908, he had become special representative of Mr. Julius Kruttschnitt , director of maintenance and operation of the Harriman Lines, and had entered on a study of the needs of the operating organization of those railways and of the means that should be adopted to meet those needs. This report led most of the Harriman Lines to adopt the unit system of organization. On January 15, 1912, Major Hine became vice-president and general manager of

3053-502: The United States that flourished from the 1890s to the 1920s. According to Tsoukas & Knudsen (2005) in this period the concept of the organization as a system "assumed coherence and autonomy and became an object of independent inquiry." One of the first to express this concept, was Charles U. Carpenter how stated Engineering Magazine (1902): In seeking the reason for the lasting and commanding success of American business organizations of today, two facts will stand out prominently. One

3124-591: The United States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S. Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers , there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in World War I . Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments. Engineering

3195-409: The aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering. The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering ) awarded in

3266-571: The design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of watercraft and stationary structures like oil platforms and ports . Computer engineering (CE) is a branch of engineering that integrates several fields of computer science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software . Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering ), software design , and hardware-software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering. Geological engineering

3337-407: The development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants. The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes. Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to

3408-418: The development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty. Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth century. Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to

3479-510: The editors of the Engineering Magazine acknowledge this development: It is almost exactly ten years since The Engineering Magazine laid down the first clear definitions of that system of manufacturing which has come to be known as distinctively American. During the entire intervening period, these pages have been the repository of the leading literature of the subject — of the classics in the science of engineering as applied to mechanical production. We have numbered among our contributors most of

3550-757: The end that our circle of readers may embrace, in addition to professional men, the thousands of intelligent business men who are interested or actively engaged in the industrial enterprises of our times, but who are without technical training." Alexander (2008) recalled that the "Engineering Magazine was a witness to the workings of technical efficiency. Directed toward readers who were technically and mathematically trained it encouraged them to base their social contributions on professionalized status, primarily as mechanical engineers but also as physicists, civil engineers, and, increasingly after 1900, as industrial managers and governmental officials. Engineering Magazine came out monthly, each issue compact and dense, sitting heavy in

3621-421: The first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training. The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for blast furnaces lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in blast furnaces , which enabled

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3692-409: The first half of the 19th century. These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing interchangeable parts lead to large scale factory production by the late 19th century. The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with

3763-750: The first half of the twentieth century, the rhetoric and practice of organizational systems have traveled from engineering circles to additional fields and became widely known in American industry and academia. In 1916, John Dunlap the editor of Engineering Magazine inaugurated Industrial Management which was devoted to issues of organizational systematization and became a professional outlet for organizational thought. Yehouda Shenhav (2007) recalled that "the embryonic engineering/management ideas that were published in these magazines were later collected and collated in books... These books were read by sociologists, psychologists, engineers, political scientists, and became

3834-516: The first versions of their seminal works in the Engineering Magazine: Harrington Emerson 's Twelve Principles of Efficiency appeared in serial form from 1909 to 1911, and the magazine was among the first to publish Gantt 's influential efficiency charts." In the first decade the Engineering Magazine made an important contribution to the codification and crystallization of the study of organizations. In 1906

3905-506: The great specialists in the practice of "Production Engineering" — the modern profession based upon this highly modern literature — and the fundamental principles of systematized specialized, standardized, and repetitive manufacture have been set forth more fully and lucidly here than anywhere else. The emerging organizational discourse was one on the events of the Progressive Era , the period of social activism and political reform in

3976-471: The hand. It was composed of close-copy text, mathematical formulas and statistical charts and tables, alongside drawings and photographs of instruments, machines, and construction sites. Its reach was international and grounded in advanced formal training, its contributors' names often prefaced by the title "Professor." Between 1907 and 1911 several leaders in the Progressive efficiency movement published

4047-519: The invention of Portland cement . Applied science led to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of the barometer and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by Otto von Guericke using the Magdeburg hemispheres in 1656, laboratory experiments by Denis Papin , who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated

4118-751: The limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated. Charles DeLano Hine Charles DeLano Hine (March 15, 1867 – February 13, 1927) was an American civil engineer, lawyer, railway official, and Colonel in the United States Army. He receives academic credit for studying organizations as a separate field, rather than a "smaller sister of sociology.". Born in Vienna, Virginia to former Union veteran Capt. Orrin E. Hine and his wife Alma, Hine graduated from United States Military Academy , West Point in June 1891, and served as

4189-541: The most important details of factory work alike. This was confirmed in those days by the editors of the American Machinist , who noted that "there is not a man, machine, operation or system in the shop that stands entirely alone. Each one, to be valued rightly, must be viewed as part of a whole." American Machinist, 3 March 1904: 294–6; cited in Tsoukas & Knudsen (2005) The 1912 article "The unit system on

4260-479: The power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible. New steel making processes, such as the Bessemer process and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century. One of the most famous engineers of the mid-19th century was Isambard Kingdom Brunel , who built railroads, dockyards and steamships. The Industrial Revolution created

4331-434: The rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution. John Smeaton

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4402-426: The same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property. Engineering has existed since ancient times, when humans devised inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley, etc. The term engineering is derived from the word engineer , which itself dates back to

4473-511: The seedbed from which discourse on rational organizations grew." Engineering Engineering is the practice of using natural science , mathematics , and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include designing and improving infrastructure , machinery , vehicles , electronics , materials , and energy systems. The discipline of engineering encompasses

4544-470: The state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise De re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years. The science of classical mechanics , sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering. With

4615-414: The transition from charcoal to coke . These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical. The puddling process , patented by Henry Cort in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. Hot blast , patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine,

4686-587: The use of a piston, which he published in 1707. Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a coffee percolator . Samuel Morland , a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner's Friend". It employed both vacuum and pressure. Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen , who built

4757-456: The world." In Europe and the United States magazines on engineering had been published for over half a century. Notable magazines since those days were: Late 19th century more of these journals also focussed the impact of engineering on technology and industry. The Engineering Magazine (1891) explained that "the magazine is founded upon the idea of treating only the principles involved in engineering problems — which are always simple — to

4828-644: Was a steam jack driven by a steam turbine , described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in Ottoman Egypt . The cotton gin was invented in India by the 6th century AD, and the spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world by the early 11th century, both of which were fundamental to the growth of the cotton industry . The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny , which

4899-522: Was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. The earliest programmable machines were developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer , a programmable musical instrument , was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices , in

4970-664: Was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC, the trireme , the ballista and the catapult . In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed. The earliest practical wind-powered machines, the windmill and wind pump , first appeared in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age , in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD. The earliest practical steam-powered machine

5041-505: Was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbors, and lighthouses. He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist . Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency. Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels. Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to

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