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143-547: As a result of the influence of an early proponent, it is more often known as Taylorism . The efficiency movement played a central role in the Progressive Era in the United States, where it flourished 1890–1932. Adherents argued that all aspects of the economy, society and government were riddled with waste and inefficiency. Everything would be better if experts identified the problems and fixed them. The result

286-507: A Marxian variant of cybernetics. As with the concept of 'Organoprojection' (1919) by Pavel Florensky , underlying Nikolai Bernstein and Gastev's approach, lay a powerful man-machine metaphor. W. Edwards Deming (1900–1993) brought the efficiency movement to Japan after World War II, teaching top management how to improve design (and thus service), product quality, testing and sales (the last through global markets), especially using statistical methods. Deming then brought his methods back to

429-486: A beneficial environmental impact, the Sierra Club expressed opposition to such reforms, arguing "Whatever the proposed project is — whether it's a pipeline or a highway or a solar farm — it should be subject to the same commonsense review process. If we want these projects to move forward faster, we shouldn't be weakening environmental laws, but investing more resources into the agencies and staff." The Sierra Club has

572-447: A business footing and administered to get better results. The looming threat of Germany, which was widely seen as a much more efficient nation, added urgency after 1902. Politically National Efficiency brought together modernizing Conservatives and Unionists, Liberals who wanted to modernize their party, and Fabians such as George Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells , along with Beatrice and Sidney Webb , who had outgrown socialism and saw

715-632: A clerk in Midvale, but advanced to foreman in 1880. As foreman, Taylor was "constantly impressed by the failure of his [team members] to produce more than about one-third of [what he deemed] a good day's work". Taylor determined to discover, by scientific methods, how long it should take men to perform each given piece of work; and it was in the fall of 1882 that he started to put the first features of scientific management into operation. Horace Bookwalter Drury , in his 1918 work, Scientific management: A History and Criticism , identified seven other leaders in

858-631: A dam and aqueduct on the Tuolumne River, one of the largest southern Sierra rivers, as a way to increase and stabilize the city's water supply. Gifford Pinchot , a progressive supporter of public utilities and head of the US Forest Service , which then had jurisdiction over the national parks, supported the creation of the Hetch Hetchy dam. Muir appealed to his friend U.S. President Roosevelt, who would not commit himself against

1001-500: A dangerously high level of uncontrolled power. After an attitude survey of the workers revealed a high level of resentment and hostility towards scientific management, the Senate banned Taylor's methods at the arsenal. Taylor had a largely negative view of unions, and believed they only led to decreased productivity. Efforts to resolve conflicts with workers included methods of scientific collectivism, making agreements with unions, and

1144-455: A distinct theory or school of thought was obsolete by the 1930s, most of its themes are still important parts of industrial engineering and management today. These include: analysis; synthesis; logic ; rationality ; empiricism ; work ethic ; efficiency through elimination of wasteful activities (as in muda , muri and mura ); standardization of best practices ; disdain for tradition preserved merely for its own sake or to protect

1287-446: A high level of managerial control over employee work practices and entails a higher ratio of managerial workers to laborers than previous management methods. Such detail-oriented management may cause friction between workers and managers. Taylor observed that some workers were more talented than others, and that even smart ones were often unmotivated. He observed that most workers who are forced to perform repetitive tasks tend to work at

1430-487: A history of filing lawsuits against new housing developments and trying to block legislative proposals to ease housing construction. Critics have characterized the Sierra Club's actions on housing as NIMBYism . In 2012, the Sierra Club sued to block the construction of a mixed-use development composed of 16,655 housing units (for an estimated 37,000 residents) and commercial space in Riverside, California. In 2018,

1573-553: A large Yosemite National Park surrounding the much smaller state park which had been created in 1864. This campaign succeeded in 1890. As early as 1889, Johnson had encouraged Muir to form an "association" to help protect the Sierra Nevada , and preliminary meetings were held to plan the group. Others involved in the early planning included artist William Keith , Willis Linn Jepson , Warren Olney , Willard Drake Johnson , Joseph LeConte and David Starr Jordan . In May 1892,

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1716-555: A major part of Sierra Club culture, and in some chapters, constitute the majority of member activity. Other chapters, however, may sponsor very few outdoor or recreational activities, being focused solely on political advocacy. Generally, chapters in California are much more active with regard to outdoor activities. The Sierra Club presents a number of annual awards, such as the Sierra Club John Muir Award ,

1859-471: A majority in 1968, but in the April 1969 election the anti-Brower candidates won all five open positions. Ansel Adams and president Richard Leonard, two of his closest friends on the board, led the opposition to Brower, charging him with financial recklessness and insubordination and calling for his ouster as executive director. The board voted ten to five to accept Brower's resignation. Eventually reconciled with

2002-559: A new political dimension to the Efficiency Movement. For instance, while fighting against legalized price fixing, Brandeis launched an effort to influence congressional policymaking with the help of his friend Norman Hapgood , who was then the editor of Harper's Weekly . He coordinated the publication of a series of articles ( Competition Kills , Efficiency and the One-Price Article , and How Europe deals with

2145-503: A series of articles denying they were inefficiently managed. When steps were taken to introduce scientific management at the government-owned Rock Island Arsenal in early 1911, it was opposed by Samuel Gompers , founder and President of the American Federation of Labor (an alliance of craft unions ). When a subsequent attempt was made to introduce the bonus system into the government's Watertown Arsenal foundry during

2288-406: A single issue with some kind of geography involved. While much activity is coordinated at a local level, the club is a unified organization; decisions made at the national level take precedence, including the removal and creation of chapters, as well as recruiting and removing members. The club is known for engaging in two main activities: promoting and guiding outdoor recreational activities, which

2431-569: A universal measure for all manual work. The Bedaux System was influential in the United States in the 1920s and Europe in the 1930s and 1940s, especially in Britain . From the 1920s to the 1950s there were about one thousand companies in 21 countries worldwide that were run on the Bedaux System, including giants such as Swift's , Eastman Kodak , B.F. Goodrich , DuPont , Fiat , ICI and General Electric . Later movements had echoes of

2574-567: A worker fails, he should know that he would share the loss. In Scientific Management, the responsibility of the success or failure of an organization is not solely on the shoulder of the workers, as it is in the old management systems. According to Scientific Management, the managers are taking half of the burden by being responsible for securing the proper work conditions for workers' prosperity. In his book "Principles of Scientific Management", Taylor formally introduced his methodically investigated theory of Scientific Management. Although he explained

2717-441: Is already clearly documented. Especially when wages or wage differentials are high, automation and offshoring can result in significant productivity gains and similar questions of who benefits and whether or not technological unemployment is persistent. Because automation is often best suited to tasks that are repetitive and boring, and can also be used for tasks that are dirty, dangerous, and demeaning , proponents believe that in

2860-419: Is called "the management", (b) The lack of relation between good (shop) management and the pay. He added, "The art of management has been defined, " as knowing exactly what you want men to do, and then seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way "." In this regard, he highlighted that although there is "no concise definition" for this art, "the relations between employers and men form without question

3003-417: Is done throughout the United States but primarily in California (especially Southern California), and political activism to promote environmental causes. Described as one of the United States' "leading environmental organizations", the Sierra Club makes endorsements of individual candidates for elected office. Journalist Robert Underwood Johnson had worked with John Muir on the successful campaign to create

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3146-526: Is governed by a 15-member board of directors. Each year, five directors are elected to three-year terms, and all club members are eligible to vote. A president is elected annually by the Board from among its members. The executive director runs the day-to-day operations of the group. Michael Brune , formerly of Rainforest Action Network , served as the organization's executive director from 2010. Brune succeeded Carl Pope . Pope stepped down amid discontent that

3289-576: Is happening in the long term, if at all, as well as the impact on income inequality for those who do find jobs. Though not foreseen by early proponents of scientific management, detailed decomposition and documentation of an optimal production method also makes automation of the process easier, especially physical processes that would later use industrial control systems and numerical control . Widespread economic globalization also creates opportunity for work to be outsourced to lower-wage areas, with knowledge transfer made easier if an optimal method

3432-409: Is nearly ubiquitous in industry. Frederick Taylor tackled the challenge of making a business productive and profitable in his years of service and research in a steel company. He believed in a scientific solution. In his "Shop Management" article, Taylor explained that there were two facts that appeared "most noteworthy" in the field of management: (a) "Great unevenness": the lack of uniformity in what

3575-504: Is required in an organization, he believed that management could unite high wages with a low labor cost by application of the following principles: (a) A large daily task: Each worker in the organization, should have a clearly defined task. (b) Standard Conditions: Each worker should be given standard conditions and appliances that will enable him to perform his tasks. (c) High pay for success: Each worker should be rewarded when he accomplishes their task. (d) Loss in case of failure: When

3718-477: Is sometimes known as Taylorism after its pioneer, Frederick Winslow Taylor . Taylor began the theory's development in the United States during the 1880s and 1890s within manufacturing industries, especially steel. Its peak of influence came in the 1910s. Although Taylor died in 1915, by the 1920s scientific management was still influential but had entered into competition and syncretism with opposing or complementary ideas. Although scientific management as

3861-786: The Ansel Adams Award for Conservation Photography , the Francis P. Farquhar Mountaineering Award , the Edgar Wayburn Award for public officials, the Rachel Carson Award for journalists and writers, the William O. Douglas Award for legal work, and the EarthCare Award for international environmental protection and conservation. Land management, access, conservation are traditionally considered

4004-625: The Commission on Industrial Relations       Owing to its application in part in government arsenals, and a strike by the union molders against some of its features as they were introduced in the foundry at the Watertown Arsenal , "scientific management" received much publicity.       The House of Representatives appointed a committee, consisting of Congressman William B. Wilson , William C. Redfield and John Q. Tilson to investigate

4147-564: The Conference of Governors held in the White House, with a focus on natural resources and their most efficient use. Roosevelt delivered the opening address: "Conservation as a National Duty". In contrast, environmentalist John Muir promulgated a very different view of conservation, rejecting the efficiency motivation. Muir instead preached that nature was sacred and humans are intruders who should look but not develop. Working through

4290-493: The George Floyd protests and subsequent public reconciliation of systematic racism in public history , the Sierra Club described their own early history as intermingled with racism. In particular, the early Sierra Club favored the needs of white members to the exclusion of people of color, and Muir and some of his associates, such as Joseph LeConte , David Starr Jordan , and Henry Fairfield Osborn were closely related to

4433-903: The Grand Canyon . The book Time and the River Flowing: Grand Canyon authored by Francois Leydet was published in the Exhibit Format book series. Opposing the Bridge Canyon and Marble Canyon dam projects, full-page ads the club placed in The New York Times and The Washington Post in 1966 exclaimed, "This time it's the Grand Canyon they want to flood," and asked, "Should we also flood the Sistine Chapel so tourists can get nearer

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4576-471: The Sierra Club he founded, Muir tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests. While Muir wanted nature preserved for the sake of pure beauty, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, "to make the forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of men and trees." In U.S. national politics,

4719-463: The personnel management movement. Sierra Club The Sierra Club is an American environmental organization with chapters in all 50 U.S. states , Washington D.C. , and Puerto Rico . The club was founded in 1892, in San Francisco, by preservationist John Muir . A product of the progressive movement , it was one of the first large-scale environmental preservation organizations in

4862-483: The social status of particular workers with particular skill sets; the transformation of craft production into mass production ; and knowledge transfer between workers and from workers into tools, processes, and documentation. Taylor's own names for his approach initially included "shop management" and "process management". However, "scientific management" came to national attention in 1910 when attorney Louis Brandeis (then not yet Supreme Court justice) popularized

5005-474: The 1920s and 1930s, the Sierra Club functioned as a social and recreational society, conducting outings, maintaining trails and building huts and lodges in the Sierra. Preservation campaigns included a several-year effort to enlarge Sequoia National Park (achieved in 1926) and over three decades of work to protect and then preserve Kings Canyon National Park (established in 1940). Historian Stephen Fox notes, "In

5148-518: The 1930s most of the three thousand members were middle-aged Republicans." The New Deal brought many conservationists to the Democratic Party, and many Democrats entered the ranks of conservationists. Leading the generation of Young Turks who revitalized the Sierra Club after World War II were attorneys Richard Leonard and Bestor Robinson , nature photographer Ansel Adams , and David Brower . Adams sponsored Brower for membership in

5291-503: The American Federation of Labor (AFL). Once the time-and-motion men had completed their studies of a particular task, the workers had very little opportunity for further thinking, experimenting, or suggestion-making. Taylorism was criticized for turning the worker into an "automaton" or "machine", making work monotonous and unfulfilling by doing one small and rigidly defined piece of work instead of using complex skills with

5434-486: The British at a handicap in competition with the world, especially with Germany, which was seen as the epitome of efficiency. In the early 20th century, "National Efficiency" became a powerful demand — a movement supported by prominent figures across the political spectrum who disparaged sentimental humanitarianism and identified waste as a mistake that could no longer be tolerated. The movement took place in two waves;

5577-469: The California legislature to give Yosemite Valley to the U.S. federal government, and preserving coastal redwood forests of California. Muir escorted President Theodore Roosevelt through Yosemite in 1903, and two years later the California legislature ceded Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove to the federal government. The Sierra Club won its first lobbying victory with the creation of the country's second national park, after Yellowstone in 1872. In

5720-585: The Echo Park dam from the Colorado River project as approved in 1955. Recognition of the Sierra Club's role in the Echo Park dam victory boosted membership from 10,000 in 1956 to 15,000 in 1960. The Sierra Club was now truly a national conservation organization, and preservationists took the offensive with wilderness proposals. The club's Biennial Wilderness Conferences, launched in 1949 in concert with The Wilderness Society, became an important force in

5863-413: The Efficiency Movement and were more directly inspired by Taylor and Taylorism . Technocracy , for instance, and others flourished in the 1930s and 1940s. Postmodern opponents of nuclear energy in the 1970s broadened their attack to try to discredit movements that saw salvation for human society in technical expertise alone, or which held that scientists or engineers had any special expertise to offer in

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6006-506: The Progressive Era. According to historian Samuel P. Hays , the conservation movement was based on the "gospel of the efficiency". The Massachusetts Commission on Economy and Efficiency reflected the new concern with conservation. It said in 1912: The only proper basis for the protection of game birds, wild fowl and, indeed, all animals is an economic one, and must be based upon carefully constructed and properly enforced laws for

6149-564: The Sierra Club has expressed opposition to power lines and said that hydropower projects disrupt animal habitats. The Sierra Club opposes dams it considers inappropriate, including some government-built dams in national parks. In the early 20th century, the organization fought against the damming and flooding of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park . Despite this lobbying, Congress authorized

6292-524: The Sierra Club opposed SB 827 , which would have permitted dense housing near major public transit stations in California. Most other environmental groups supported the legislation, as dense housing construction near public transit was estimated to substantially reduce car pollution and help California reach its emissions target. Ethan Elkind, director of the Climate Change and Business Program at UC-Berkeley and UCLA Schools of Law, called it “one of

6435-518: The Sierra Club organizes outdoor recreation activities, and has historically been a notable organization for mountaineering and rock climbing in the United States. Members of the Sierra Club pioneered the Yosemite Decimal System of climbing, and were responsible for a substantial amount of the early development of climbing. Much of this activity occurred in the group's namesake, the Sierra Nevada . The Sierra Club operates only in

6578-407: The Sierra Club set a goal to close half of all coal plants in the U.S. by 2017. American business magnate and former New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg donated $ 50 million to the Sierra Club's anti-coal work in 2011, and announced another $ 30 million gift to Sierra's Beyond Coal campaign in 2015. The Beyond Coal campaign says 187 coal plants have been closed since 2010. Other funders of

6721-531: The Sierra Club sued the Puerto Rican government for 18 renewable energy projects on more than 2,000 hectares of land. The Sierra Club argued that the land was ecologically sensitive and of high agricultural value. The Sierra Club said that building renewable energy projects on agricultural land was a "serious attack on the food security of Puerto Rico." A goal of the Sierra Club is to replace coal with other energy sources. Through its " Beyond Coal " campaign,

6864-525: The Sierra Club would officially participate in the first civil disobedience action in its 120-year history as part of the ongoing protest calling on the Obama administration to reject the Keystone XL tar sands pipeline, stating, "We are watching a global crisis unfold before our eyes, and to stand aside and let it happen—even though we know how to stop it—would be unconscionable." On February 13, 2013, Brune

7007-586: The Sierra Club's anti-coal campaign include the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation and the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation . The CEO of Chesapeake Energy , a natural gas company, donated $ 26 million to the Beyond Coal campaign between 2007 and 2010. The Sierra Club sued the Puerto Rico government in 2023 for its plans to build dozens of renewable energy projects. The Sierra Club said

7150-518: The Sierra Nevada were made on Sierra Club outings. Sierra Club members were also early enthusiasts of rock climbing. In 1911, the first chapter was formed, Angeles, and it began conducting local excursions in the mountains surrounding Los Angeles and throughout the West. Steve Roper 's Fifty Classic Climbs of North America , sponsored and published by the Sierra Club, is still considered one of

7293-417: The U.S. in the form of quality control called continuous improvement process . Taylorism Scientific management is a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows . Its main objective is improving economic efficiency , especially labor productivity . It was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to the engineering of processes to management. Scientific management

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7436-511: The United States and holds the legal status of 501(c)(4) nonprofit social welfare organization. Sierra Club Canada is a separate entity. The Sierra Club's stated mission is "To explore, enjoy, and protect the wild places of the earth; To practice and promote the responsible use of the earth's ecosystems and resources; To educate and enlist humanity to protect and restore the quality of the natural and human environment; and to use all lawful means to carry out these objectives." The Sierra Club

7579-591: The Watertown Arsenal petitioned to abolish the practice of scientific management there. A number of magazine writers inquiring into the effects of scientific management found that the "conditions in shops investigated contrasted favorably with those in other plants". A committee of the U.S. House of Representatives investigated and reported in 1912, concluding that scientific management did provide some useful techniques and offered valuable organizational suggestions, but that it also gave production managers

7722-455: The World , with color photographs by Eliot Porter . These coffee-table books, published by their Sierra Club Books division, introduced the Sierra Club to a wider audience. Fifty thousand copies were sold in the first four years, and by 1960 sales exceeded $ 10 million. Soon Brower was publishing two new titles a year in the Exhibit Format series, but not all did as well as In Wildness. Although

7865-748: The administration of President Jimmy Carter . Efforts of the Sierra Club and others—including Black community organizers who fought against destructive "urban renewal" projects—led to passage of the National Environmental Policy Act and the Water Pollution Control Act . The Sierra Club formed a political committee and made its first presidential endorsement in 1984 in support of Walter Mondale 's unsuccessful campaign to unseat Ronald Reagan . McCloskey resigned as executive director in 1985 after 16 + 1 ⁄ 2 years (the same length of time Brower had led

8008-695: The battle against the Echo Park Dam in Dinosaur National Monument in Utah , which had been announced by the Bureau of Reclamation in 1950. Brower led the fight, marshaling support from other conservation groups. Brower's background in publishing proved decisive; with the help of publisher Alfred Knopf, This Is Dinosaur was rushed into press. Invoking the specter of Hetch Hetchy, conservationists effectively lobbied Congress, which deleted

8151-697: The best practices. For example, Chicago created an Efficiency Division (1910–16) within the city government's Civil Service Commission, and private citizens organized the Chicago Bureau of Public Efficiency (1910–32). The former pioneered the study of "personal efficiency," measuring employees' performance through new scientific merit systems and efficiency movement State governments were active as well. For example, Massachusetts set up its "Commission on Economy and Efficiency" in 1912. It made hundreds of recommendations. Leading philanthropists such as Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller actively promoted

8294-422: The board of directors voted to support PG&E's plan for the power plant. A membership referendum in 1967 upheld the board's decision. But Brower concluded that nuclear power at any location was a mistake, and he voiced his opposition to the plant, contrary to the club's official policy. As pro- and anti-Brower factions polarized, the annual election of new directors reflected the conflict. Brower's supporters won

8437-475: The books were successful in introducing the public to wilderness preservation and the Sierra Club, they lost money for the organization, some $ 60,000 a year after 1964. Financial management became a matter of contention between Brower and his board of directors. The Sierra Club's most publicized crusade of the 1960s was the effort to stop the Bureau of Reclamation from building two dams that would flood portions of

8580-603: The campaign that secured passage of the Wilderness Act in 1964, marking the first time that public lands (9.1 million acres) were permanently protected from development. Grand Teton National Park and Olympic National Park were also enlarged at the Sierra Club's urging. In 1960, Brower launched the Exhibit Format book series with This Is the American Earth , and in 1962, In Wildness Is the Preservation of

8723-649: The campaigns to save the Grand Canyon and establish Redwoods National Park and North Cascades National Park . During the 1970s, McCloskey led the club's legislative activity—preserving Alaskan lands and eastern wilderness areas, and supporting the new environmental agenda: the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976, the Clean Air Act amendments, and the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, passed during

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8866-629: The ceiling?" The ads generated a storm of protest to the Congress, prompting the Internal Revenue Service to announce it was suspending the Sierra Club's 501(c)(3) status pending an investigation. The board had taken the precaution of setting up the Sierra Club Foundation as a (c)(3) organization in 1960 for endowments and contributions for educational and other non-lobbying activities. Even so, contributions to

9009-450: The club dropped off, aggravating its annual operating deficits. Membership, however, climbed sharply in response to the investigation into the legitimacy of the society's tax status by the IRS from 30,000 in 1965 to 57,000 in 1967 and 75,000 in 1969. The victory over the dam projects and challenges from the IRS did not come without costs. To make up for the power that would have been produced by

9152-413: The club had played the leading role blocking PG&E's nuclear power plant proposed for Bodega Bay, California , in the early 1960s, that case had been built around the local environmental impact and earthquake danger from the nearby San Andreas Fault , not from opposition to nuclear power itself. In exchange for moving the new proposed site from the environmentally sensitive Nipomo Dunes to Diablo Canyon,

9295-480: The club's legislative director, was named executive director in 1992. In the 1990s, club members Jim Bensman, Roger Clarke, David Dilworth, Chad Hanson and David Orr along with about 2,000 members formed the John Muir Sierrans (JMS), an internal caucus, to promote changes to club positions. They favored a zero-cut forest policy on public lands and, a few years later, decommissioning Glen Canyon Dam . JMS

9438-417: The club, Brower was elected to the board of directors for a term from 1983 to 1988, and again from 1995 to 2000. Brower resigned from the board in 2000. Michael McCloskey, hired by Brower in 1961 as the club's first northwest field representative, became the club's second executive director in 1969. An administrator attentive to detail, McCloskey had set up the club's conservation department in 1965 and guided

9581-668: The club, and he was appointed to the editorial board of the Sierra Club Bulletin. After World War II Brower returned to his job with the University of California Press, and began editing the Sierra Club Bulletin in 1946. In 1950, the Sierra Club had some 7,000 members, mostly on the West Coast. That year the Atlantic chapter became the first formed outside California. An active volunteer board of directors ran

9724-568: The concept of efficiency was developed in Britain in the mid-18th century by John Smeaton (1724–1792). Called the "father of civil engineering", he studied water wheels and steam engines. In the late 19th century there was much talk about improving the efficiency of the administration and economic performance of the British Empire. National Efficiency was an attempt to discredit the old-fashioned habits, customs and institutions that put

9867-517: The conservation of all species for the benefit of future generations of our citizens, rather than based on local opinion. …This expenditure for the protection of fish and game is clearly a wise economy, tending to prevent the annihilation of birds and other animals valuable to mankind which might otherwise become extinct. It may be said that Massachusetts and her sister States have suffered irreparable loss by carelessly allowing, for generations past, indiscriminate waste of animal life. President Roosevelt

10010-468: The construction of O'Shaughnessy Dam on the Tuolumne River . The Sierra Club continues to support removal of the dam. The Sierra Club advocates the decommissioning of Glen Canyon Dam and the draining of Lake Powell . The club also supports removal, breaching or decommissioning of many other dams, including four dams on the lower Snake River in eastern Washington . The Sierra Club opposes

10153-482: The consumer, the railroads should pursue efficiency by reducing their overhead and streamlining their operations, initiatives that were unprecedented during the time. The Bedaux system, developed by Franco-American management consultant Charles Bedaux (1886–1944) built on the work of F. W. Taylor and Charles E. Knoeppel . Its distinctive advancement beyond these earlier thinkers was the Bedaux Unit or B ,

10296-473: The contract. In November 2011, Sierra Club chairman Carl Pope stepped down amid discontent about the Clorox deal and other issues. Between 2007 and 2010, the Sierra Club accepted over $ 25 million in donations from the gas industry, mostly from Aubrey McClendon , CEO of Chesapeake Energy , a large gas drilling company involved in fracking . In January 2013, executive director Michael Brune announced that

10439-420: The core advocacy areas of the Sierra Club. Uniquely for a progressive organization, the Sierra Club has strong grassroots organization in rural areas, with much activity focused on ensuring equitable and environmentally-friendly use of public lands. This is particularly accentuated by the fact that the club attracts many people who primarily join the club for recreation and use of public land for hiking. In 2023,

10582-490: The country the strong movement setting towards scientific management. National labor leaders, wide-awake as to what might happen in the future, decided that the new movement was a menace to their organization, and at once inaugurated an attack... centered about the installation of scientific management in the government arsenal at Watertown . In 1911, organized labor erupted with strong opposition to scientific management, including from Samuel Gompers , founder and president of

10725-406: The country, Sierra Club also organizes hiking tours. Sierra Club's website has a "hiking near me" function. Section " Sierra Club Near You " shows all the upcoming trips in nearby area. The historic High Trips, sometimes large expeditions with more than a hundred participants and crew, have given way to smaller and more numerous excursions held across the United States and abroad. These outings form

10868-500: The dam had a friend in the White House. The bill to dam Hetch Hetchy passed Congress in 1913, and so the Sierra Club lost its first major battle. In retaliation, the club supported creation of the National Park Service in 1916, to remove the parks from Forest Service oversight. Stephen Mather , a Club member from Chicago and an opponent of the Hetch Hetchy dam, became the first National Park Service director. During

11011-403: The dam, given its popularity with the people of San Francisco (a referendum in 1908 confirmed a seven-to-one majority in favor of the dam and municipal water). Muir and attorney William Edward Colby began a national campaign against the dam, attracting the support of many eastern conservationists. With the 1912 election of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson , who carried San Francisco, supporters of

11154-502: The dams, the Sierra Club actually advocated for coal power plants. The result of the campaign and its trade-off was, in the words of historian Andrew Needham, that "the Grand Canyon became protected, sacred space," while "the Navajo Reservation"—which housed some of the main power plants picking up the slack—"became increasingly industrial." Despite the club's success in blocking plans for the Grand Canyon dams and weathering

11297-584: The definitive rock climbing guidebooks in the United States. The Wilderness Travel Course is a basic mountaineering class that is administered by the Sierra Club. In World War II , a number of Sierra Club leaders joined the 10th Mountain Division . Among them was David R. Brower , who managed the High Trip program from 1947 to 1954, while serving as a major in the Army Reserve. In many areas of

11440-429: The department stores can do business cheaper than the little dealer." Brandeis ideas on which business is most efficient conflicted with Croly's positions, which favored efficiency driven by a kind of consolidation gained through large-scale economic operations. As early as 1895 Brandeis had warned of the harm that giant corporations could do to competitors, customers, and their own workers. The growth of industrialization

11583-424: The details of Scientific Management in his works, he did not provide its concise definition. Shortly before his death, Taylor approved the following summary and definition of Scientific Management that Hoxie prepared: "Scientific management is a system devised by industrial engineers for the purpose of serving the common interests of employers, workmen and society at large through the elimination of avoidable wastes,

11726-399: The early eugenics movement in the United States . Michael Brune, writing as the executive director of the Sierra Club, disavowed founder John Muir in the summer of 2020, but some board members said Brune's characterization of Muir was not representative of the organization. In January 2023, former NAACP president Ben Jealous became the organization's new executive director, making him

11869-495: The efficiency movement. In his many philanthropic pursuits, Rockefeller believed in supporting efficiency. He said To help an inefficient, ill-located, unnecessary school is a waste ...it is highly probable that enough money has been squandered on unwise educational projects to have built up a national system of higher education adequate to our needs, if the money had been properly directed to that end. The conservation movement regarding national resources came to prominence during

12012-675: The eyes of the workers. Frederick W. Taylor and Carl G. Barth visited Watertown in April 1909 and reported on their observations at the shops. Their conclusion was to apply the Taylor system of management to the shops to produce better results. Efforts to install the Taylor system began in June 1909. Over the years of time study and trying to improve the efficiency of workers, criticisms began to evolve. Workers complained of having to compete with one another, feeling strained and resentful, and feeling excessively tired after work. In June 1913, employees of

12155-573: The first African American to fulfill the role. In 2024, Sierra Club listed nuclear power as one of the sources included in Clean Energy Standard (CES). In 1901, William Colby organized the first Sierra Club excursion to Yosemite Valley . The annual High Trips were led by mountaineers such as Francis P. Farquhar , Joseph Nisbet LeConte , Norman Clyde , Walter A. Starr, Jr. , Jules Eichorn , Glen Dawson , Ansel Adams , and David R. Brower . A number of first ascents in

12298-475: The first decade of the 1900s, the Sierra Club became embroiled in the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir battle that divided preservationists from "resource management" conservationists. In the late 19th century, the city of San Francisco was rapidly outgrowing its limited water supply, which depended on intermittent local springs and streams. In 1890, San Francisco mayor James D. Phelan proposed to build

12441-479: The first wave from 1899 to 1905 was made urgent by the inefficiencies and failures in the Second Boer War (1899–1902). Spectator magazine reported in 1902 there was "a universal outcry for efficiency in all departments of society, in all aspects of life". The two most important themes were technocratic efficiency and managerial efficiency. As White (1899) argued vigorously, the empire needed to be put on

12584-406: The following guideline: (a) Each worker should be given the highest grade of work they are capable of. (b) Each worker should be demanded the work that a first-grade worker can do and thrive. (c) When each worker works at the pace of a first-grade worker, they should be paid 30% to 100% beyond the average of their class. While Taylor stated that sharing "the equitable division of the profits"

12727-417: The general improvement of the processes and methods of production, and the just and scientific distribution of the product." Taylor indicated that Scientific Management consisted of four underlying principles : 1) the development of a true science: We must scientifically analyze all parts of a job. This consists of examining the elements and steps that required to carry out the work, as well as measuring

12870-717: The group had strayed from its core principles. In January 2023, former NAACP president Ben Jealous became the organization's new executive director, making him the first African American to fulfill the role. The Sierra Club is organized on both a national and state level with chapters named for the 50 states and two U.S. territories (Puerto Rico and Washington D.C.) California is the lone state to have numerous chapters named for California counties. The club chapters allow for regional groups and committees, some of which have many thousands of members. These chapters further allow for special interest sections (e.g. camera, outings), committees (conservation and political), and task forces on

13013-616: The home-grown REFA system which focused on the standardization of working conditions, tools, and machinery. "Rationalization" meant higher productivity and greater efficiency, promising science would bring prosperity. More generally it promised a new level of modernity and was applied to economic production and consumption as well as public administration. Various versions of rationalization were promoted by industrialists and Social Democrats, by engineers and architects, by educators and academics, by middle class feminists and social workers, by government officials and politicians of many parties. It

13156-552: The importation of energy from Quebec's hydropower plants to New York, arguing that importing excess energy by the Quebec plants will cause environmental damage and lead to fewer in-state New York renewable energy projects. Some chapters of the Sierra Club have lobbied against solar power projects, whereas other chapters have defended solar power projects. The Sierra Club opposed the Battle Born Solar Project,

13299-523: The largest solar project in the U.S., citing its potential impact on desert tortoise habitats. The Sierra Club sued the federal government to stop the 663.5-megawatt Calico solar station in the Mojave Desert in California, saying it would imperil protected wildlife. In response to proposed reforms to streamline the permitting process for environmental projects amid concerns that environmental permitting reviews were delaying and blocking projects with

13442-489: The late 19th and early 20th century, scientific management built on earlier pursuits of economic efficiency . While it was prefigured in the folk wisdom of thrift , it favored empirical methods to determine efficient procedures rather than perpetuating established traditions. Thus it was followed by a profusion of successors in applied science, including time and motion study , the Efficiency Movement (which

13585-434: The later fields, and the different approaches often display a high degree of compatibility. Taylor rejected the notion, which was universal in his day and still held today, that the trades, including manufacturing, were resistant to analysis and could only be performed by craft production methods. In the course of his empirical studies, Taylor examined various kinds of manual labor . For example, most bulk materials handling

13728-412: The long run it will free up human workers for more creative, safer, and more enjoyable work. The early history of labor relations with scientific management in the U.S. was described by Horace Bookwalter Drury: ...for a long time there was thus little or no direct [conflict] between scientific management and organized labor... [However] One of the best known experts once spoke to us with satisfaction of

13871-434: The long-term benefits are no guarantee that individual displaced workers will be able to get new jobs that paid them as well or better as their old jobs, as this may require access to education or job training, or moving to different part of the country where new industries are growing. Inability to obtain new employment due to mismatches like these is known as structural unemployment , and economists debate to what extent this

14014-415: The manner in which, in a certain factory where there had been a number of union men, the labor organization had, upon the introduction of scientific management, gradually disintegrated. ...From 1882 (when the system was started) until 1911, a period of approximately thirty years, there was not a single strike under it, and this in spite of the fact that it was carried on primarily in the steel industry, which

14157-531: The most important part of this art". He then continued that a good management must in long run give satisfaction to both managers and workers. Taylor emphasized that he was advocating "high wages" and "low labor cost" as "the foundation of the best management". Discussing the pays for different classes of workers and what he called a "first-class" workman, he compared different scenarios of workmanship and their pros and cons. For best management, he asserted with ample reasons that managers in an organization should follow

14300-482: The most prominent figure was Herbert Hoover , a trained engineer who played down politics and believed dispassionate, nonpolitical experts could solve the nation's great problems, such as ending poverty. After 1929, Democrats blamed the Great Depression on Hoover and helped to somewhat discredit the movement. Boston lawyer Louis Brandeis (1856–1941) argued bigness conflicted with efficiency and added

14443-500: The movement, most of whom learned of and extended scientific management from Taylor's efforts: Emerson's testimony in late 1910 to the Interstate Commerce Commission brought the movement to national attention and instigated serious opposition. Emerson contended the railroads might save $ 1,000,000 a day by paying greater attention to efficiency of operation. By January 1911, a leading railroad journal began

14586-420: The one-price goods ), which were also distributed by the lobbying group American Fair Trade League to legislators, Supreme Court justices, governors, and twenty national magazines. For his works, he was asked to speak before a congressional committee considering the price-fixing bill he drafted. Here, he stated that "big business is not more efficient than little business" and that "it is a mistake to suppose that

14729-487: The optimum time for each task. We also need to know the working time per day for a qualified worker. 2) the scientific selection of the workers: The most suitable person for the job is selected. 3) the scientific education and training of the workers: There is a clear division of work and responsibility between managers and workers. While workers are carrying out the job with quality and workmanship, managers are responsible for planning, supervision, and proper training of

14872-544: The organization), and assumed the title of chairman, becoming the club's senior strategist, devoting his time to conservation policy rather than budget planning and administration. After a two-year interlude with Douglas Wheeler, whose Republican credentials were disconcerting to liberal members, the club hired Michael Fischer, the former head of the California Coastal Commission , who served as executive director from 1987 to 1992. Carl Pope , formerly

15015-475: The organization, assisted by a small clerical staff. Brower was appointed the first executive director in 1952, and the club began to catch up with major conservation organizations such as the National Audubon Society , National Wildlife Federation , The Wilderness Society , and Izaak Walton League , which had long had professional staff. The Sierra Club secured its national reputation in

15158-575: The political realm. Coming into usage in 1990, the Western term lean manufacturing (lean enterprise, lean production, or simply "lean") refers to a business idea that considered the expenditure of resources for anything other than the creation of value for the end customer to be wasteful, and thus a target for elimination. Today the Lean concept is broadening to include a greater range of strategic goals, not just cost-cutting and efficiency. In engineering,

15301-596: The pool of workers and thus lowering wages and job security . In the long term, most economists consider productivity increases as a benefit to the economy overall, and necessary to improve the standard of living for consumers in general. By the time Taylor was doing his work, improvements in agricultural productivity had freed up a large portion of the workforce for the manufacturing sector, allowing those workers in turn to buy new types of consumer goods instead of working as subsistence farmers . In later years, increased manufacturing efficiency would free up large sections of

15444-450: The projects were planned to be built on lands that were ecologically sensitive and of high agricultural value. At the time, Puerto Rico was overwhelmingly dependent on fossil fuels for its energy use, while only 2% of its energy came from renewable sources. The Sierra Club is "unequivocally opposed" to nuclear power. The Sierra Club has lobbied against hydropower projects and large-scale dams. In lobbying against hydropower projects,

15587-466: The rate increase, but also dismissed as insufficiently substantiated that concept the railroads were necessarily inefficient.) Taylor recognized the nationally known term "scientific management" as another good name for the concept, and adopted it in the title of his influential 1911 monograph . The Midvale Steel Company , "one of America's great armor plate making plants," was the birthplace of scientific management. In 1877, Frederick W. Taylor started as

15730-502: The role of experts in the schools system. Higher education was an important initiative, typified by the growth of the London School of Economics , and the foundation of Imperial College . There was a pause in the movement between 1904 and 1909, when interest resumed. The most prominent new leaders included Liberals Winston Churchill and David Lloyd George , whose influence brought a bundle of reform legislation that introduced

15873-499: The same amount of goods. In the short term, productivity increases like those achieved by Taylor's efficiency techniques can cause considerable disruption. Labor relations often become contentious over whether the financial benefits will accrue to owners in the form of increased profits, or workers in the form of increased wages. As a result of decomposition and documentation of manufacturing processes, companies employing Taylor's methods might be able to hire lower-skill workers, enlarging

16016-453: The slowest rate that goes unpunished. This slow rate of work has been observed in many industries and many countries and has been called by various terms. Taylor used the term "soldiering", a term that reflects the way conscripts may approach following orders, and observed that, when paid the same amount, workers will tend to do the amount of work that the slowest among them does. Taylor describes soldiering as "the greatest evil with which

16159-402: The steel plant and research, which have footprints in other fields, such as accounting and Engineering. Some of his concepts, studies, and findings has led to intellectual revolution in organization management. Taylor made contributions to various fields such as work measurement, production planning and control, process design, quality control, ergonomics, and human engineering. Flourishing in

16302-658: The summer of 1911, the entire force walked out for a few days. Congressional investigations followed, resulting in a ban on the use of time studies and pay premiums in Government service. Taylor's death in 1915 at age 59 left the movement without its original leader. In management literature today, the term "scientific management" mostly refers to the work of Taylor and his disciples ("classical", implying "no longer current, but still respected for its seminal value") in contrast to newer, improved iterations of efficiency-seeking methods. Today, task-oriented optimization of work tasks

16445-405: The system as it had been applied in the Watertown Arsenal . In its report to Congress this committee sustained Labor's contention that the system forced abnormally high speed upon workmen, that its disciplinary features were arbitrary and harsh, and that the use of a stop-watch and the payment of a bonus were injurious to the worker's manhood and welfare. At a succeeding session of Congress a measure

16588-541: The term. Brandeis had sought a consensus term for the approach with the help of practitioners like Henry L. Gantt and Frank B. Gilbreth . Brandeis then used the consensus of "SCIENTIFIC management" when he argued before the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) that a proposed increase in railroad rates was unnecessary despite an increase in labor costs; he alleged scientific management would overcome railroad inefficiencies (The ICC ruled against

16731-414: The transition from 501(c)(3) to 501(c)(4) status, tension grew over finances between Brower and the board of directors. The club's annual deficits rose from $ 100,000 in 1967 and 1968 to some $ 200,000 in 1969. Another conflict occurred over the club's policy toward the nuclear power plant to be constructed by Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) at Diablo Canyon near San Luis Obispo, California . Although

16874-515: The utopia of a scientifically up-to-date society supervised by experts such as themselves. Churchill in 1908 formed an alliance with the Webbs, announcing the goal of a "National Minimum", covering hours, working conditions, and wages – it was a safety net below which the individual would not be allowed to fall. Representative legislation included the Education Act 1902 , which emphasized

17017-477: The welfare state to Britain. Much of the popular and elite support for National Efficiency grew out of concern for Britain's military position, especially with respect to Germany. The Royal Navy underwent a dramatic modernization, most famously in the introduction of the Dreadnought , which in 1906 revolutionized naval warfare overnight. In Germany the efficiency movement was called "rationalization" and it

17160-434: The whole production process done by one person. "The further 'progress' of industrial development... increased the anomic or forced division of labor," the opposite of what Taylor thought would be the effect. Some workers also complained about being made to work at a faster pace and producing goods of lower quality. TRADE UNION OBJECTIONS TO SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT: ...It intensifies the modern tendency toward specialization of

17303-576: The work and the task... displaces skilled workers and... weakens the bargaining strength of the workers through specialization of the task and the destruction of craft skill. ...leads to over-production and the increase of unemployment... looks upon the worker as a mere instrument of production and reduces him to a semi-automatic attachment to the machine or tool... tends to undermine the worker's health, shortens his period of industrial activity and earning power, and brings on premature old age. — Scientific Management and Labor , Robert F. Hoxie , 1915 report to

17446-753: The worker has time to recover from fatigue, either physical (as in shoveling or lifting) or mental (as in the ball inspection case). Workers were allowed to take more rests during work, and productivity increased as a result. Subsequent forms of scientific management were articulated by Taylor's disciples, such as Henry Gantt ; other engineers and managers, such as Benjamin S. Graham ; and other theorists, such as Max Weber . Taylor's work also contrasts with other efforts, including those of Henri Fayol and those of Frank Gilbreth, Sr. and Lillian Moller Gilbreth (whose views originally shared much with Taylor's but later diverged in response to Taylorism's inadequate handling of human relations). Scientific management requires

17589-543: The workers. 4) cooperation between managers and workers: Managers and workers scientific cooperation is required to ensure the proper and high-quality execution of the jobs. There are various tools that would enable us to serve these principles, such as time and motion study, functional foremanship, standardization of tools and movements of workers for each type of work, clear instructions for workers, and cost accounting. There are many other features, tools, and methods that Taylor developed and recommended during his job at

17732-481: The workforce for the service sector . If captured as profits or wages, the money generated by more-productive companies would be spent on new goods and services; if free market competition forces prices down close to the cost of production, consumers effectively capture the benefits and have more money to spend on new goods and services. Either way, new companies and industries spring up to profit from increased demand, and due to freed-up labor are able to hire workers. But

17875-734: The working-people ... are now afflicted". This reflects the idea that workers have a vested interest in their own well-being, and do not benefit from working above the defined rate of work when it will not increase their remuneration. He, therefore, proposed that the work practice that had been developed in most work environments was crafted, intentionally or unintentionally, to be very inefficient in its execution. He posited that time and motion studies combined with rational analysis and synthesis could uncover one best method for performing any particular task, and that prevailing methods were rarely equal to these best methods. Crucially, Taylor himself prominently acknowledged that if each employee's compensation

18018-414: The world. Since the 1950s, it has lobbied politicians to promote environmentalist policies, even if they are controversial. Recent goals include promoting sustainable energy and mitigating global warming , as well as opposing the use of coal , hydropower , and nuclear power . Its political endorsements generally favor liberal and progressive candidates in elections. In addition to political advocacy,

18161-542: The young botany professor, Willis Linn Jepson from the University of California, Berkeley helped Muir and attorney Warren Olney launched the new organization modeled after the eastern Appalachian Mountain Club . The charter members of the Sierra Club elected Muir president, an office he held until his death in 1914. The first goals of the club included establishing Glacier and Mount Rainier national parks, convincing

18304-466: Was Alexei Gastev . The Central Institute of Labour (Tsentralnyi Institut Truda, or TsIT), founded by Gastev in 1921 with Vladimir Lenin 's support, was a veritable citadel of socialist Taylorism. Fascinated by Taylorism and Fordism, Gastev has led a popular movement for the “scientific organization of labor” (Nauchnaya Organizatsiya Truda, or NOT). Because of its emphasis on the cognitive components of labor, some scholars consider Gastev's NOT to represent

18447-412: Was a broader cultural echo of scientific management's impact on business managers specifically), Fordism , operations management , operations research , industrial engineering , management science , manufacturing engineering , logistics , business process management , business process reengineering , lean manufacturing , and Six Sigma . There is a fluid continuum linking scientific management with

18590-698: Was a powerful social and economic force before 1933. In part it looked explicitly at American models, especially Fordism . The Bedaux system was widely adopted in the rubber and tire industry, despite strong resistance in the socialist labor movement to the Bedaux system. Continental AG , the leading rubber company in Germany, adopted the system and profited heavily from it, thus surviving the Great Depression relatively undamaged and improving its competitive capabilities. However most German businessmen preferred

18733-514: Was always "one best way" to fix a problem. Leaders including Herbert Croly , Charles R. van Hise , and Richard Ely sought to improve governmental performance by training experts in public service comparable to those in Germany, notably at the Universities of Wisconsin and Pennsylvania. Schools of business administration set up management programs oriented toward efficiency. Many cities set up "efficiency bureaus" to identify waste and apply

18876-474: Was arrested along with forty-eight people, including civil rights leader Julian Bond and NASA climate scientist James Hansen . In May 2015, the Sierra Club appointed its first black president of the board of directors, Aaron Mair . The Sierra Club endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, and Joe Biden in the 2020 U.S. presidential election , citing its opposition to Donald Trump 's environmental deregulation. In 2020, in wake of

19019-515: Was creating mammoth companies which he felt threatened the well-being of millions of Americans. In The Curse of Bigness he argued, "Efficiency means greater production with less effort and at less cost, through the elimination of unnecessary waste, human and material. How else can we hope to attain our social ideals?" He also argued against an appeal to Congress by the state-regulated railroad industry in 1910 seeking an increase in rates. Brandeis explained that instead of passing along increased costs to

19162-468: Was linked to their output, their productivity would go up. Thus his compensation plans usually included piece rates . In contrast, some later adopters of time and motion studies ignored this aspect and tried to get large productivity gains while passing little or no compensation gains to the workforce, which contributed to resentment against the system. Taylorism led to productivity increases, meaning fewer workers or working hours were needed to produce

19305-462: Was manual at the time; material handling equipment as we know it today was mostly not developed yet. He looked at shoveling in the unloading of railroad cars full of ore ; lifting and carrying in the moving of iron pigs at steel mills; the manual inspection of bearing balls ; and others. He discovered many concepts that were not widely accepted at the time. For example, by observing workers, he decided that labor should include rest breaks so that

19448-411: Was passed which prohibited the further use of the stop-watch and the payment of a premium or bonus to workmen in government establishments.       When the federal Commission on Industrial Relations began its work it was decided that a further investigation of "scientific management" should be made, and Mr. Robert F. Hoxie , Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago ,

19591-664: Was ridiculed by the extremists in the Communist movement. As ideology and practice, rationalization challenged and transformed not only machines, factories, and vast business enterprises but also the lives of middle-class and working-class Germans. Ideas of Science Management was very popular in the Soviet Union. One of the leading theorists and practitioners of the Scientific Management in Soviet Russia

19734-491: Was selected to undertake the work. [ ... ]       Mr. Hoxie was to devote a year to his investigation, and [ ... ] it was deemed advsiable that he should be accompanied by two men [ ... ]       One of those appointed was Mr. Robert G. Valentine [formerly Commissioner of Indian Affairs, but "at this time a management consultant in private practice" according to Aitken] [ ... ]       The other expert

19877-417: Was strong support for building research universities and schools of business and engineering, municipal research agencies, as well as reform of hospitals and medical schools, and the practice of farming. Perhaps the best known leaders were engineers Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856–1915), who used a stopwatch to identify the smallest inefficiencies, and Frank Bunker Gilbreth Sr. (1868–1924) who proclaimed there

20020-609: Was subject to a great many disturbances. For instance, in the general strike in Philadelphia , one man only went out at the Tabor plant [managed by Taylor], while at the Baldwin Locomotive shops across the street two thousand struck. ...Serious opposition may be said to have been begun in 1911, immediately after certain testimony presented before the Interstate Commerce Commission [by Harrington Emerson] revealed to

20163-492: Was successful in changing club positions on both counts. In 2008, several Sierra Club officers quit in protest after the Sierra Club agreed to promote products by Clorox , which had been named one of a "dangerous dozen" chemical companies by the Public Interest Research Group in 2004. According to Carl Pope, the Sierra Club chairman, the deal brought the club $ 1.3 million over the four-year term of

20306-452: Was the nation's foremost conservationist, putting the issue high on the national agenda by emphasizing the need to eliminate wasteful uses of limited natural resources. He worked with all the major figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter, Gifford Pinchot . Roosevelt was deeply committed to conserving natural resources, and is considered to be the nation's first conservation President. In 1908, Roosevelt sponsored

20449-524: Was to be a trade unionist, and I [John P. Frey] was honored with the appointment. The Watertown Arsenal in Massachusetts provides an example of the application and repeal of the Taylor system in the workplace, due to worker opposition. In the early 20th century, neglect in the Watertown shops included overcrowding, dim lighting, lack of tools and equipment, and questionable management strategies in

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