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122-536: Various Cervus elaphus subspecies The elk ( pl. : elk or elks ; Cervus canadensis ), or wapiti , is the second largest species within the deer family, Cervidae , and one of the largest terrestrial mammals in its native range of North America and Central and East Asia . The word "elk" originally referred to the European variety of the moose , Alces alces , but was transferred to Cervus canadensis by North American colonists. The name "wapiti"

244-531: A misfolded protein known as a prion , affects the brain tissue in elk, and has been detected throughout their range in North America. First documented in the late 1960s in mule deer, the disease has affected elk on game farms and in the wild in a number of regions. Elk that have contracted the disease begin to show weight loss, changes in behavior, increased watering needs, excessive salivation and urinating and difficulty swallowing, and at an advanced stage,

366-533: A "lande ... full of many beastes, as redd dere" in his 1584 Discourse Concerning Western Planting . Similarly, John Smith 's 1616 A Description of New England referred to red deer. Sir William Talbot 's 1672 English translation of John Lederer 's Latin Discoveries likewise called the species "red deer", but noted in parentheses that they were "for their unusual largeness improperly termed Elks by ignorant people". Both Thomas Jefferson 's 1785 Notes on

488-524: A category ( Data Deficient ). The species as a whole, however, is listed as least concern . However, this was based on the traditional classification of red deer as one species ( Cervus elaphus ), including the wapiti. The common red deer is also known as simply red deer. Selected members of the red deer species group are listed in the table below. Of the ones listed, C. e. hippelaphus and C. e. scoticus may be junior synonyms . Mature red deer ( C. elaphus ) usually stay in single-sex groups for most of

610-874: A century. Four subspecies described from the Asian continent include the Altai wapiti ( C. c. sibiricus ) and the Tianshan wapiti ( C. c. songaricus ). Two distinct subspecies found in China, Mongolia , the Korean Peninsula and Siberia are the Manchurian wapiti ( C. c. xanthopygus ) and the Alashan wapiti ( C. c. alashanicus ). The Manchurian subspecies is darker, and more reddish, in coloration than other populations. The Alashan wapiti of northern Central China

732-435: A day or two, and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts. By the autumn of their second year, females can produce one and, very rarely, two offspring. Reproduction is most common when cows weigh at least 200 kilograms (440 lb). Dominant bulls follow groups of cows during the rut from August into early winter. A bull will defend his harem of 20 cows or more from competing bulls and predators. Bulls also dig holes in

854-438: A distinctive roar during the rut, which is an adaptation to forested environments, in contrast to male American elk stags which "bugle" during the rut in adaptation to open environments. The male deer roars to keep his harem of females together. The females are initially attracted to those males that both roar most often and have the loudest roar call. Males also use the roar call when competing with other males for females during

976-574: A drying pond or an entire ocean, it can be said to be extirpated or locally extinct in that pond or ocean. A particular total world population can be more or less arbitrarily divided into 'stocks' or 'subpopulations', defined by political or other geographical delimitations. For example, the Cetacean Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed the conservation status of

1098-421: A greyish-brown coat with a darker yellowish rump patch in the winter. By the time summer begins, the heavy winter coat has been shed; the animals are known to rub against trees and other objects to help remove hair from their bodies. Red deer have different colouration based on the seasons and types of habitats, with grey or lighter colouration prevalent in the winter and more reddish and darker coat colouration in

1220-480: A human getting variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease . Antlers are also used in artwork, furniture and other novelty items. All Asian subspecies, along with other deer, have been raised for their antlers in central and eastern Asia by Han Chinese , Turkic peoples , Tungusic peoples , Mongolians , and Koreans . Elk farms are relatively common in North America and New Zealand. Native Americans have used elk hides for tepee covering, clothing and footwear. Since 1967,

1342-399: A large animal, buglings can reach a frequency of 4000 Hz. This is achieved by blowing air from the glottis through the nasal cavities. Elk can produce deeper pitched (150 Hz) sounds using the larynx . Cows produce an alarm bark to alert other members of the herd to danger, while calves will produce a high-pitched scream when attacked. Female elk have a short estrus cycle of only

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1464-518: A loud series of throaty whistles, bellows, screams, and other vocalizations that establish dominance over other males and aim to attract females. Elk were long believed to belong to a subspecies of the European red deer ( Cervus elaphus ), but evidence from many mitochondrial DNA genetic studies, beginning in 1998, shows that the two are distinct species . The elk's wider rump-patch and paler-hued antlers are key morphological differences that distinguish C. canadensis from C. elaphus . Although it

1586-488: A mean weight of 275 kilograms (606 lb). The elk is the second largest extant species of deer, after the moose . Antlers are made of bone, which can grow at a rate of 2.5 centimeters (0.98 in) per day. While actively growing, a soft layer of highly vascularized skin known as velvet covers and protects them. This is shed in the summer when the antlers have fully developed. Bull elk typically have around six tines on each antler. The Siberian and North American elk carry

1708-663: A nose-to-tail length of 1.6–2.7 m (5 ft 3 in – 8 ft 10 in). Males are larger and weigh 178–497 kg (392–1,096 lb) while females weigh 171–292 kg (377–644 lb). The largest of the subspecies is the Roosevelt elk ( C. c. roosevelti ), found west of the Cascade Range in the U.S. states of California , Oregon and Washington , and in the Canadian province of British Columbia . Roosevelt elk have been introduced into Alaska , where

1830-687: A pair sent by Lord Petre in 1851 from his herd at Thorndon Park , Essex, to the South Island, but the hind was shot before they had a chance to breed. Lord Petre sent another stag and two hinds in 1861, and these were liberated near Nelson , from where they quickly spread. The first deer to reach the North Island were a gift to Sir Frederick Weld from Windsor Great Park and were released near Wellington ; these were followed by further releases up to 1914. Between 1851 and 1926, 220 separate liberations of red deer involved over 800 deer. In 1927,

1952-628: A region as the ecosystem matures and reaches a climax community . A local extinction can be useful for research: in the case of the bay checkerspot butterfly , scientists, including Paul R. Ehrlich , chose not to intervene as a population disappeared from an area in order to study the process. Many crocodilian species have experienced localized extinction, particularly the saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus ), which has been extirpated from Vietnam, Thailand, Java, and many other areas. Major environmental events, such as volcanic eruptions, may lead to large numbers of local extinctions, such as with

2074-577: A relatively long tail compared with their Asian and North American relatives. Subtle differences in appearance are noted between the various subspecies of red deer, primarily in size and antlers, with the smallest being the Corsican red deer found on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia and the largest being the Caspian red deer (or maral) of Asia Minor and the Caucasus Region to the west of

2196-521: A short neck mane during the autumn. The male deer of the British Isles and Norway tend to have the thickest and most noticeable manes. Male Caspian red deer ( C. e. maral ) and Spanish red deer ( C. e. hispanicus ) do not carry neck manes. Male deer of all subspecies, however, tend to have stronger and thicker neck muscles than female deer, which may give them an appearance of having neck manes. Red deer hinds (females) do not have neck manes. Only

2318-607: A significant road traffic hazard. In Argentina and Chile, the red deer has had a potentially adverse impact on native animal species, such as the South Andean deer or huemul ; the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources has labelled the animal as one of the world's 100 worst invaders. Red deer in Europe generally spend their winters at lower altitudes in more wooded terrain. During

2440-410: A species has an intrinsic extinction-ability (incidence function). Some species exploit or require transient or disturbed habitats, such as vernal pools, a human gut, or burnt woodland after forest fires , and are characterised by highly fluctuating population numbers and shifting distributional patterns. Many natural ecosystems cycle through a standard succession , pioneer species disappear from

2562-631: A species that have been reintroduced into parts of their historical range. This has happened with red wolves ( Canis rufus ) in the United States in the late 1980s and also grey wolves in Yellowstone National Park in the mid-1990s. There have been talks of reintroducing wolves in Scotland, Japan, and Mexico. When the local population of a certain species disappears from a certain geographical delimitation, whether fish in

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2684-434: A tendency to do most of their feeding in the mornings and evenings, seeking sheltered areas in between feedings to digest. Their diets vary somewhat depending on the season, with native grasses being a year-round supplement, tree bark being consumed in winter, and forbs and tree sprouts during the summer. Elk consume an average of 9.1 kilograms (20 lb) of vegetation daily. Particularly fond of aspen sprouts which rise in

2806-575: A wild population has not yet established. Since 2015, elk have also been reintroduced in a number of other states, including Missouri , and introduced to the islands of Etolin and Afognak in Alaska. Reintroduction of the elk into Ontario began in the early 20th century and is ongoing with limited success. Elk and red deer were introduced to Argentina in the early 20th century. There they are now considered an invasive species , encroaching on Argentinian ecosystems where they compete for food with

2928-566: A winter- or disease-weakened adult. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , which includes Yellowstone National Park, bears are the most significant predators of calves while healthy bulls have never been recorded to be killed by bears and such encounters can be fatal for bears. The killing of cows in their prime is more likely to affect population growth than the killing of bulls or calves. Elk may avoid predation by switching from grazing to browsing. Grazing puts an elk in

3050-574: Is a good source of iron , phosphorus and zinc . A male elk can produce 10 to 11 kilograms (22 to 24 lb) of antler velvet annually and on ranches in the United States, Canada and New Zealand, it is collected and sold to markets in East Asia , where it is used in medicine. Some cultures consider antler velvet to be an aphrodisiac . However, consuming velvet from elk in North America may be risky since velvet from animals infected with chronic wasting disease may contain prions that could result in

3172-489: Is a parasitic nematode known to affect the spinal cord and brain tissue of elk and other species, leading to death. The definitive host is the white-tailed deer, in which it normally has no ill effects. Snails and slugs, the intermediate hosts, can be inadvertently consumed by elk during grazing. The liver fluke Fascioloides magna and the nematode Dictyocaulus viviparus are also commonly found parasites that can be fatal to elk. Chronic wasting disease , transmitted by

3294-445: Is about 95 to 130 cm (37 to 51 in). In Scotland , stags average 201 cm (79 in) in head-and-body length and 122 cm (48 in) high at the shoulder and females average 180 cm (71 in) long and 114 cm (45 in) tall. Based on body mass, they are likely the fourth largest extant deer species on average, behind the moose , the elk and the sambar deer . Size varies in different subspecies with

3416-462: Is also not known, but it appears to be highly contagious among elk. Studies are being undertaken by government departments to determine how to halt or eliminate the disease. The elk ranges from central Asia through to Siberia and east Asia and in North America. They can be found in open deciduous woodlands, boreal forests, upland moors, mountainous areas and grasslands. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) list

3538-680: Is called a stag or hart , and a female is called a doe or hind . The red deer inhabits most of Europe, the Caucasus Mountains region, Anatolia , Iran , and parts of western Asia . It also inhabits the Atlas Mountains of Northern Africa ; being the only living species of deer to inhabit Africa. Red deer have been introduced to other areas, including Australia , New Zealand , the United States , Canada , Peru , Uruguay , Chile and Argentina . In many parts of

3660-525: Is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer. After two weeks, calves are able to join the herd, and are fully weaned at two months of age. Elk calves are as large as an adult white-tailed deer by the time they are six months old. Elk will leave their natal (birth) ranges before they are three years old. Males disperse more often than females, as adult cows are more tolerant of female offspring from previous years. Elk live 20 years or more in captivity but average 10 to 13 years in

3782-772: Is currently only native to North America, Central , East and North Asia , elk once had a much wider distribution in the past; prehistoric populations were present across Eurasia and into Western Europe during the Late Pleistocene , surviving into the early Holocene in Southern Sweden and the Alps . The now-extinct North American Merriam's elk subspecies ( Cervus canadensis merriami ) once ranged south into Mexico . The wapiti has also successfully adapted to countries outside of its natural range where it has been introduced, including Argentina and New Zealand ;

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3904-406: Is derived from a Shawnee and Cree word meaning "white rump", after the distinctive light fur around the tail region which the animals may fluff-up or raise to signal their agitation or distress to one another, when fleeing perceived threats, or among males courting females and sparring for dominance. A similar trait is seen in other artiodactyl species, like the bighorn sheep , pronghorn and

4026-509: Is growing, it is covered with highly vascular skin called velvet , which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the growing bone. The antlers are testosterone -driven and as the stag's testosterone levels drop in the autumn, the velvet is shed and the antlers stop growing. With the approach of autumn, the antlers begin to calcify and the stags' testosterone production builds for the approaching rut (mating season). European red deer antlers are distinctive in being rather straight and rugose , with

4148-478: Is the official state animal for Utah . An image of an elk and a moose appear on the state seal and flag of Michigan. The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks (B.P.O.E.) chose the elk as its namesake because a number of its attributes seemed appropriate for cultivation by members of the fraternity. Jewel-encrusted, gold-mounted elk teeth are prized possessions of many members of the B.P.O.E. Although breakdown figures for each game species are not available in

4270-519: Is the smallest of all the subspecies, has the lightest coloration, and is one of the least-studied. Recent DNA analyses suggest that there are no more than three or four total subspecies of elk. All American forms, aside from possibly the Tule and the Roosevelt's elk, seem to belong to one subspecies— Cervus c. canadensis ; even the Siberian elk ( C. c. sibiricus ) is, more or less, physically identical to

4392-663: Is typically characterized by a diverse community of bacteria specialized in breaking down complex plant fibers and cellulose , whereas the supplementally fed gut microbiome may have less fiber-digesting bacteria. Therefore, transitioning from natural foraging to concentrated alfalfa pellets can cause changes in the gut microbiome that might affect the elk's ability to efficiently digest their natural diet or could potentially lead to imbalances that affect overall health. Predators of elk include wolves , coyotes , brown and black bears , cougars , and Siberian tigers . Coyote packs mostly prey on elk calves, though they can sometimes take

4514-417: Is used with all but the most determined of predators with great effectiveness. Aside from humans and domestic dogs, the grey wolf is probably the most dangerous predator European red deer encounter. Occasionally, the brown bear will prey on European red deer. Red deer are widely depicted in cave art found throughout European caves, with some of the artwork dating from as early as 40,000 years ago, during

4636-538: Is widely considered to be both flavourful and nutritious. It is higher in protein and lower in fat than either beef or chicken . The red deer can produce 10 to 15 kg (20 to 35 lb) of antler velvet annually. On ranches in New Zealand , China , Siberia , and elsewhere, this velvet is collected and sold to markets in East Asia, where it is used for holistic medicines , with South Korea being

4758-421: The 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption , which led to a fern spike extinction. Heat waves can lead to local extinction. In New Zealand, during the summer of 2017–2018, sea surface temperatures around parts of South Island exceeded 23 °C (73 °F), which was well above normal. Air temperatures were also high, exceeding 30 °C (86 °F). These high temperatures, coupled with small wave height, led to

4880-623: The Altai wapiti ( Cervus canadensis sibiricus ), also known as the Altai maral. According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the etymology of the word "elk" is "of obscure history". In Classical Antiquity , the European Alces alces was known as Ancient Greek : ἄλκη , romanized :  álkē and Latin : alces , words probably borrowed from a Germanic language or another language of northern Europe. By

5002-732: The Black Sea stock of harbour porpoise ( Phocoena phocoena ) that touches six countries, and COSEWIC , which only assesses the conservation status of wildlife in Canada, even assesses Canadian species that occur in the United States or other countries. While the IUCN mostly only assesses the global conservation status of species or subspecies, in some older cases it also assessed the risks to certain stocks and populations, in some cases these populations may be genetically distinct. In all, 119 stocks or subpopulations across 69 species had been assessed by

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5124-620: The Boy Scouts of America have assisted employees at the National Elk Refuge in Wyoming by collecting the antlers which are shed each winter. They are then auctioned, with 80% of the proceeds returned to the refuge. In 2010, 2,520 kilograms (5,560 lb) of antlers were auctioned, which brought in over $ 46,000. Cervus elaphus The red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) is one of the largest deer species. A male red deer

5246-635: The Caspian Sea . The deer of central and western Europe vary greatly in size, with some of the largest deer found in the Carpathian Mountains in Central Europe. Western European red deer, historically, grew to large size given ample food supply (including people's crops), and descendants of introduced populations living in New Zealand and Argentina have grown quite large in both body and antler size. Large red deer stags, like

5368-491: The Cervus deer family, strongly indicate that elk, or wapiti, should be a distinct species, namely Cervus canadensis . DNA evidence validates that elk are more closely related to Thorold's deer and even sika deer than they are to the red deer. Elk and red deer produce fertile offspring in captivity, and the two species have freely inter-bred in New Zealand 's Fiordland National Park . The cross-bred animals have resulted in

5490-608: The Fiordland National Park . In 1949 the New Zealand American Fiordland Expedition was undertaken to study the descendants of this release. There is significant hybridization of elk with red deer. These deer have had an adverse impact on forest regeneration of some plant species, as they consume more palatable species, which are replaced with those that are less favored by the elk. The long-term impact will be an alteration of

5612-472: The National Elk Refuge , having migrated south from the southern portions of Yellowstone National Park and west from the Shoshone and Bridger–Teton National Forests . Elk are ruminants and therefore have four-chambered stomachs. Unlike white-tailed deer and moose, which are chiefly browsers, elk are similar to cattle in that they are primarily grazers . But like other deer, they also browse . Elk have

5734-640: The State Forest Service introduced a bounty for red deer shot on their land, and in 1931, government control operations were commenced. Between 1931 and March 1975, 1,124,297 deer were killed on official operations. The introduced red deer have adapted well and are widely hunted on both islands; many of the 220 introductions used deer originating from Scotland ( Invermark ) or one of the major deer parks in England, principally Warnham, Woburn Abbey or Windsor Great Park. Some hybridisation happened with

5856-595: The Upper Paleolithic . Siberian cave art from the Neolithic of 7,000 years ago has abundant depictions of red deer, including what can be described as spiritual artwork, indicating the importance of this mammal to the peoples of that region (Note: these animals were most likely wapiti ( C. canadensis ) in Siberia, not red deer). Red deer are also often depicted on Pictish stones ( circa 550–850 AD), from

5978-416: The mammals exhibiting homosexual behavior . Dominant stags urinate on themselves and follow groups of hinds during the rut, from August into early winter. The stags may have as many as 20 hinds to keep from other, less attractive males. Only mature stags hold harems (groups of hinds), and breeding success peaks at about eight years of age. Stags two to four years old rarely hold harems and spend most of

6100-463: The white-tailed deer , to varying degrees. Elk dwell in open forest and forest-edge habitats, grazing on grasses and sedges and browsing higher-growing plants, leaves, twigs and bark. Male elk have large, blood- and nerve-filled antlers , which they routinely shed each year as weather warms-up. Males also engage in ritualized mating behaviors during the mating season , including posturing to attract females, antler-wrestling (sparring), and bugling ,

6222-469: The "throw back" top tines of the North American elk ( C. canadensis ), known as maraloid characteristics. A stag can (exceptionally) have antlers with no tines, and is then known as a switch. Similarly, a stag that does not grow antlers is a hummel. European red deer tend to be reddish-brown in their summer coats, and some individuals may have a few spots on the backs of their summer coats. During

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6344-633: The 17th century, Alces alces (moose, called "elk" in Europe) had long been extirpated from the British Isles , and the meaning of the word "elk" to English-speakers became rather vague, acquiring a meaning similar to "large deer". The name wapiti is from the Shawnee and Cree word waapiti (in Cree syllabics : ᐙᐱᑎ or ᐚᐱᑎ ), meaning "white rump". There is a subspecies of wapiti in Mongolia called

6466-469: The 2006 National Survey from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, hunting of wild elk is most likely the primary economic impact. While elk are not generally harvested for meat production on a large scale, some restaurants offer the meat as a specialty item and it is also available in some grocery stores. The meat has a taste somewhere between beef and venison and is higher in protein and lower in fat and cholesterol than beef, pork, and chicken. Elk meat

6588-737: The 8th century, during the Early Middle Ages , the moose was known as Old English : elch, elh, eolh, derived from the Proto-Germanic : *elho- , *elhon- and possibly connected with the Old Norse : elgr . Later, the species became known in Middle English as elk , elcke , or elke , appearing in the Latinized form alke , with the spelling alce borrowed directly from Latin: alces . Noting that elk "is not

6710-804: The American forms, and thus may belong to this subspecies, too. However, the Manchurian wapiti ( C. c. xanthopygus ) is clearly distinct from the Siberian forms, but not distinguishable from the Alashan wapiti. Still, due to the insufficient genetic material that rejects monophyly of C. canadensis , some researchers consider it premature to include the Manchurian wapiti as a true subspecies of wapiti, and that it likely needs to be elevated to its own species, C. xanthopygus . The Chinese forms (the Sichuan deer , Kansu red deer , and Tibetan red deer ) also belong to

6832-601: The British Deer Society records the red deer as having continued to expand their range in England and Wales since 2000, with expansion most notable in the Midlands and East Anglia . Caspian red deer are found in the Hyrcanian Forests . In New Zealand , red deer were introduced by acclimatisation societies along with other deer and game species. The first red deer to reach New Zealand were

6954-705: The Caspian red deer or those of the Carpathian Mountains, may rival North American elk in size. Female red deer are much smaller than their male counterparts. The male (stag) red deer is typically 175 to 250 cm (69 to 98 in) long from the nose to the base of the tail and typically weighs 160 to 240 kg (350 to 530 lb); the female (hind) is 160 to 210 cm (63 to 83 in) long and often weighs 120 to 170 kg (260 to 370 lb). The tail adds another 12 to 19 cm ( 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 to 7 + 1 ⁄ 2  in) and shoulder height

7076-650: The Eurasian subspecies revealed that phenotypic variation in antlers, mane and rump patch development are based on "climatic-related lifestyle factors". Of the six subspecies of elk known to have inhabited North America in historical times, four remain, including the Roosevelt ( C. canadensis roosevelti ), Tule ( C. c. nannodes ), Manitoban ( C. c. manitobensis ) and Rocky Mountain elk ( C. c. nelsoni ). The eastern elk ( C. c. canadensis ) and Merriam's elk ( C. c. merriami ) subspecies have been extinct for at least

7198-992: The Norwich Staghounds only hunted hinds (female red deer), and in 1950, at least eight hinds (some of which may have been pregnant) were known to be at large near Kimberley and West Harling ; they formed the basis of a new population based in Thetford Forest in Norfolk . Further substantial red deer herds originated from escapes or deliberate releases in the New Forest , the Peak District , Suffolk , Lancashire , Brecon Beacons , and North Yorkshire , as well as many other smaller populations scattered throughout England and Wales , and they are all generally increasing in numbers and range. A census of deer populations in 2007 and again in 2011 coordinated by

7320-594: The State of Virginia and David Bailie Warden 's 1816 Statistical, Political, and Historical Account of the United States used "red deer" to refer to Cervus canadensis . Members of the genus Cervus (and hence early relatives or possible ancestors of the elk) first appear in the fossil record 25 million years ago, during the Oligocene in Eurasia , but do not appear in the North American fossil record until

7442-622: The UK, indigenous populations occur in Scotland , the Lake District , and the south west of England (principally on Exmoor ). Not all of these are of entirely pure bloodlines, as some of these populations have been supplemented with deliberate releases of deer from parks, such as Warnham or Woburn Abbey , in an attempt to increase antler sizes and body weights. The University of Edinburgh found that, in Scotland, extensive hybridisation with

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7564-600: The US. Elk were reintroduced in Michigan in 1918 after going extinct there in 1875. The Rocky Mountain elk subspecies was reintroduced by hunter-conservation organizations into the Appalachian region of the U.S. where the now extinct eastern elk once lived. They were reintroduced to Pennsylvania beginning in 1913 and throughout the mid-20th Century, and now remain at a stable population of approximately 1,400 individuals. Since

7686-500: The United Kingdom and Portugal, have resulted in an increase of red deer populations, while other areas, such as North Africa, have continued to show a population decline. The red deer is the fourth-largest extant deer species, behind the moose , elk , and sambar deer . It is a ruminant, eating its food in two stages and having an even number of toes on each hoof, like camels , goats , and cattle . European red deer have

7808-599: The animal's adaptability in these areas may, in fact, be so successful as to threaten the sensitive endemic ecosystems and species it encounters. As a member of the Artiodactyla order (and distant relative of the Bovidae ), elk are susceptible to several infectious diseases which can be transmitted to and/or from domesticated livestock . Efforts to eliminate infectious diseases from elk populations, primarily by vaccination , have had mixed success. Some cultures revere

7930-608: The aristocratic or poaching communities, and a licence was needed to sell it legally, but it is now widely available in supermarkets, especially in the autumn. The Queen followed the custom of offering large pieces of venison to members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and others. Some estates in the Scottish Highlands still sell deer-stalking accompanied by a gillie in the traditional way, on unfenced land, while others operate more like farms for venison. Venison

8052-446: The autumn, all red deer subspecies grow thicker coats of hair, which helps to insulate them during the winter. Autumn is also when some of the stags grow their neck manes. The autumn/winter coats of most subspecies are most distinct. The Caspian red deer's winter coat is greyer and has a larger and more distinguished light rump-patch (like wapiti and some central Asian red deer) compared with the Western European red deer, which has more of

8174-582: The beginning of the Middle Pleistocene around 800,000 years ago. These earliest forms belonged to the palaeosubspecies Cervus elaphus acoronatus . Other palaeosubspecies are known, including those belonging to C. elaphus rianensis from the Middle Pleistocene of Italy, C. elaphus siciliae from the late Middle and Late Pleistocene of Sicily. The International Union for Conservation of Nature originally listed nine subspecies of red deer ( Cervus elaphus ): three as endangered , one as vulnerable , one as near threatened , and four without enough data to give

8296-429: The big bull to avoid harassment. Dominant bulls are intolerant of spike bulls and will chase them away from their harems. The gestation period is eight to nine months and the offspring weigh around 16 kilograms (35 lb). When the females are near to giving birth, they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd, and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators. Calves are born spotted, as

8418-404: The bull will copiously lick the female and then mount her. Younger, less dominant bulls, known as "spike bulls" because their antlers have not yet forked, will harass unguarded cows. These bulls are impatient and will not perform any courtship rituals and will continue to pursue a female even when she signals him to stop. As such, they are less reproductively successful, and a cow may stay close to

8540-446: The closely related American elk ( Cervus canadensis nelsoni ) introduced in Fiordland in 1921. Along with the other introduced deer species, they are, however, officially regarded as a noxious pest and are still heavily culled using professional hunters working with helicopters, or even poisoned. The first red deer to reach Australia were probably the six that Prince Albert sent in 1860 from Windsor Great Park to Thomas Chirnside, who

8662-402: The closely related sika deer has occurred. Several other populations have originated either with "carted" deer kept for stag hunts being left out at the end of the hunt, escapes from deer farms, or deliberate releases. Carted deer were kept by stag hunts with no wild red deer in the locality and were normally recaptured after the hunt and used again; although the hunts are called "stag hunts",

8784-802: The compromising situation of being in an open area with its head down, leaving it unable to see what is going on in the surrounding area. Living in groups also lessens the risk of an individual falling to predation. Large bull elk are less vulnerable and can afford to wander alone, while cows stay in larger groups for protection for their calves. Bulls are more vulnerable to predation by wolves in late winter, after they have been weakened by months of chasing females and fighting. Males that have recently lost their antlers are more likely to be preyed upon. At least 53 species of protist and animal parasites have been identified in elk. Most of these parasites seldom lead to significant mortality among wild or captive elk. Parelaphostrongylus tenuis (brainworm or meningeal worm)

8906-768: The continent in the Atlas Mountains. As of the mid-1990s, Morocco , Tunisia , and Algeria were the only African countries known to have red deer. In the Netherlands, a large herd (about 3000 animals counted in late 2012) lives in the Oostvaardersplassen , a nature reserve . Ireland has its own unique subspecies. In France, the population is thriving, having multiplied five-fold in the last half-century, increasing from 30,000 in 1970 to around 160,000 in 2014. The deer has particularly expanded its footprint into forests at higher altitudes than before. In

9028-591: The disappearance of virtually all pure elk blood from the area. Key morphological differences that distinguish C. canadensis from C. elaphus are the former's wider rump patch and paler-hued antlers. There are numerous subspecies of elk described, with six from North America and four from Asia, although some taxonomists consider them different ecotypes or races of the same species (adapted to local environments through minor changes in appearance and behavior). Populations vary in antler shape and size, body size, coloration and mating behavior. DNA investigations of

9150-612: The disease is still known to exist, though this can extend out to the Bighorn Mountains . In domesticated cattle, brucellosis causes infertility, abortions, and reduced milk production. It is transmitted to humans as undulant fever , producing influenza -like symptoms that may last for years. Though bison are more likely to transmit the disease to other animals, elk inadvertently transmitted brucellosis to horses in Wyoming and cattle in Idaho . Researchers are attempting to eradicate

9272-497: The disease leads to death. No risks to humans have been documented, nor has the disease been demonstrated to pose a threat to domesticated cattle. In 2002, South Korea banned the importation of elk antler velvet due to concerns about chronic wasting disease. The Gram-negative bacterial disease brucellosis occasionally affects elk in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the only place in the U.S. where

9394-553: The disease through vaccinations and herd-management measures, which are expected to be successful. Nevertheless, research has been ongoing since 2002, and a successful vaccine has yet to be developed as of 2016. A recent necropsy study of captive elk in Pennsylvania attributed the cause of death in 33 of 65 cases to either gastrointestinal parasites (21 cases, primarily Eimeria sp. and Ostertagia sp.) or bacterial infections (12 cases, mostly pneumonia ). Elk hoof disease

9516-440: The early Miocene . The extinct Irish elk ( Megaloceros ) was not a member of the genus Cervus but rather the largest member of the wider deer family (Cervidae) known from the fossil record. Until recently, red deer and elk were considered to be one species, Cervus elaphus , with over a dozen subspecies. But mitochondrial DNA studies conducted in 2004 on hundreds of samples from red deer and elk subspecies and other species of

9638-476: The early Holocene of central Alaska, where it was the main hunted animal along with bison , and survived in Yukon until around 1400 BP (550 AD). As of 2014, population figures for all North American elk subspecies were around one million. Prior to the European colonization of North America, there were an estimated 10 million on the continent. There are many past and ongoing examples of reintroduction into areas of

9760-409: The early medieval period in Scotland, usually as prey animals for human or animal predators. In medieval hunting , the red deer was the most prestigious quarry, especially the mature stag, which in England was called a hart . Red deer are held in captivity for a variety of reasons. The meat of the deer, called venison , was until recently restricted in the United Kingdom to those with connections to

9882-466: The early releases, but South Australia's population, along with all others, is now largely recent farm escapees. This is having adverse effects on the integrity of wild herds, as now more and larger herds are being grown due to the superior genetics that have been attained by selective breeding. Wild red deer are a feral pest species in Australia, do considerable harm to the natural environment, and are

10004-404: The elk as having spiritual significance. Antlers and velvet are used in traditional medicines in parts of Asia; the production of ground antler and velvet supplements is also a thriving naturopathic industry in several countries, including the United States, China and Canada . The elk is hunted as a game species, and their meat is leaner, and higher in protein , than beef or chicken . By

10126-812: The end of the Pleistocene when the sea level rose, and these islands most likely had the same complement of species as found on the mainland, counting the species which still survive at present on a statistically large enough amount of islands will give the parameters with which certain groups of species such as plants or birds will become less biodiverse on a given island over a given period of time, depending on its size. The same calculations can also be applied to determine when species will disappear from nature parks ('islands' in many senses), mountain tops and mesas (see sky islands ), forest remnants or other such distributional patches. This research also demonstrates that certain species are more prone to extinction than others,

10248-477: The first successful one. There may be several more matings before the stag will seek out another mate in his harem. Females in their second autumn can produce one or very rarely two offspring per year. The gestation period is 240 to 262 days, and the offspring weigh about 15 kg (35 lb). After two weeks, calves are able to join the herd and are fully weaned after two months. The offspring will remain with their mothers for almost one full year, leaving around

10370-428: The fly fishing industry, being used to tie flies. Extirpated Local extinctions mark a change in the ecology of an area. It has sometimes been followed by a replacement of the species taken from other locations, such as with wolf reintroduction . Glaciation is one factor that leads to local extinction. This was the case during the Pleistocene glaciation event in North America. During this period, most of

10492-415: The forest-adapted European red deer . Elk are among the most gregarious deer species. During the summer group size can reach 400 individuals. For most of the year, adult males and females are segregated into different herds. Female herds are larger while bulls form small groups and may even travel alone. Young bulls may associate with older bulls or female groups. Male and female herds come together during

10614-616: The fourth and fifth tines forming a "crown" or "cup" in larger males. Any tines in excess of the fourth and fifth tines grow radially from the cup, which are generally absent in the antlers of smaller red deer, such as Corsican red deer. Western European red deer antlers feature "bez" (second) tines that are either absent or smaller than the brow tines. However, bez tines occur frequently in Norwegian red deer. Antlers of Caspian red deer carry large bez tines and form less-developed cups than western European red deer, their antlers are thus more like

10736-433: The greater availability of food to eat. Elk do not appear to benefit from thermal cover. The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem elk herds comprise as many as 40,000 individuals. During the spring and fall, they take part in the longest elk migration in the continental U.S., traveling as much as 168 mi (270 km) between summer and winter ranges. The Teton herd consists of between 9,000 and 13,000 elk and they spend winters on

10858-475: The ground called wallows, in which they urinate and roll their bodies . A male elk's urethra points upward so that urine is sprayed almost at a right angle to the penis. The urine soaks into their hair and gives them a distinct smell which attracts cows. A bull interacts with cows in his harem in two ways: herding and courtship. When a female wanders too far away from the harem's range, the male will rush ahead of her, block her path and aggressively rush her back to

10980-530: The harem. Herding behavior is accompanied by a stretched out and lowered neck and the antlers laid back. A bull may get violent and hit the cow with his antlers. During courtship, the bull is more peaceful and approaches her with his head and antlers raised. The male signals his intention to test the female for sexual receptivity by flicking his tongue. If not ready, a cow will lower her head and weave from side to side while opening and closing her mouth. The bull will stop in response in order not to scare her. Otherwise,

11102-467: The head, neck, and legs during the summer. Forest-adapted Manchurian and Alashan wapitis have red or reddish-brown coats with less contrast between the body coat and the rest of the body during the summer months. Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and lose them by the end of summer. Adult Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older. This characteristic has also been observed in

11224-566: The heavy winter coat has been shed. Elk are known to rub against trees and other objects to help remove hair from their bodies. All elk have small and clearly defined rump patches with short tails. They have different coloration based on the seasons and types of habitats, with gray or lighter coloration prevalent in the winter and a more reddish, darker coat in the summer. Subspecies living in arid climates tend to have lighter colored coats than do those living in forests. Most have lighter yellow-brown to orange-brown coats in contrast to dark brown hair on

11346-477: The indigenous Chilean huemul and other herbivores. This negative impact on native animal species has led the IUCN to identify the elk as one of the world's 100 worst invaders. The introduction of deer to New Zealand began in the middle of the 19th century, and current populations are primarily European red deer, with only 15 percent being elk. In 1905 18 American wapiti were released in George Sound in

11468-497: The largest antlers while the Altai wapiti has the smallest. Roosevelt bull antlers can weigh 18 kg (40 lb). The formation and retention of antlers are testosterone -driven. In late winter and early spring, the testosterone level drops, which causes the antlers to shed. During the fall, elk grow a thicker coat of hair, which helps to insulate them during the winter. Both male and female North American elk grow thin neck manes; females of other subspecies may not. By early summer,

11590-451: The largest males are estimated to weigh up to 600 kg (1,300 lb). More typically, male Roosevelt elk weigh around 318 to 499 kg (701 to 1,100 lb), while females weigh 261 to 283 kg (575 to 624 lb). Male tule elk weigh 204–318 kg (450–701 lb) while females weigh 170–191 kg (375–421 lb). The whole weights of adult male Manitoban elk range from 288 to 478 kilograms (635 to 1,054 lb). Females have

11712-459: The largest, the huge but small-antlered deer of the Carpathian Mountains ( C. e. elaphus ), weighing up to 500 kg (1,100 lb). At the other end of the scale, the Corsican red deer ( C. e. corsicanus ) weighs about 80 to 100 kg (180 to 220 lb), although red deer in poor habitats can weigh as little as 53 to 112 kg (120 to 250 lb). The males of many subspecies also grow

11834-662: The late 1990s, they were reintroduced and recolonized in the states of Wisconsin , Kentucky , North Carolina , Tennessee , Georgia , Virginia and West Virginia . In the state of Kentucky, the elk population in 2022 had increased to over 15,000 animals. In 2016, a male elk, likely from the Smoky Mountains population, was sighted in South Carolina for the first time in nearly 300 years. Once locally extinct, dispersing elk are now regularly spotted in Iowa , although

11956-586: The local extinction of bull kelp ( Durvillaea spp.) from Pile Bay . Lagoa Santa, a lake located in Lagoa Santa, Brazil , has lost almost 70% of the local fish species over the last 150 years. These include Acestrorhynchus lacustris , Astyanax fasciatus , and Characidium zebra . This could be caused by the introduction of non-native species, like Talapia rendalli , into the lagoon, changes in water level and organic pollution. Local extinctions can be reversed, in some cases artificially. Wolves are

12078-407: The mating season, which may begin in late August. Males try to intimidate rivals by vocalizing and displaying with their antlers. If neither bull backs down, they engage in antler wrestling, sometimes sustaining serious injuries. Bulls have a loud, high-pitched, whistle-like vocalization known as bugling , which advertise the male's fitness over great distances. Unusual for a vocalization produced by

12200-407: The native North American species of earthworm were killed in places covered by glaciation. This left them open for colonization by European earthworms brought over in soil from Europe. Species naturally become extirpated from islands over time. The number of species an island can support is limited by its geographical size. Because many islands were relatively recently formed due to climate change at

12322-539: The normal phonetic representative" of the Old English elch , the Oxford English Dictionary derives elk from Middle High German : elch , itself from Old High German : elaho . The American Cervus canadensis was recognized as a relative of the red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) of Europe, and so Cervus canadensis were referred to as "red deer". Richard Hakluyt refers to North America as

12444-793: The primary consumer. In Russia , a medication produced from antler velvet is sold under the brand name Pantokrin ( Russian : Пантокри́н ; Latin : Pantocrinum ). The antlers themselves are also believed by East Asians to have medicinal purposes and are often ground up and used in small quantities. Historically, related deer species such as Central Asian red deer , wapiti, Thorold's deer , and sika deer have been reared on deer farms in Central and Eastern Asia by Han Chinese , Turkic peoples , Tungusic peoples , Mongolians , and Koreans . In modern times, western countries such as New Zealand and United States have taken to farming European red deer for similar purposes. Deer hair products are also used in

12566-445: The remaining members eat and rest. After the rut, females form large herds of up to 50 individuals. The newborn calves are kept close to the hinds by a series of vocalizations between the two, and larger nurseries have an ongoing and constant chatter during the daytime hours. When approached by predators, the largest and most robust females may make a stand, using their front legs to kick at their attackers. Guttural grunts and posturing

12688-400: The rut on the periphery of larger harems, as do stags over 11 years old. Young and old stags that do acquire a harem hold it later in the breeding season than those stags in their prime. Harem-holding stags rarely feed and lose up to 20% of their body weight. Stags that enter the rut in poor condition are less likely to make it through to the peak conception period. Male European red deer have

12810-399: The rut, and along with other forms of posturing and antler fights, is a method used by the males to establish dominance. Roaring is most common during the early dawn and late evening, which is also when the crepuscular deer are most active in general. Female red deer reach sexual maturity at 2 years of age. Red deer mating patterns usually involve a dozen or more mating attempts before

12932-582: The species as least-concern species . The habitat of Siberian elk in Asia is similar to that of the Rocky Mountain subspecies in North America. During the Late Pleistocene their range was much more extensive, being distributed across Eurasia, with remains being found as far west as France. These populations are most closely related to modern Asian populations of the elk. Their range collapsed at

13054-420: The spring, elk have had some impact on aspen groves which have been declining in some regions where elk exist. Range and wildlife managers conduct surveys of elk pellet groups to monitor populations and resource use. Research in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem has found that supplemental feeding of concentrated alfalfa pellets leads to significant alterations in the elks' microbiome . The elk gut microbiome

13176-409: The stags have antlers , which start growing in the spring and are shed each year, usually at the end of winter. Antlers typically measure 71 cm (28 in) in total length and weigh 1 kg (2.2 lb), although large ones can grow to 115 cm (45 in) and weigh 5 kg (11 lb). Antlers, which are made of bone, can grow at a rate of 2.5 cm (1 in) a day. While an antler

13298-507: The start of the Holocene, possibly because they were specialized to cold periglacial tundra-steppe habitat. When this environment was replaced largely by closed forest the red deer might have outcompeted the elk. Relictual populations survived into the early Holocene (until around 3000 years ago) in southern Sweden and the Alps, where the environment remained favorable. Elk were also present in

13420-447: The summer, they migrate to higher elevations where food supplies are greater and better for the calving season. Until recently, biologists considered the red deer and elk or wapiti ( C. canadensis ) the same species, forming a continuous distribution throughout temperate Eurasia and North America. This belief was based largely on the fully fertile hybrids that can be produced under captive conditions. Genetic evidence clearly shows

13542-455: The summer. The European red deer is found in southwestern Asia (Asia Minor and Caucasus regions), North Africa, and Europe. The red deer is the largest nondomesticated land mammal still existing in Ireland . The Barbary stag (which resembles the western European red deer) is the only living member of the deer family native to Africa, with the population centred in the northwestern region of

13664-555: The time the next season's offspring are produced. The gestation period is the same for all subspecies. All red deer calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and lose their spots by the end of summer. However, as in many species of Old World deer, some adults do retain a few spots on the backs of their summer coats. Red deer live over 20 years in captivity and in the wild they live 10 to 13 years, though some subspecies with less predation pressure average 15 years. Male red deer retain their antlers for more than half

13786-661: The types of plants and trees found, and in other animal and plant species dependent upon them. As in Chile and Argentina, the IUCN has declared that red deer and elk populations in New Zealand are an invasive species. Elk have played an important role in the cultural history of a number of peoples. Neolithic petroglyphs from Asia depict antler-less female elk, which have been interpreted as symbolizing life and sustenance. They were also frequently overlaid with boats and associated with rivers, suggesting they also represented paths to

13908-606: The underworld. Petroglyphs of elk were carved into cliffs by the Ancestral Puebloans of the southwestern U.S. hundreds of years ago. The elk was of particular importance to the Lakota and played a spiritual role in their society. The male elk was admired for its ability to attract mates, and Lakota men will play a courting flute imitating a bugling elk to attract women. Men used elks' antlers as love charms and wore clothes decorated with elk images. The Rocky Mountain elk

14030-833: The wapiti and red deer form two separate species. Another member of the red deer group which may represent a separate species is C. corsicanus . If so, C. corsicanus includes the subspecies C. e. barbarus (perhaps a synonym of C. e. corsicanus ), and is restricted to Maghreb in North Africa, Corsica , and Sardinia . A 2014 mitochondrial DNA study showed the internal phylogeny of Cervus to be as follows: C. elaphus ( European red deer ) [REDACTED] C. hanglu ( Hangul ) [REDACTED] C. albirostris ( Thorold's deer ) [REDACTED] C. nippon ( Sika deer ) [REDACTED] C. canadensis ( Wapiti ) [REDACTED] Rusa (outgroup) [REDACTED] Cervus elaphus appeared in Europe by

14152-528: The wapiti, and were not distinguishable from each other by mitochondrial DNA studies. These Chinese subspecies are sometimes treated as a distinct species, namely the Central Asian red deer ( Cervus hanglu ), which also includes the Kashmir stag . Elk have thick bodies with slender legs and short tails. They have a shoulder height of 0.75–1.5 m (2 ft 6 in – 4 ft 11 in) with

14274-413: The wild. In some subspecies that suffer less predation, they may live an average of 15 years in the wild. As is true for many species of deer, especially those in mountainous regions, elk migrate into areas of higher altitude in the spring, following the retreating snows, and the opposite direction in the fall. Hunting pressure impacts migration and movement. During the winter, they favor wooded areas for

14396-563: The world, the meat ( venison ) from red deer is used as a food source. The red deer is a ruminant , characterized by a four-chambered stomach. Genetic evidence indicates that the red deer, as traditionally defined, is a species group , rather than a single species, though exactly how many species the group includes remains disputed. The ancestor of the red deer probably originated in central Asia. Although at one time red deer were rare in parts of Europe, they were never close to extinction. Reintroduction and conservation efforts, such as in

14518-401: The year, and are less gregarious and less likely to group with other males when they have antlers. The antlers provide self-defence, as does a strong front-leg kicking action performed by both sexes when attacked. Once the antlers are shed, stags tend to form bachelor groups which allow them to cooperatively work together. Herds tend to have one or more members watching for potential danger, while

14640-437: The year. During the mating season, called the rut , mature stags compete for the attentions of the hinds and will then try to defend the hinds they attract. Rival stags challenge opponents by belling and walking in parallel. This allows combatants to assess each other's antlers, body size and fighting prowess. If neither stag backs down, a clash of antlers can occur, and stags sometimes sustain serious injuries. Red deer are among

14762-594: Was first noticed in the state of Washington in the late 1990s in the Cowlitz River basin, with sporadic reports of deformed hooves. Since then, the disease has spread rapidly with increased sightings throughout southwest Washington and into Oregon. The disease is characterised by deformed, broken, or missing hooves and leads to severe lameness in elk. The primary cause is not known, but it is associated with treponeme bacteria, which are known to cause digital dermatitis in commercial livestock. The mode of transmission

14884-545: Was starting a herd at Werribee Park , south west of Melbourne in Victoria. Further introductions were made in New South Wales , Queensland , South Australia , and Western Australia . Today, red deer in Australia range from Queensland south through New South Wales into Victoria and across to South Australia, with the numbers increasing. The Queensland, Victorian and most New South Wales strains can still be traced to

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