130-540: (Redirected from East-African ) East African may refer to: Any person or object of, or pertaining to, East Africa East African Safari Air , an airline based in Kenya, now trading as Fly-SAX The EastAfrican , a weekly newspaper in East Africa Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
260-585: A Zanzibari traveler, refers to the island as "Malagaskar" when recounting his journeys, including as part of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition . In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis that Malagasikara was the way the island is referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they were Malagasy , and not Madagasy . Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from South Borneo , possibly throughout
390-760: A protracted transition towards its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014. Madagascar is a member of the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie . Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. Christianity
520-492: A strongman . Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the 2021–2022 Madagascar famine which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face food insecurity and over one million people were on the verge of a famine . In November 2023, Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the election amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. Turnout
650-453: A century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810). From his initial capital Ambohimanga , and later from the Rova of Antananarivo , this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighbouring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810–28), who
780-648: A creation of new societal groups involving inter-marriage among communities and small groups moving to communities and small groups moving to new areas. After their movements from their original homeland in West Africa , Bantus also encountered in central east Africa peoples of Cushitic origin. As cattle terminology in use amongst the few modern Bantu pastoralist groups suggests, the Bantu migrants would acquire cattle from their new Cushitic neighbors. Linguistic evidence also indicates that Bantus most likely borrowed
910-736: A distinct geopolitical entity within East Africa. The East African Community , an economic and political bloc, currently includes the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Somalia, Burundi , Kenya, Rwanda , South Sudan , Uganda and Tanzania. Notably, the African Great Lakes region overlaps significantly with these countries. Inside of Somalia there are two unrecognised states; Somaliland and Puntland, although Puntland still wants to join back with Somalia, for now it
1040-581: A first or second language, is an important trade language in the Great Lakes area. It has official status in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda. Madagascar Madagascar , officially the Republic of Madagascar , is an island country comprising the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of Africa , it is the world's fourth largest island ,
1170-452: A larger area of Africa than previously thought. East Africa is one of the earliest regions where Homo sapiens are believed to have lived. Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, at the Kenyan site of Olorgesailie , of the early emergence of modern behaviors associated with Homo sapiens , including: long-distance trade networks (involving goods such as obsidian),
1300-528: A millennia-long series of migrations eastward from their homeland around southern Cameroon. This Bantu expansion introduced agriculture into much of the African Great Lakes region. During the following fifteen centuries, the Bantu slowly intensified farming and grazing over all suitable regions of East Africa, in the process making contact with Austronesian - and Arabic -speaking settlers on southern coastal areas. The latter also spread Islam to
1430-527: A multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade. Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana ,
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#17327881090441560-606: A result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population. The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839. Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde , an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of
1690-529: A target for European exploration , exploitation and colonialization in the nineteenth century. Today, tourism is an important part of the economies of Kenya, Tanzania, Seychelles, and Uganda. The easternmost point of the continent, that is Ras Hafun in Somalia, is of archaeological , historical and economical importance. According to the CIA, as of 2017, the countries in the eastern Africa region have
1820-448: A total population of around 537.9 million inhabitants. Eastern Africa had an estimated population of 260 million in 2000. This was projected to reach 890 million by 2050, with an average growth rate of 2.5% per annum. The 2000 population is expected to quintuple over the course of the 21st century, to 1.6 billion as of 2100 (UN estimates as of 2017). In Ethiopia , there is an estimated population of 102 million as of 2016. In
1950-576: A variety of afflictions. The drugs vinblastine and vincristine are vinca alkaloids , used to treat Hodgkin lymphoma , leukemia , and other cancers, were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle . The traveler's palm , known locally as ravinala and endemic to the eastern rain forests, is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo. Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna
2080-442: Is a biodiversity hotspot and one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries , with over 90% of wildlife being endemic. The island has a subtropical to tropical maritime climate. Madagascar was first permanently settled during or before the mid-first millennium AD by Austronesian peoples , presumably arriving on outrigger canoes from present-day Indonesia . These were joined around the ninth century AD by Bantu groups crossing
2210-527: Is also historically attested. A British state paper in 1699 records the arrival of eighty to ninety passengers from "Malagaskar" to what would eventually become New York City . An 1882 edition of the British newspaper The Graphic referred to "Malagascar" as the name of the island, stating that it is etymologically a word of Malay origin, and may be related to the name of Malacca . In 1891, Saleh bin Osman,
2340-621: Is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International. In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012 , there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur , 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than
2470-542: Is independent. Adjacent to these mainland territories are island nations and territories such as Socotra , Comoros , Mauritius , Seychelles , Réunion , Mayotte , and the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean . Regions including portions of Mozambique and Madagascar , often aligned with Southern Africa , share significant historical and cultural connections with East Africa, particularly through
2600-560: Is now southern Tanzania . In March 1505, having received from Manuel I of Portugal the appointment of viceroy of the newly conquered territory in India , he set sail from Lisbon in command of a large and powerful fleet, and arrived in July at Quiloa ( Kilwa ), which yielded to him almost without a struggle. A much more vigorous resistance was offered by the Moors of Mombasa. However, the town
2730-468: Is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island. No single Malagasy-language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their name for part or all of the lands they inhabited. One hypothesis relates Madagascar to the word Malay , referring to the Austronesian origin of
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#17327881090442860-502: Is the country's predominant religion, with a significant minority still practising traditional faiths . Madagascar is classified as a least developed country by the UN. Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of its development strategy. Despite substantial economic growth since the early 2000s, income disparities have widened, and quality of life remains low for
2990-495: The 1973 oil crisis , resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards, and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of
3120-483: The Abyei Area , and Abyei and South Kordofan's Nuba Hills both remained sources of tension between Juba and Khartoum as of 2011 . Some parts of East Africa have been renowned for their concentrations of wild animals, such as the " big five ": the elephant , buffalo , lion , black rhinoceros , and leopard , though populations have been declining under increased stress in recent times, particularly those of
3250-677: The East of Africa , is a region at the eastern edge of the African continent , distinguished by its geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the region is recognized in the United Nations Statistics Division scheme as encompassing 18 sovereign states and 4 territories. East Africa is acknowledged as the cradle of early modern humans , who first emerged around 200,000 to 300,000 years ago before spreading globally though Madagascar
3380-486: The High Transitional Authority , an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum , establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution. Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election , which
3510-637: The Horn of Africa and Nile Valley , Afroasiatic languages predominate, including languages of the family's Cushitic (such as Beja , Oromo and Somali ), Semitic (such as Amharic , Arabic and Tigrinya ), and Omotic (such as Wolaytta ) branches. In the African Great Lakes region, Niger-Congo languages of the Bantu branch are most widely spoken. Among these languages are Kikuyu , Luhya , Kinyarwanda , Kirundi , Kisukuma , Luganda and many others. Swahili , with at least 80 million speakers as
3640-583: The Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous . This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along
3770-463: The Kingdom of Madagascar , which it initiated after persuading Britain to relinquish its interests in the island in exchange for control of Zanzibar off the coast of Tanganyika , an important island hub of the spices trade. The British also held a number of island colonies in the region, including the extended archipelago of Seychelles and the rich farming island of Mauritius , previously under
3900-767: The Madagascar Plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews. During the Second World War , the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied expeditionary force. The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized
4030-562: The Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet , translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island. Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave
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4160-584: The Malagasy people in modern-day Indonesia . In a map by Muhammad al-Idrisi dating from the year 1154, the island is named Gesira Malai , or "Malay island" in Arabic . The inversion of this name to Malai Gesira , as it was known by the Greeks , is thought to be the precursor of the modern name of the island. The name "Malay island" was later rendered in Latin as Malichu , an abbreviated form of Malai Insula , in
4290-564: The Mozambique Channel from East Africa. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. Consequently, there are 18 or more classified peoples of Madagascar , the most numerous being the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in
4420-714: The Orthodox Empire of Ethiopia . By 1896, the war had become a total disaster for the Italians and Ethiopia was able to retain its independence. Ethiopia remained independent until 1936 when, after the Second Italo-Abyssinian War , it became part of Italian East Africa . The Italian occupation of Ethiopia ended in 1941 during World War II as part of the East African Campaign . The French also staked out an East African outpost on
4550-467: The Ottoman Turks , Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by da Gama to break the once Venetian trading monopoly. Portuguese rule in the African Great Lakes region focused mainly on a coastal strip centered around Mombasa. The Portuguese presence in the area officially began after 1505, when flagships under the command of Don Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa , an island located in what
4680-525: The Portuguese India Armadas . Matatana was the first Portuguese settlement on the south coast, 10 km west of Fort Dauphin . In 1508, settlers there built a tower, a small village, and a stone column. This settlement was established in 1513 at the behest of the viceroy of Portuguese India , Jeronimo de Azevedo . Contacts continued from the 1550s. Several colonization and conversion missions were ordered by King João III and by
4810-599: The Puntland and Somaliland regions of Somalia, have seen relative stability. South Sudan peacefully seceded from Sudan in 2011, six and a half years after a peace agreement ended the Second Sudanese Civil War . South Sudanese independence was nearly derailed by the South Kordofan conflict , particularly, South Sudanese independence was nearly derailed by a dispute over the status of
4940-781: The Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 ft) in the Andringitra Massif , and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi). The western and southern sides, which lie in
5070-526: The United Republic of Tanzania by creating a union between the mainland, and the island chain of Zanzibar. Zanzibar is now a semi-autonomous state in a union with the mainland which is collectively and commonly referred to as Tanzania . German East Africa, though very extensive, was not of such strategic importance as the British Crown's colonies to the north: the inhabitation of these lands
5200-629: The Vazimba . Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo , Ralambo , and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities. The written history of Madagascar began with
5330-485: The attempted coup d'état in 1982 and the 2007 election riots . Tanzania has known stable government since independence although there are significant political and religious tensions resulting from the political union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous state in the United Republic of Tanzania . Tanzania and Uganda fought the Uganda–Tanzania War in 1978–1979, which led to
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5460-422: The rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to dry deciduous forests , spiny forests , and deserts and xeric shrublands . Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from
5590-564: The second-largest island country and the 46th largest country in the world. Its capital and largest city is Antananarivo . Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana , Madagascar split from Africa during the Early Jurassic , around 180 million years ago, and split from the Indian subcontinent around 90 million years ago, allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation; consequently, it
5720-515: The slave trade and relocation of the Omani capital to Zanzibar in 1839 by Seyyid Said had the effect of consolidating the Omani power in the region. Arab governance of all the major ports along the Swahili coast continued until British interests aimed particularly at ending the slave trade and creation of a wage-labour system began to put pressure on Omani rule. By the late nineteenth century,
5850-433: The trans-Atlantic slave trade . The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia . Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury , whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. European accounts until
5980-516: The tsetse fly , however, prevented the donkey and agriculture from spreading southwards. Only in quite recent times has agriculture spread to the more humid regions south of the equator, through the spread of cattle , sheep and crops such as millet . Language distributions suggest that this most likely occurred from Sudan into the African Great Lakes region, since the Nilotic languages spoken by these pre-Bantu farmers have their closest relatives in
6110-635: The "Out of Africa" theory probably occurred in East Africa through the Bab-el-Mandeb . Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (19 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Some of the earliest hominin skeletal remains have been found in
6240-544: The "eighth continent", and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot. Madagascar is classed as one of 17 megadiverse countries . The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Madagascar lowland forests , Madagascar subhumid forests , Madagascar dry deciduous forests , Madagascar ericoid thickets , Madagascar spiny forests , Madagascar succulent woodlands , and Madagascar mangroves . More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in
6370-586: The 1880s. Between the 19th and 20th century, East Africa became a theatre of competition between the major imperialistic European nations of the time. The three main colors of the African country were beige, red, and blue. The red stood for the English, blue stood for the French, and the beige stood for Germany during the period of colonialism. During the period of the Scramble for Africa , almost every country in
6500-536: The 1975 independence of Mozambique. Omani Arab colonization of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts brought the once independent city-states under closer foreign scrutiny and domination than was experienced during the Portuguese period. Like their predecessors, the Omani Arabs were primarily able only to control the coastal areas, not the interior. However, the creation of clove plantations , intensification of
6630-638: The Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam , the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe ), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements. European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island, while participating in the 2nd Armada of
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#17327881090446760-614: The British colony of Aden on the Arabian Peninsula . With these territories secured, Britain was able to serve as gatekeeper of the sea lane leading to British India . In 1890, beginning with the purchase of the small port town of Asseb from a local sultan in Eritrea , the Italians colonized all of Eritrea. In 1895, from bases in Somalia and Eritrea, the Italians launched the First Italo–Ethiopian War against
6890-440: The French sovereignty . The German Empire gained control of a large area named German East Africa , comprising present-day Rwanda , Burundi and the mainland part of Tanzania named Tanganyika. In 1922, the British gained a League of Nations mandate over Tanganyika which it administered until Independence was granted to Tanganyika in 1961. Following the Zanzibar Revolution of 1965, the independent state of Tanganyika formed
7020-483: The Great Lakes region during the 17th century. The Omani Arabs posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in the African Great Lakes region. By this time, the Portuguese Empire had already lost its interest on the spice trade sea route due to the decreasing profitability of that business. The Arabs reclaimed much of the Indian Ocean trade , forcing the Portuguese to retreat south where they remained in Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique) as sole rulers until
7150-476: The Indian Ocean's maritime networks. Sudan is also sometimes included due in part because it is a member of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) free trade area. According to the theory of the recent African origin of modern humans , the predominantly held belief among most archaeologists, East Africa in the area of the African Great Lakes is where anatomically modern humans first appeared. There are differing theories on whether there
7280-524: The Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria. The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims. Under colonial rule, plantations were established for
7410-405: The Portuguese built forts, and adopted measures to secure the Portuguese supremacy. Portugal's main goal on the Swahili coast was to take control of the spice trade from the Arabs . At this stage, the Portuguese presence in East Africa served the purposes of controlling trade within the Indian Ocean and securing the sea routes linking Europe to Asia. Portuguese naval vessels were very disruptive to
7540-442: The Rova palace compound was turned into a museum. Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on the French language and practical skills. Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of
7670-493: The Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa. In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings. The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in
7800-533: The absolute power of the monarch. Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, Rasoherina , the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power-sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them. Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony , who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II and Queen Ranavalona III in succession. Over
7930-557: The adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960. Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana , was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around
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#17327881090448060-416: The basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War . At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority
8190-429: The central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo. Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following almost
8320-428: The city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender. Popular resistance to the French capture of Antananarivo —known as the Menalamba rebellion —broke out in December 1895, and was not suppressed until the end of 1897. France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving
8450-403: The coastal belt, but most Bantu remained African Traditional Religion adherents. Over a period of many centuries, most hunting-foraging peoples were displaced and absorbed by incoming Bantu communities, as well as by later Nilotic communities. The Bantu expansion was a long series of physical migrations, a diffusion of language and knowledge out into and in from neighboring populations, and
8580-475: The coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna , including 17 species of giant lemurs , the large flightless elephant birds (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, Aepyornis maximus ), the giant fossa , and several species of Malagasy hippopotamus , which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction. By 600 AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing
8710-517: The coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants. They remained for eight months and erected at different points of the island eight pillars on which they engraved "Magadoxo", a name which later, by corruption became Madagascar. Jan Huyghen van Linschoten , a Dutch traveler who copied Portuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying "Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)" whose "shayk" invaded it. The name Malagasikara , or Malagascar ,
8840-402: The commerce of Portugal's enemies within the western Indian Ocean and were able to demand high tariffs on items transported through the sea due to their strategic control of ports and shipping lanes. The construction of Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 was meant to solidify Portuguese hegemony in the region, but their influence was clipped by the British , Dutch and Omani Arab incursions into
8970-419: The country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the north west. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique , located to the west. The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa–South America) during
9100-427: The country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972. Gabriel Ramanantsoa , a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava , appointed to succeed him,
9230-404: The course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government. Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers. Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity declared
9360-415: The cultivation of cash crops like coffee and tea , as well as for animal husbandry with products produced from cattle and goats, such as goat meat , beef and milk . Moreover, this area had the potential for a significant residential expansion, being suitable for the relocation of a large number of British nationals to the region. Prevailing climatic conditions and the regions' geomorphology allowed
9490-465: The custom of milking cattle directly from Cushitic peoples in the area. On the coastal section of the African Great Lakes region, another mixed Bantu community developed through contact with Muslim Arab and Persian traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African Swahili City States . The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do
9620-622: The description of contemporary humans with the subspecies name Homo sapiens sapiens . Because of their early dating and unique physical characteristics idaltu and kibish represent the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans as suggested by the Out-of-Africa theory. In 2017 finds of modern human remains, dating to ca 300,000 years ago in Jebel Irhoud in Morocco, suggested that modern humans arose earlier and possibly in
9750-461: The early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles . The monarchy was ended in 1897 by the annexation by France , from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960. The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as a constitutional democracy since 1992. Following a political crisis and military coup in 2009 , Madagascar underwent
9880-526: The early 20th century identified Malagasy people as being of Jewish origin . The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century. Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in
10010-491: The emergence of Homo sapiens . In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 CT scans , of a virtual skull shape of the last common human ancestor to modern humans / H. sapiens , representative of the earliest Homo sapiens , and suggested that Homo sapiens arose between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in South and East Africa. The migration route of
10140-557: The establishment of flourishing European style settlements like Nairobi , Vila Pery , Vila Junqueiro , Porto Amélia , Lourenço Marques and Entebbe . The French settled the largest island of the Indian Ocean (and the fourth-largest globally), Madagascar , along with a group of smaller islands nearby, namely Réunion and the Comoros . Madagascar became part of the French colonial empire following two military campaigns against
10270-412: The first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called it Madagascar is in a 1609 book on Madagascar by Jerome Megiser. Jerome Megiser describes an event in which the kings of Mogadishu and Adal traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around twenty-five thousand men in order to invade the wealthy islands of Taprobane and Sumatra. However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on
10400-610: The first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president. In June 2019 parliamentary elections the Rajoelina's won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. Rajoelina could rule as
10530-452: The forests of the central highlands. Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries. A wave of Bantu -speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000. Around this time, zebu from South India were first brought, intermingling with sanga found in East Africa. Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom and were extended with terraced paddies throughout
10660-602: The growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community . A period of provisional government ended with
10790-654: The heavy precipitation supports the area's rainforest ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a semi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island. Tropical cyclones cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life. In 2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless and caused more than US$ 250 million in damage. In February 2022, Cyclone Batsirai killed 121 people, weeks after Cyclone Ana killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on
10920-410: The high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains. The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive cyclones , and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast;
11050-523: The initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM
11180-481: The international community deemed fair and transparent. In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in
11310-482: The island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as
11440-449: The island earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly supported. However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits and presence. (See History of Madagascar ). Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE. Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear
11570-499: The island. A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change , are going to be high. As a result of the island's long isolation from neighbouring continents, Madagascar is home to various endemic plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic . This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as
11700-728: The land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on
11830-400: The larger region to varying degrees became part of a European colonial empire. Portugal had first established a strong presence in southern Mozambique and the Indian Ocean since the 15th century, while during this period their possessions increasingly grew including parts from the present northern Mozambique country, up to Mombasa in present-day Kenya. At Lake Malawi , they finally met
11960-438: The length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's remaining tropical lowland forest . To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level. These central highlands , traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo , are
12090-498: The majority of the population. As of 2021, 68.4 percent of the population is considered to be multidimensionally poor . In the Malagasy language , the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara ( Malagasy pronunciation: [madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥] ) and its people are referred to as Malagasy . The origin of the name is uncertain, and is likely foreign, having been propagated in the Middle Ages by Europeans. If this
12220-593: The many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people . With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of Tanzania (particularly Zanzibar ) and Kenya —a seaboard referred to as the Swahili Coast —the Bantu Swahili language contains many Arabic loan-words as a consequence of these interactions. Its important to note that Kiswahili grammar and structure are purely African and Bantu even if its vocabulary has non African influence in
12350-503: The medieval Hereford Mappa Mundi as the name of Madagascar. Another hypothesis is that Madagascar is a corrupted transliteration of Mogadishu , the capital of Somalia and an important medieval Indian Ocean port. This would have resulted from 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo confusing the two locations in his memoirs, in which he mentions the land of Madageiscar to the south of Socotra . This name would then have been popularized on Renaissance maps by Europeans. One of
12480-559: The middle Nile basin. Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and the Red Sea coast of Sudan are considered the most likely location of the land known to the Ancient Egyptians as Punt . The old kingdom's first mention dates to the 25th century BCE. The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut . The Kingdom of Aksum
12610-503: The monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert , a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony and an alliance of Andriana (noble) and Hova (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end
12740-480: The most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast. Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs : Maromokotro 2,876 m (9,436 ft) in
12870-557: The name for Tanzania . These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach central east Africa during their migration. Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large African Great Lakes kingdoms and states emerged, such as the Buganda and Karagwe kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to explore the region of current-day Kenya , Tanzania , and Mozambique by sea. Vasco da Gama visited Mombasa in 1498. Da Gama's voyage
13000-515: The nation's broken economy. Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010). The new Madagascar constitution established
13130-423: The neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century. The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called
13260-430: The official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace. Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city. In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions. Primarily on
13390-457: The period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of Iceland and New Zealand . It is proposed that Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Javan and Sumatran - Malays in their trading fleets to Madagascar. Dates of settlement of
13520-418: The political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana
13650-407: The production of a variety of export crops. Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today. Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and
13780-490: The recently created British Protectorate of Nyasaland (nowadays Malawi ), which surrounded the homonymous lake on three sides, leaving the Portuguese the control of lake's eastern coast. The British Empire set foot in the region's most exploitable and promising lands acquiring what is today Uganda , and Kenya . The Protectorate of Uganda and the Colony of Kenya were located in a rich farmland area mostly appropriate for
13910-400: The removal of Uganda's despotic leader Idi Amin . Burundi , Rwanda , and Uganda have each faced instability and ethnic conflict since independence, most notably, they experienced the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the 1993 Burundi genocide and the subsequent Burundian Civil War . Rwanda and Uganda continue to be involved in related conflicts outside the region. Djibouti , as well as
14040-598: The rhino and elephant. The geography of East Africa is often stunning and scenic. Shaped by global plate tectonic forces that have created the East African Rift , East Africa is the site of Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya , the two tallest peaks in Africa. It also includes the world's second largest freshwater lake, Lake Victoria , and the world's second deepest lake, Lake Tanganyika . The unique geography and apparent suitability for farming made East Africa
14170-446: The route to French Indochina . Starting in the 1850s, the small protectorate of Djibouti became French Somaliland in 1897. Since the end of colonialism, several East African countries have been riven with military coups, ethnic violence and oppressive dictators. The region has endured the following post-colonial conflicts: Kenya has enjoyed relatively stable governance. However, its politics have been turbulent at times, including
14300-474: The same way English remains a Germanic language regardless of its vocabulary being heavily influenced by Latin and French among other languages. The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the east coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta , Azania and Menouthias referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE, ultimately giving rise to
14430-578: The slave trade on the open seas had been completely outlawed by the British and the Omani Arabs had little ability to resist the British navy's ability to enforce the directive. The Omani presence continued in Zanzibar and Pemba until the Zanzibar Revolution in 1964. However, the official Omani Arab presence in Kenya was checked by German and British seizure of key ports and creation of crucial trade alliances with influential local leaders in
14560-525: The territory. William Ellis of the London Missionary Society described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856 . The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of
14690-535: The time ruled by Zoskales , who also governed the port of Adulis . The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency . The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian Peninsula , eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom . Between 2500 and 3000 years ago, Bantu -speaking peoples began
14820-502: The title East African . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_African&oldid=942370414 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages East Africa East Africa , also known as Eastern Africa or
14950-403: The use of pigments, and the possible making of projectile points. It is observed by the authors of three 2018 studies on the site, that the evidence of these behaviors is approximately contemporary to the earliest known Homo sapiens fossil remains from Africa (such as at Jebel Irhoud and Florisbad ), and they suggest that complex and modern behaviors had already begun in Africa around the time of
15080-622: The wider region, including fossils discovered in the Awash Valley of Ethiopia, as well as in the Koobi Fora in Kenya and Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The southern part of East Africa was occupied until recent times by Khoisan hunter-gatherers , whereas in the Ethiopian Highlands the donkey and such crop plants as teff allowed the beginning of agriculture around 7,000 BCE. Lowland barriers and diseases carried by
15210-561: The world, including five plant families. The family Didiereaceae , composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar. Four-fifths of the world's Pachypodium species are endemic to the island. Three-fourths of Madagascar's 860 orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's nine baobab species. The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic. Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for
15340-419: Was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history. At 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi), Madagascar is the world's 46th largest country , the second-largest island country and the fourth-largest island . The country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S , and longitudes 43°E and 51°E . Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and
15470-682: Was a single exodus or several; a multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory. Some researchers have suggested that North Africa was the region of Africa from which modern humans who first trekked out of the continent. According to both genetic and fossil evidence, it has been posited that archaic Homo sapiens evolved into anatomically modern humans in the Horn of Africa around 200,000 years ago and dispersed from there. The recognition of Homo sapiens idaltu and Omo Kibish as anatomically modern humans would justify
15600-518: Was a trading empire centered Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 CE, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period c. 4th century BCE to achieve prominence by the 1st century CE. The kingdom is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory , which was exported throughout the ancient world. Aksum was at
15730-465: Was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression. The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo. Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I . In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed
15860-475: Was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001. The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of
15990-611: Was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka , who ushered in the Marxist–Leninist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993. This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from
16120-532: Was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption. Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina , led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'état . In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of
16250-411: Was difficult and thus limited, mainly due to climatic conditions and the local geomorphology. Italy gained control of various parts of Somalia in the 1880s. The southern three-fourths of Somalia became an Italian protectorate ( Italian Somaliland ). Meanwhile, in 1884, a narrow coastal strip of Somaliland came under British control ( British Somaliland ). This Somaliland protectorate was just opposite
16380-487: Was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively. A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa . Upon reaching
16510-671: Was only settled 3000 years ago. In a narrow sense, particularly in English-speaking contexts, East Africa refers to the area comprising Kenya , Tanzania , and Uganda , largely due to their shared history under the Omani Empire and as parts of the British East Africa Protectorate and German East Africa . Further extending East Africa's definition, the Horn of Africa —comprising Djibouti , Eritrea , Ethiopia , and Somalia —stands out as
16640-442: Was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron , David Jones and David Griffiths , who established schools, transcribed
16770-604: Was successful in reaching India , which permitted the Portuguese to trade with the Far East directly by sea. This in turn challenged the older trading networks of mixed land and sea routes, such as the spice trade routes which utilized the Persian Gulf , Red Sea , and camel caravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean. The Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the trade routes between Europe and Asia. After traditional land routes to India had been closed by
16900-472: Was taken and destroyed, and its large treasures went to strengthen the resources of Almeida. Attacks followed on Hoja (now known as Ungwana, located at the mouth of the Tana River ), Barawa , Angoche , Pate and other coastal towns until the western Indian Ocean was a safe haven for Portuguese commercial interests. At other places on his way, such as the island of Angediva , near Goa , and Cannanore ,
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