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114-599: In addition to political advocacy, the Sierra Club organizes outdoor recreation activities, and has historically been a notable organization for mountaineering and rock climbing in the United States. Members of the Sierra Club pioneered the Yosemite Decimal System of climbing, and were responsible for a substantial amount of the early development of climbing. Much of this activity occurred in

228-601: A tourist activity. There are different activities associated with the sport. Mountaineering lacks formal rules – though appropriately empowered bodies make many pertaining to specific use of mountains and practices on them. In theory, any person may climb a mountain and call themself a mountaineer. In practice, the sport is defined by the safe and necessary use of technical skills in mountainous terrain: in particular, roped climbing and snow travel abilities. A variety of techniques have been developed to help people climb mountains that are widely applied among practitioners of

342-409: A "base camp," which is an area used for staging attempts at nearby summits. Base camps are positioned to be relatively safe from harsh terrain and weather. Where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountain will have additional camps above base camp. For popular mountains, base camps may be at a fixed location and become famous. The Everest base camps and Camp Muir are among

456-425: A beneficial environmental impact, the Sierra Club expressed opposition to such reforms, arguing "Whatever the proposed project is — whether it's a pipeline or a highway or a solar farm — it should be subject to the same commonsense review process. If we want these projects to move forward faster, we shouldn't be weakening environmental laws, but investing more resources into the agencies and staff." The Sierra Club has

570-407: A climber who ascends the rock. The first climber, called the leader , will reach a point on the rock and then build an anchor , which will secure subsequent climbers. Anchors could be created by using slings around a tree or boulder, or by using protection devices like cams and nuts . Once anchored, the leader will then belay the climber coming up from below. Once the follower reaches the leader,

684-630: A dam and aqueduct on the Tuolumne River, one of the largest southern Sierra rivers, as a way to increase and stabilize the city's water supply. Gifford Pinchot , a progressive supporter of public utilities and head of the US Forest Service , which then had jurisdiction over the national parks, supported the creation of the Hetch Hetchy dam. Muir appealed to his friend U.S. President Roosevelt, who would not commit himself against

798-426: A few different forms of shelter depending on the situation and conditions; alpine shelters or arctic shelters. Shelter is a very important aspect of safety for the climber as weather in the mountains may be very unpredictable. Tall mountains may require many days of camping. Short trips lasting less than a day generally do not require shelter, although for safety, most mountaineers will carry an emergency shelter, such

912-481: A history of filing lawsuits against new housing developments and trying to block legislative proposals to ease housing construction. Critics have characterized the Sierra Club's actions on housing as NIMBYism . In 2012, the Sierra Club sued to block the construction of a mixed-use development composed of 16,655 housing units (for an estimated 37,000 residents) and commercial space in Riverside, California. In 2018,

1026-553: A large Yosemite National Park surrounding the much smaller state park which had been created in 1864. This campaign succeeded in 1890. As early as 1889, Johnson had encouraged Muir to form an "association" to help protect the Sierra Nevada , and preliminary meetings were held to plan the group. Others involved in the early planning included artist William Keith , Willis Linn Jepson , Warren Olney , Willard Drake Johnson , Joseph LeConte and David Starr Jordan . In May 1892,

1140-559: A large body of professional guides, equipment, and methodologies. In the early years of the " golden age ", scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall . In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and alpine mountaineering overall. The first president of the Alpine Club, John Ball ,

1254-607: A large variety of techniques and philosophies (including grading and guidebooks ) when climbing mountains. Numerous local alpine clubs support mountaineers by hosting resources and social activities. A federation of alpine clubs, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA), is the International Olympic Committee -recognized world organization for mountaineering and climbing. The consequences of mountaineering on

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1368-401: A light bivouac sack . Typical shelters used for camping include tents and bivouac sacks . The ability of these shelters to provide protection from the elements is dependent on their design. Mountaineers who climb in areas with cold weather or snow and ice will use more heavy-duty shelters than those who climb in more forgiving environments. In remote locations, mountaineers will set up

1482-554: A major part of Sierra Club culture, and in some chapters, constitute the majority of member activity. Other chapters, however, may sponsor very few outdoor or recreational activities, being focused solely on political advocacy. Generally, chapters in California are much more active with regard to outdoor activities. The Sierra Club presents a number of annual awards, such as the Sierra Club John Muir Award ,

1596-470: A majority in 1968, but in the April 1969 election the anti-Brower candidates won all five open positions. Ansel Adams and president Richard Leonard, two of his closest friends on the board, led the opposition to Brower, charging him with financial recklessness and insubordination and calling for his ouster as executive director. The board voted ten to five to accept Brower's resignation. Eventually reconciled with

1710-707: A means of payment. In the UK the term "hut" is used for any cottage or cabin used as a base for walkers or climbers. These are mostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members or visiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanent staff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating. In the Scottish Highlands small simple unstaffed shelters without cooking facilities known as "bothies" are maintained to break up cross country long routes and act as base camps to certain mountains. Where conditions permit, snow caves are another way to shelter high on

1824-413: A rope team. For example, when traveling over glaciers , crevasses pose a grave danger to a climber who is not roped in. These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow can be blown and freeze over the top to make a snowbridge . At times snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches and may collapse from people walking over them. Should a climber fall, being protected by a rope greatly reduces

1938-405: A roped team may choose not to use anchors; instead, all members of the team will prepare to use their ice axes to self-arrest in the event should a team member fall. It is not always wise for climbers to form a rope team, since one falling climber may pull the entire team off the mountain. However, the risks of individual, unprotected travel are often so great that groups have no choice but to form

2052-405: A single issue with some kind of geography involved. While much activity is coordinated at a local level, the club is a unified organization; decisions made at the national level take precedence, including the removal and creation of chapters, as well as recruiting and removing members. The club is known for engaging in two main activities: promoting and guiding outdoor recreational activities, which

2166-493: A trip, safe climbers know what hazards to look for and how to recognize them. In situations where hazards are not able to be avoided, the climber must use their decision-making skills to mitigate those hazards. Climbers improve upon their ability to become a safe decision maker and recognize hazards by receiving proper education, training, practice, and experience as well as learning how to spot personal bias . Yosemite Valley Too Many Requests If you report this error to

2280-495: A variety of hazards . When climbing mountains, there are two types of hazards, objective (mountain-based) and subjective (human-based) . Objective hazards relate to the environment, and may include inclement weather conditions, dangerous terrain, duration of exposure , and other environmental conditions. Subjective hazards relate to a climber's poor judgement, poor planning, lack of skills, faulty analysis and conclusions, or inadequate conditioning. In terms of objective hazards,

2394-535: A voluntary basis by members of alpine clubs. The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals, both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisingly wide, given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-based snacks (such as candy bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at

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2508-464: A young generation of Norwegian mountaineers such as George Paus , Eilert Sundt and Kristian Tandberg appeared, and later founded Norsk Tindeklub , the third oldest mountaineering association in the world. By the turn of the 20th century, mountaineering had acquired a more international flavour. In 1897 Mount Saint Elias (18,008 ft (5,489 m)) on the Alaska - Yukon border was summitted by

2622-520: Is a set of outdoor activities that involves ascending mountains . Mountaineering-related activities include traditional outdoor climbing , skiing , and traversing via ferratas that have become sports in their own right. Indoor climbing , sport climbing , and bouldering are also considered variants of mountaineering by some, but are part of a wide group of mountain sports . Unlike most sports, mountaineering lacks widely applied formal rules, regulations, and governance; mountaineers adhere to

2736-435: Is also a prerequisite of success in all aspects of mountaineering. Alpine rock climbing involves technical skills including the ability to place anchors into the rock to safely ascend a mountain. In some cases, climbers may have to climb multiple pitches of rock to reach the top. Typically, for any one pitch, there is a belayer who is stationary and creates tension on the rope to catch a climber should he or she fall, and

2850-441: Is at least four feet of snow. The addition of a good quality bivouac bag and closed cell foam sleeping mat will also increase the warmth of the snow cave. Another shelter that works well is a quinzee , which is excavated from a pile of snow that has been work hardened or sintered (typically by stomping). Igloos are used by some climbers, but are deceptively difficult to build and require specific snow conditions. Mountaineers face

2964-510: Is considered to be the discoverer of the Dolomites , which for decades were the focus of climbers like Paul Grohmann and Angelo Dibona . At that time, the edelweiss also established itself as a symbol of alpinists and mountaineers. In the 19th century, the focus of mountaineering turned towards mountains beyond the Alps. One of the earliest mountain areas to be explored beyond the Alps in

3078-442: Is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts, even with more than 100 bed spaces, may be full during good weather and at weekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation is advised as a matter of courtesy – and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they plan to walk to next. Most huts may be contacted by telephone and most take credit cards as

3192-415: Is done throughout the United States but primarily in California (especially Southern California), and political activism to promote environmental causes. Described as one of the United States' "leading environmental organizations", the Sierra Club makes endorsements of individual candidates for elected office. Journalist Robert Underwood Johnson had worked with John Muir on the successful campaign to create

3306-508: Is the 1100 AD ascent of the Untersberg . The famous poet Petrarch describes his 26 April 1336 ascent of Mount Ventoux (1,912 m (6,273 ft)) in one of his epistolae familiares , claiming to be inspired by Philip V of Macedon 's ascent of Mount Haemo . For most of antiquity, climbing mountains was a practical or symbolic activity, usually undertaken for economic, political, or religious purposes. A commonly cited example

3420-456: Is the 1492 ascent of Mont Aiguille (2,085 m (6,841 ft)) by Antoine de Ville, a French military officer and lord of Domjulien and Beaupré. Because ropes, ladders and iron hooks were used, and because it was the first climb of any technical difficulty to be officially verified, this ascent is widely recognized as being the birth of mountaineering. Conrad Gessner , A mid-16th Century physician, botanist and naturalist from Switzerland,

3534-402: Is used to describe terrain in which no technical equipment is needed. To traverse this terrain, mountaineers hike long distances to a base camp or the beginning of rough terrain, either following trails or using navigation techniques to travel cross-country. Hiking may be a strenuous activity, and adequate physical fitness and familiarity with the wilderness is necessary to complete a hike; it

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3648-650: Is widely recognized as being the first person to hike and climb for sheer pleasure. In the Andes , around the late 1400s and early 1500s many ascents were made of extremely high peaks by the Incas and their subjects. The highest they are known for certain to have climbed is 6739 m at the summit of Volcan Llullaillaco . The Age of Enlightenment and the Romantic era marked a change of attitudes towards high mountains. In 1757 Swiss scientist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure made

3762-470: The 4th millennium BC , were found in a glacier in the Ötztal Alps . However, the highest mountains were rarely visited early on, and were often associated with supernatural or religious concepts. Nonetheless, there are many documented examples of people climbing mountains prior to the formal development of the sport in the 19th century, although many of these stories are sometimes considered fictional or legendary. A rare medieval example of mountaineering

3876-786: The Ansel Adams Award for Conservation Photography , the Francis P. Farquhar Mountaineering Award , the Edgar Wayburn Award for public officials, the Rachel Carson Award for journalists and writers, the William O. Douglas Award for legal work, and the EarthCare Award for international environmental protection and conservation. Land management, access, conservation are traditionally considered

3990-770: The Duke of the Abruzzi and party. In 1879–1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo (20,549 ft (6,263 m)) and explored the mountains of Ecuador. It took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa. Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa was climbed in 1889 by Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller and German geologist Hans Meyer , Mount Kenya in 1899 by Halford Mackinder . The greatest mountain range to be conquered

4104-676: The Echo Park Dam in Dinosaur National Monument in Utah , which had been announced by the Bureau of Reclamation in 1950. Brower led the fight, marshaling support from other conservation groups. Brower's background in publishing proved decisive; with the help of publisher Alfred Knopf, This Is Dinosaur was rushed into press. Invoking the specter of Hetch Hetchy, conservationists effectively lobbied Congress, which deleted

4218-794: The French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing , remain independent. The premier award in mountaineering is the privately granted Piolet d'Or , which has expanded from a single recognition to multiple. While there are many competitions, particularly in toproped climbing wall disciplines, there are no "official" world championships or other similar competitions for mountaineering broadly. Mountaineering techniques vary greatly depending on location, season, terrain, and route. Both techniques and hazards vary by terrain, spanning trails, rock, snow, and ice. Mountaineers must possess adequate food, water, information, equipment, stamina, and skill to complete their tasks. The term "walk-up" or "trek"

4332-492: The George Floyd protests and subsequent public reconciliation of systematic racism in public history , the Sierra Club described their own early history as intermingled with racism. In particular, the early Sierra Club favored the needs of white members to the exclusion of people of color, and Muir and some of his associates, such as Joseph LeConte , David Starr Jordan , and Henry Fairfield Osborn were closely related to

4446-579: The Golden Age of Alpinism , with the first mountaineering club – the Alpine Club – being founded in 1857. One of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 by a party led by English illustrator Edward Whymper , in which four of the party members fell to their deaths. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with

4560-903: The Grand Canyon . The book Time and the River Flowing: Grand Canyon authored by Francois Leydet was published in the Exhibit Format book series. Opposing the Bridge Canyon and Marble Canyon dam projects, full-page ads the club placed in The New York Times and The Washington Post in 1966 exclaimed, "This time it's the Grand Canyon they want to flood," and asked, "Should we also flood the Sistine Chapel so tourists can get nearer

4674-895: The Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813. In 1808, Marie Paradis became the first woman to climb Mont Blanc, followed in 1838 by Henriette d'Angeville . The beginning of mountaineering as a sport in the UK is generally dated to the ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854 by English mountaineer Sir Alfred Wills , who made mountaineering fashionable in Britain. This inaugurated what became known as

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4788-521: The vasodilator padutin , and a stimulant tea made from coca leaves. K2 (8,611m), the second-highest peak in the world, was first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni . In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma (8,013m), the lowest of all the 8,000-metre peaks. Reinhold Messner from the Dolomites mountain range (Italy) was then the first to climb all eight-thousanders up to 1986, in addition to being

4902-474: The 1920s and 1930s, the Sierra Club functioned as a social and recreational society, conducting outings, maintaining trails and building huts and lodges in the Sierra. Preservation campaigns included a several-year effort to enlarge Sequoia National Park (achieved in 1926) and over three decades of work to protect and then preserve Kings Canyon National Park (established in 1940). Historian Stephen Fox notes, "In

5016-517: The 1930s most of the three thousand members were middle-aged Republicans." The New Deal brought many conservationists to the Democratic Party, and many Democrats entered the ranks of conservationists. Leading the generation of Young Turks who revitalized the Sierra Club after World War II were attorneys Richard Leonard and Bestor Robinson , nature photographer Ansel Adams , and David Brower . Adams sponsored Brower for membership in

5130-525: The 19th century were the mountains of Norway —particularly Jotunheimen —where British mountaineers such as William Cecil Slingsby , Harold Raeburn and Howard Priestman were early pioneers. Slingsby's book Norway, the Northern Playground contributed greatly to the popularization of mountaineering in Norway among the international mountaineering community. Around the turn of the century,

5244-468: The California legislature to give Yosemite Valley to the U.S. federal government, and preserving coastal redwood forests of California. Muir escorted President Theodore Roosevelt through Yosemite in 1903, and two years later the California legislature ceded Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove to the federal government. The Sierra Club won its first lobbying victory with the creation of the country's second national park, after Yellowstone in 1872. In

5358-584: The Echo Park dam from the Colorado River project as approved in 1955. Recognition of the Sierra Club's role in the Echo Park dam victory boosted membership from 10,000 in 1956 to 15,000 in 1960. The Sierra Club was now truly a national conservation organization, and preservationists took the offensive with wilderness proposals. The club's Biennial Wilderness Conferences, launched in 1949 in concert with The Wilderness Society, became an important force in

5472-560: The Sierra Club has expressed opposition to power lines and said that hydropower projects disrupt animal habitats. The Sierra Club opposes dams it considers inappropriate, including some government-built dams in national parks. In the early 20th century, the organization fought against the damming and flooding of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park . Despite this lobbying, Congress authorized

5586-521: The Sierra Club opposed SB 827 , which would have permitted dense housing near major public transit stations in California. Most other environmental groups supported the legislation, as dense housing construction near public transit was estimated to substantially reduce car pollution and help California reach its emissions target. Ethan Elkind, director of the Climate Change and Business Program at UC-Berkeley and UCLA Schools of Law, called it “one of

5700-405: The Sierra Club set a goal to close half of all coal plants in the U.S. by 2017. American business magnate and former New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg donated $ 50 million to the Sierra Club's anti-coal work in 2011, and announced another $ 30 million gift to Sierra's Beyond Coal campaign in 2015. The Beyond Coal campaign says 187 coal plants have been closed since 2010. Other funders of

5814-529: The Sierra Club sued the Puerto Rican government for 18 renewable energy projects on more than 2,000 hectares of land. The Sierra Club argued that the land was ecologically sensitive and of high agricultural value. The Sierra Club said that building renewable energy projects on agricultural land was a "serious attack on the food security of Puerto Rico." A goal of the Sierra Club is to replace coal with other energy sources. Through its " Beyond Coal " campaign,

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5928-525: The Sierra Club would officially participate in the first civil disobedience action in its 120-year history as part of the ongoing protest calling on the Obama administration to reject the Keystone XL tar sands pipeline, stating, "We are watching a global crisis unfold before our eyes, and to stand aside and let it happen—even though we know how to stop it—would be unconscionable." On February 13, 2013, Brune

6042-584: The Sierra Club's anti-coal campaign include the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation and the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation . The CEO of Chesapeake Energy , a natural gas company, donated $ 26 million to the Beyond Coal campaign between 2007 and 2010. The Sierra Club sued the Puerto Rico government in 2023 for its plans to build dozens of renewable energy projects. The Sierra Club said

6156-518: The Sierra Nevada were made on Sierra Club outings. Sierra Club members were also early enthusiasts of rock climbing. In 1911, the first chapter was formed, Angeles, and it began conducting local excursions in the mountains surrounding Los Angeles and throughout the West. Steve Roper 's Fifty Classic Climbs of North America , sponsored and published by the Sierra Club, is still considered one of

6270-455: The World , with color photographs by Eliot Porter . These coffee-table books, published by their Sierra Club Books division, introduced the Sierra Club to a wider audience. Fifty thousand copies were sold in the first four years, and by 1960 sales exceeded $ 10 million. Soon Brower was publishing two new titles a year in the Exhibit Format series, but not all did as well as In Wildness. Although

6384-747: The administration of President Jimmy Carter . Efforts of the Sierra Club and others—including Black community organizers who fought against destructive "urban renewal" projects—led to passage of the National Environmental Policy Act and the Water Pollution Control Act . The Sierra Club formed a political committee and made its first presidential endorsement in 1984 in support of Walter Mondale 's unsuccessful campaign to unseat Ronald Reagan . McCloskey resigned as executive director in 1985 after 16 + 1 ⁄ 2 years (the same length of time Brower had led

6498-422: The board of directors voted to support PG&E's plan for the power plant. A membership referendum in 1967 upheld the board's decision. But Brower concluded that nuclear power at any location was a mistake, and he voiced his opposition to the plant, contrary to the club's official policy. As pro- and anti-Brower factions polarized, the annual election of new directors reflected the conflict. Brower's supporters won

6612-474: The books were successful in introducing the public to wilderness preservation and the Sierra Club, they lost money for the organization, some $ 60,000 a year after 1964. Financial management became a matter of contention between Brower and his board of directors. The Sierra Club's most publicized crusade of the 1960s was the effort to stop the Bureau of Reclamation from building two dams that would flood portions of

6726-464: The bottom of a mountaineer's boots and provide additional traction on hard snow and ice. For loose snow, crampons are less suitable, and snowshoes or skis may be preferred. Using various techniques from alpine skiing to ascend/descend a mountain is a form of the sport by itself, called ski mountaineering . Ascending and descending a steep snow slope safely requires the use of an ice axe and different footwork techniques that have been developed over

6840-602: The campaign that secured passage of the Wilderness Act in 1964, marking the first time that public lands (9.1 million acres) were permanently protected from development. Grand Teton National Park and Olympic National Park were also enlarged at the Sierra Club's urging. In 1960, Brower launched the Exhibit Format book series with This Is the American Earth , and in 1962, In Wildness Is the Preservation of

6954-649: The campaigns to save the Grand Canyon and establish Redwoods National Park and North Cascades National Park . During the 1970s, McCloskey led the club's legislative activity—preserving Alaskan lands and eastern wilderness areas, and supporting the new environmental agenda: the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976, the Clean Air Act amendments, and the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, passed during

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7068-628: The ceiling?" The ads generated a storm of protest to the Congress, prompting the Internal Revenue Service to announce it was suspending the Sierra Club's 501(c)(3) status pending an investigation. The board had taken the precaution of setting up the Sierra Club Foundation as a (c)(3) organization in 1960 for endowments and contributions for educational and other non-lobbying activities. Even so, contributions to

7182-450: The club dropped off, aggravating its annual operating deficits. Membership, however, climbed sharply in response to the investigation into the legitimacy of the society's tax status by the IRS from 30,000 in 1965 to 57,000 in 1967 and 75,000 in 1969. The victory over the dam projects and challenges from the IRS did not come without costs. To make up for the power that would have been produced by

7296-413: The club had played the leading role blocking PG&E's nuclear power plant proposed for Bodega Bay, California , in the early 1960s, that case had been built around the local environmental impact and earthquake danger from the nearby San Andreas Fault , not from opposition to nuclear power itself. In exchange for moving the new proposed site from the environmentally sensitive Nipomo Dunes to Diablo Canyon,

7410-480: The club's legislative director, was named executive director in 1992. In the 1990s, club members Jim Bensman, Roger Clarke, David Dilworth, Chad Hanson and David Orr along with about 2,000 members formed the John Muir Sierrans (JMS), an internal caucus, to promote changes to club positions. They favored a zero-cut forest policy on public lands and, a few years later, decommissioning Glen Canyon Dam . JMS

7524-416: The club, Brower was elected to the board of directors for a term from 1983 to 1988, and again from 1995 to 2000. Brower resigned from the board in 2000. Michael McCloskey, hired by Brower in 1961 as the club's first northwest field representative, became the club's second executive director in 1969. An administrator attentive to detail, McCloskey had set up the club's conservation department in 1965 and guided

7638-667: The club, and he was appointed to the editorial board of the Sierra Club Bulletin. After World War II Brower returned to his job with the University of California Press, and began editing the Sierra Club Bulletin in 1946. In 1950, the Sierra Club had some 7,000 members, mostly on the West Coast. That year the Atlantic chapter became the first formed outside California. An active volunteer board of directors ran

7752-465: The construction of O'Shaughnessy Dam on the Tuolumne River . The Sierra Club continues to support removal of the dam. The Sierra Club advocates the decommissioning of Glen Canyon Dam and the draining of Lake Powell . The club also supports removal, breaching or decommissioning of many other dams, including four dams on the lower Snake River in eastern Washington . The Sierra Club opposes

7866-469: The contract. In November 2011, Sierra Club chairman Carl Pope stepped down amid discontent about the Clorox deal and other issues. Between 2007 and 2010, the Sierra Club accepted over $ 25 million in donations from the gas industry, mostly from Aubrey McClendon , CEO of Chesapeake Energy , a large gas drilling company involved in fracking . In January 2013, executive director Michael Brune announced that

7980-419: The core advocacy areas of the Sierra Club. Uniquely for a progressive organization, the Sierra Club has strong grassroots organization in rural areas, with much activity focused on ensuring equitable and environmentally-friendly use of public lands. This is particularly accentuated by the fact that the club attracts many people who primarily join the club for recreation and use of public land for hiking. In 2023,

8094-405: The country, Sierra Club also organizes hiking tours. Sierra Club's website has a "hiking near me" function. Section " Sierra Club Near You " shows all the upcoming trips in nearby area. The historic High Trips, sometimes large expeditions with more than a hundred participants and crew, have given way to smaller and more numerous excursions held across the United States and abroad. These outings form

8208-559: The dam had a friend in the White House. The bill to dam Hetch Hetchy passed Congress in 1913, and so the Sierra Club lost its first major battle. In retaliation, the club supported creation of the National Park Service in 1916, to remove the parks from Forest Service oversight. Stephen Mather , a Club member from Chicago and an opponent of the Hetch Hetchy dam, became the first National Park Service director. During

8322-403: The dam, given its popularity with the people of San Francisco (a referendum in 1908 confirmed a seven-to-one majority in favor of the dam and municipal water). Muir and attorney William Edward Colby began a national campaign against the dam, attracting the support of many eastern conservationists. With the 1912 election of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson , who carried San Francisco, supporters of

8436-501: The dams, the Sierra Club actually advocated for coal power plants. The result of the campaign and its trade-off was, in the words of historian Andrew Needham, that "the Grand Canyon became protected, sacred space," while "the Navajo Reservation"—which housed some of the main power plants picking up the slack—"became increasingly industrial." Despite the club's success in blocking plans for the Grand Canyon dams and weathering

8550-493: The dangers mountaineers face include loose or falling rocks, falling ice, snow- avalanches , the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses, and the dangers from altitude and weather. From 1947 to 2018 in the United States "2,799 people were reported to be involved in mountaineering accidents and 43% of these accidents resulted in death." Climbers themselves are responsible for nearly all climbing accidents. When planning and preparing for

8664-581: The definitive rock climbing guidebooks in the United States. The Wilderness Travel Course is a basic mountaineering class that is administered by the Sierra Club. In World War II , a number of Sierra Club leaders joined the 10th Mountain Division . Among them was David R. Brower , who managed the High Trip program from 1947 to 1954, while serving as a major in the Army Reserve. In many areas of

8778-435: The early eugenics movement in the United States . Michael Brune, writing as the executive director of the Sierra Club, disavowed founder John Muir in the summer of 2020, but some board members said Brune's characterization of Muir was not representative of the organization. In January 2023, former NAACP president Ben Jealous became the organization's new executive director, making him the first African American to fulfill

8892-475: The first decade of the 1900s, the Sierra Club became embroiled in the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir battle that divided preservationists from "resource management" conservationists. In the late 19th century, the city of San Francisco was rapidly outgrowing its limited water supply, which depended on intermittent local springs and streams. In 1890, San Francisco mayor James D. Phelan proposed to build

9006-471: The first of several unsuccessful attempts on Mont Blanc in France. He then offered a reward to anyone who could climb the mountain, which was claimed in 1786 by Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard . The climb is usually considered an epochal event in the history of mountaineering, a symbolic mark of the birth of the sport. By the early 19th century, many of the alpine peaks were reached, including

9120-610: The first professional female mountaineers) made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (23,300 ft (7,100 m)). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Charles Granville Bruce , and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them. In 1902 the Eckenstein–Crowley Expedition, led by English mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and English occultist Aleister Crowley

9234-429: The first without supplemental oxygen. In 1978 he climbed Mount Everest with Peter Habeler without supplemental oxygen, the first men to do so. Long the domain of the wealthy elite and their agents, the emergence of the middle-class in the 19th and 20th centuries resulted in mass interest in mountaineering. It became a popular pastime and hobby of many people. Some have come to criticize the sport as becoming too much of

9348-458: The group's namesake, the Sierra Nevada . The Sierra Club operates only in the United States and holds the legal status of 501(c)(4) nonprofit social welfare organization. Sierra Club Canada is a separate entity. The Sierra Club's stated mission is "To explore, enjoy, and protect the wild places of the earth; To practice and promote the responsible use of the earth's ecosystems and resources; To educate and enlist humanity to protect and restore

9462-402: The group. Michael Brune , formerly of Rainforest Action Network , served as the organization's executive director from 2010. Brune succeeded Carl Pope . Pope stepped down amid discontent that the group had strayed from its core principles. In January 2023, former NAACP president Ben Jealous became the organization's new executive director, making him the first African American to fulfill

9576-534: The high mountains themselves – in extremely remote areas, more rudimentary shelters may exist. The mountain huts are of varying size and quality, but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests are expected to bring and use their own sleeping bag liners . The facilities are usually rudimentary, but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing

9690-418: The hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided. Booking for overnight stays at huts

9804-401: The ice, as well as traditional rock climbing equipment for anchoring in mixed terrain. Often, mountaineers climbing steep snow or mixed snowy rock terrain will not use a fixed belay. Instead, each climber on the team will climb at the same time while attached to anchors, in groups of two. This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet which also allows for greater speed than

9918-547: The importation of energy from Quebec's hydropower plants to New York, arguing that importing excess energy by the Quebec plants will cause environmental damage and lead to fewer in-state New York renewable energy projects. Some chapters of the Sierra Club have lobbied against solar power projects, whereas other chapters have defended solar power projects. The Sierra Club opposed the Battle Born Solar Project,

10032-521: The largest solar project in the U.S., citing its potential impact on desert tortoise habitats. The Sierra Club sued the federal government to stop the 663.5-megawatt Calico solar station in the Mojave Desert in California, saying it would imperil protected wildlife. In response to proposed reforms to streamline the permitting process for environmental projects amid concerns that environmental permitting reviews were delaying and blocking projects with

10146-404: The leader will often transfer all necessary protection devices (known as a rack) to the follower. The follower then becomes the leader and will ascend the next pitch. This process will continue until the climbers either reach the top, or run into different terrain. For extremely vertical rocks, or to overcome certain logistical challenges, climbers may use aid climbing techniques. This involves

10260-448: The most famous base camps. Camping is not always an option, or may not be suitable if a mountain is close to civilization. Some regions may legally prohibit primitive camping due to concern for the environment, or due to issues with crowds. In lieu of camping, mountaineers may choose to stay in mountain huts . The European alpine regions, in particular, have a large network of huts. Such huts exist at many different heights, including in

10374-598: The most important climate bills in California.” The Sierra Club argued the bill sought to take away the sacrosanct right of localities "to make smart local decisions about development." In 2023, the Sierra Club lobbied against AB 1633, which prevents NIMBY abuse of the California Environmental Quality Act to block new housing developments that already comply with local and state land use and environmental regulations. Mountaineering Mountaineering , mountain climbing , or alpinism

10488-424: The mountain. Some climbers do not use tents at high altitudes unless the snow conditions do not allow for snow caving, since snow caves are silent and much warmer than tents. They can be built relatively easily, given sufficient time, using a snow shovel. The temperature of a correctly made snow cave will hover around freezing, which relative to outside temperatures can be very warm. They can be dug anywhere where there

10602-535: The natural environment can be seen in terms of individual components of the environment (land relief, soil, vegetation, fauna, and landscape) and the location/zone of mountaineering activity (hiking, trekking, or climbing zone). Mountaineering impacts communities on economic, political, social and cultural levels, often leading to changes in people's worldviews influenced by globalization, specifically foreign cultures and lifestyles. Humans have been present in mountains since prehistory. The remains of Ötzi , who lived in

10716-543: The organization), and assumed the title of chairman, becoming the club's senior strategist, devoting his time to conservation policy rather than budget planning and administration. After a two-year interlude with Douglas Wheeler, whose Republican credentials were disconcerting to liberal members, the club hired Michael Fischer, the former head of the California Coastal Commission , who served as executive director from 1987 to 1992. Carl Pope , formerly

10830-493: The organization, assisted by a small clerical staff. Brower was appointed the first executive director in 1952, and the club began to catch up with major conservation organizations such as the National Audubon Society , National Wildlife Federation , The Wilderness Society , and Izaak Walton League , which had long had professional staff. The Sierra Club secured its national reputation in the battle against

10944-542: The past century, such as the French technique and German technique . Teams of climbers may choose to attach everyone together with a rope, to form a rope team. The team may then secure themselves by attaching the rope to anchors. These anchors are sometimes unreliable and include snow stakes or pickets, deadman devices called flukes , or buried equipment or rocks. Bollards , which are simply carved out of consolidated snow or ice, also sometimes serve as anchors. Alternatively,

11058-442: The projects were planned to be built on lands that were ecologically sensitive and of high agricultural value. At the time, Puerto Rico was overwhelmingly dependent on fossil fuels for its energy use, while only 2% of its energy came from renewable sources. The Sierra Club is "unequivocally opposed" to nuclear power. The Sierra Club has lobbied against hydropower projects and large-scale dams. In lobbying against hydropower projects,

11172-456: The quality of the natural and human environment; and to use all lawful means to carry out these objectives." The Sierra Club is governed by a 15-member board of directors. Each year, five directors are elected to three-year terms, and all club members are eligible to vote. A president is elected annually by the Board from among its members. The executive director runs the day-to-day operations of

11286-403: The risk of injury or death. The other members of the rope team may proceed with a crevasse rescue to pull the fallen climber from the crevasse. For extremely slippery or steep snow, ice, and mixed rock and ice terrain climbers must use more advanced techniques, called ice climbing or mixed climbing. Specialized tools such as ice screws and ice picks help climbers build anchors and move up

11400-508: The role. The Sierra Club is organized on both a national and state level with chapters named for the 50 states and two U.S. territories (Puerto Rico and Washington D.C.) California is the lone state to have numerous chapters named for California counties. The club chapters allow for regional groups and committees, some of which have many thousands of members. These chapters further allow for special interest sections (e.g. camera, outings), committees (conservation and political), and task forces on

11514-531: The role. In 2024, Sierra Club listed nuclear power as one of the sources included in Clean Energy Standard (CES). In 1901, William Colby organized the first Sierra Club excursion to Yosemite Valley . The annual High Trips were led by mountaineers such as Francis P. Farquhar , Joseph Nisbet LeConte , Norman Clyde , Walter A. Starr, Jr. , Jules Eichorn , Glen Dawson , Ansel Adams , and David R. Brower . A number of first ascents in

11628-536: The sport. Despite its lack of defined rules and non-competitive nature, certain aspects of mountaineering have much of the trappings of an organized sport, with recognition of specific climbing activities – including climbing wall -based competition – by the International Olympic Committee ; on a club level, the prominent international sport federation the UIAA counts numerous national alpine clubs as its members, while others, such as The Mountaineers and

11742-418: The traditional technique of belaying one climber at a time. This technique is known as simul-climbing or a running belay and is sometimes also used on ice, however, the risk of dropping frequently displaced ice on the lower team member(s) limits its usefulness on ice. Traditional belays are also used; in this case, this is sometimes necessary due to ice fall hazard, steepness, or other factors. Climbers use

11856-414: The transition from 501(c)(3) to 501(c)(4) status, tension grew over finances between Brower and the board of directors. The club's annual deficits rose from $ 100,000 in 1967 and 1968 to some $ 200,000 in 1969. Another conflict occurred over the club's policy toward the nuclear power plant to be constructed by Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) at Diablo Canyon near San Luis Obispo, California . Although

11970-503: The use of equipment, such as ladders, fixed lines , and ascenders to help the climber push themself up the rock. In alpine climbing, it is common for climbers to see routes of mixed terrain. This means climbers may need to move efficiently from climbing glacier, to rock, to ice, back and forth in a number of variations. Compacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress on foot. Frequently crampons are required to travel efficiently and safely over snow and ice. Crampons attach to

12084-439: The weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall. Huts also may have a part that is always open, but unstaffed, a so-called winter hut. When open and staffed, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on

12198-541: The young botany professor, Willis Linn Jepson from the University of California, Berkeley helped Muir and attorney Warren Olney launched the new organization modeled after the eastern Appalachian Mountain Club . The charter members of the Sierra Club elected Muir president, an office he held until his death in 1914. The first goals of the club included establishing Glacier and Mount Rainier national parks, convincing

12312-463: Was also a pioneer in developing new equipment and climbing methods. He started using shorter ice axes that could be used single-handedly, designed the modern crampons , and improved on the nail patterns used for the climbing boots. By the 1950s, all the eight-thousanders but two had been climbed starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal on the 1950 French Annapurna expedition . The highest of these peaks Mount Everest

12426-469: Was arrested along with forty-eight people, including civil rights leader Julian Bond and NASA climate scientist James Hansen . In May 2015, the Sierra Club appointed its first black president of the board of directors, Aaron Mair . The Sierra Club endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, and Joe Biden in the 2020 U.S. presidential election , citing its opposition to Donald Trump 's environmental deregulation. In 2020, in wake of

12540-481: Was climbed in 1953 after the British had made several attempts in the 1920s; the 1922 expedition reached 8,320 metres (27,300 ft) before being aborted on the third summit attempt after an avalanche killed seven porters. The 1924 expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed to reach the summit with confirmation when George Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared on the final attempt. The summit

12654-477: Was finally reached on 29 May 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal . Just a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), on the 1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition , completing the last 1,300 meters walking alone, self-medicating with pervitin (based on the stimulant methamphetamine used by soldiers during World War II),

12768-491: Was successful in changing club positions on both counts. In 2008, several Sierra Club officers quit in protest after the Sierra Club agreed to promote products by Clorox , which had been named one of a "dangerous dozen" chemical companies by the Public Interest Research Group in 2004. According to Carl Pope, the Sierra Club chairman, the deal brought the club $ 1.3 million over the four-year term of

12882-793: Was the Himalayas in South Asia. They had initially been surveyed by the British Empire for military and strategic reasons. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Karakoram Himalayas, and climbed a peak of 23,000 ft (7,000 m). In 1895 Albert F. Mummery died while attempting Nanga Parbat , while in 1899 Douglas Freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim . In 1899, 1903, 1906, and 1908 American mountaineer Fanny Bullock Workman (one of

12996-413: Was the first to attempt to scale K2 . They reached 22,000 feet (6,700 m) before turning back due to weather and other mishaps. Undaunted, in 1905 Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga , the third highest mountain in the world, in an attempt which Isserman, Angas Weaver and Molenaar describe as "misguided" and "lamentable" due to Crowley's many failings as an expedition leader. Eckenstein

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