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118-598: The Smokies are part of an International Biosphere Reserve . The range is home to an estimated 187,000 acres (76,000 ha) of old-growth forest , constituting the largest such stand east of the Mississippi River . The coves hardwood forests in the range's lower elevations are among the most diverse ecosystems in North America, and the Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest that covers

236-599: A 24-hour period (most of the rain fell in a 6 to 8 hour-period). Ottawa's O-Train Trillium Line was halted because of a landslide that obstructed the railroad corridor. Several major roads in Gatineau and Ottawa were under several inches of water, locally chest-high. More than $ 45 million (2004 CAD ; US$ 41 million) in insured damage was reported in Ontario . Frances is the first hurricane to impact

354-545: A diverse bird population due to the presence of multiple forest types. Species that thrive in southern hardwood forests, such as the red-eyed vireo , wood thrush , wild turkey , northern parula , ruby-throated hummingbird , and tufted titmouse , are found throughout the lower elevations and cove hardwood forests. Species more typical of cooler climates, such as the raven , winter wren , black-capped chickadee , yellow-bellied sapsucker , dark-eyed junco , and Blackburnian , chestnut-sided , and Canada warblers , are found in

472-550: A major break in Asheville's water distribution system, leaving the city without water for several days. The Pigeon River flooded in Haywood County , leaving many homeless and many businesses closed, including the town hall of Canton . Significant crop damage was seen into North Carolina, which reported $ 55 million in crop damage. Frances also spawned 101 tornadoes from Florida to as far north as Virginia , shy of

590-539: A minor chiefdom centered on a large village known as Chiaha , which was located on an island now submerged by Douglas Lake . The 1540 expedition of Hernando de Soto and the 1567 expedition of Juan Pardo passed through the French Broad River valley north of the Smokies, both spending a considerable amount of time at Chiaha. The Pardo expedition followed a trail across the flanks of Chilhowee Mountain to

708-513: A month. Early during the morning of September 2, hurricane watches were extended southward to Craig Key. Later that morning, hurricane watches were upgraded to hurricane warnings for the lower east coast of Florida while a hurricane watch and tropical storm warning was raised for most of the Florida Keys and Florida Bay. Hurricane warnings were dropped for the Turks and Caicos Islands late on

826-565: A scientific basis for the 'improvement of relationships' between people and their environments. MAB engages with the international development agenda, especially the Sustainable Development Goals and the Post 2015 Development Agenda . The MAB programme provides a platform for cooperation in research and development. As of July 2024 , 759 sites across 136 countries, including 22 transboundary sites, have been included in

944-639: A strengthening high pressure system to its north and crossed the Florida Peninsula , emerging over the Gulf of Mexico near Tampa as a tropical storm. After a short trip over the Gulf of Mexico, Frances made a second landfall near St. Marks, Florida . Frances headed inland, weakening to a tropical depression and causing heavy rainfall over the southern and eastern United States. As Tropical Depression Frances turned northeast, United States meteorologists at

1062-491: A strong Category Four hurricane. Preparations for the storm were stepped up in Florida on September 1. Governor Jeb Bush declared a state of emergency , Kennedy Space Center closed down, and evacuations of 500,000 people were initially ordered. Eventually 41 counties received evacuation orders, covering 2.8 million residents, the largest evacuation in Florida's history. The state education system also responded to

1180-500: A tropical storm watch was issued for St. Croix while all remaining hurricane watches were dropped. That night, tropical storm watches were issued for eastern portions of the northern coast of the Dominican Republic while a tropical storm warning was issued for Guadeloupe. Early on the morning of August 31, tropical storm warnings were dropped for Antigua, Barbuda, Nevis, and St. Kitts while hurricane watches were issued for

1298-577: A tropical storm, hurricane-force winds in Florida extended up to a width of 145 mi (235 km) from the cyclone's center. The highest recorded sustained wind speed in Florida was 85 mph (137 km/h) at the United States Army Corps of Engineers 's Port Mayaca station. Officially, wind gust observations in the state reached as high as 108 mph (174 km/h) in Fort Pierce , while an identical, unofficial wind gust

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1416-622: A type of beetle in the ladybug family, Coccinellidae , has been introduced in an attempt to control the pests. Visibility is dramatically reduced by smog from both the Southeastern United States and the Midwest , and smog forecasts are prepared daily by the Environmental Protection Agency for both nearby Knoxville, Tennessee and Asheville, North Carolina . Environmental threats are

1534-428: A weakness in the subtropical ridge to its north. Parts of South Florida began to be affected by squalls and the outer rainbands of the hurricane at this time. Gusts from 40 miles per hour (64 km/h) to as high as 87 miles per hour (140 km/h) were reported from Jupiter Inlet to Miami. Frances moved slowly, between 5 and 10 miles per hour (8.0 and 16.1 km/h), as it crossed the warm Gulf Stream between

1652-616: Is caused by the vegetation emitting volatile organic compounds , chemicals that have a high vapor pressure and easily form vapors at normal temperature and pressure. The Great Smoky Mountains stretch from the Pigeon River in the northeast to the Little Tennessee River in the southeast. The northwestern half of the range gives way to a series of elongate ridges known as the "Foothills," the outermost of which include Chilhowee Mountain and English Mountain . The range

1770-717: Is defined by its main governing body, the International Coordinating Council. The MAB Council consists of 34 member states elected by UNESCO's General Conference. The council elects a chair and five vice-chairs from each of UNESCO's geopolitical regions, one of which functions as a rapporteur. These constitute the MAB Bureau. The MAB Secretariat is based at UNESCO's Division of Ecological and Earth Sciences, at UNESCO's headquarters in Paris. It works with field offices at national and regional levels. MAB

1888-470: Is funded by UNESCO and mobilizes funds in trust granted by Member States, bilateral and multilateral sources, and extra-budgetary funds provided by countries, the private sector and private institutions. The first World Congress of Biosphere Reserves was held in Minsk, Belarus in 1983; the congress created an 'Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves' which was adopted the following year. The second World Congress

2006-409: Is home to diverse species such as coneflower, skunk goldenrod, Rugels ragwort , bloodroot , hydrangea, and several species of grasses and ferns. A unique community is the beech gap, or beech orchard. Beech gaps consist of high mountain gaps that have been monopolized by beech trees. The beech trees are often twisted and contorted by the high winds that occur in these gaps. Why other tree types such as

2124-797: Is roughly bounded on the south by the Tuckasegee River and to the southeast by Soco Creek and Jonathan Creek. The Smokies comprise parts of Blount County , Sevier County , and Cocke County in Tennessee and Swain County and Haywood County in North Carolina. The sources of several rivers are located in the Smokies, including the Little Pigeon River , the Oconaluftee River , and Little River . Streams in

2242-472: Is similar to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (3.3 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 ft), while the smaller difference between low temperatures is the result of frequent temperature inversions developing in the morning, especially during autumn. Strong damaging winds (80 to 100 mph (130 to 160 km/h), or sometimes greater) are observed a few times each year around the Smoky Mountains during

2360-462: Is the only trout species native to the range, although northwestern rainbow trout and European brown trout were introduced in the first half of the 20th century. The larger rainbow and brown trout outcompete the native brook trout for food and habitat at lower elevations. As such, most of the brook trout found in the park today are in streams above 3,000 feet in elevation. Trout generally smaller than in different locales. Protected fish species include

2478-728: The Abaco Islands sustained damage, with some losing a large amount of their roofs. Additionally, about 20 homes were flooded in Marsh Harbour . Several people suffered injuries when the roof of a hospital collapsed in South Abaco ; patients were evacuated to Nassau by helicopter. On Grand Bahama , several feet of water flooded the international airport at Freeport , while about 1 ft (0.30 m) of water covered streets and surrounded homes nearby. Bahamian member of parliament Obie Wilchcombe reported that during

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2596-652: The Bahamas , passing directly over San Salvador Island and very close to Cat Island . The storm weakened to a Category 3 hurricane by 2 pm, which was initially attributed to inner core processes, but increasing westerly winds aloft, and the resultant vertical wind shear, was later determined to be the cause. On September 3, Frances passed into the vicinity of Abaco Island and directly over Grand Bahama while continuing to slowly weaken. The storm regained Category 2 hurricane intensity prior to passing over Grand Bahama Island and also slowed in forward speed due to

2714-736: The British Virgin Islands while passing north of the Caribbean Sea . The storm's maximum sustained winds peaked at 145 mph (233 km/h), achieving Category 4 on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale . As the system's forward motion slowed, the eye passed over San Salvador Island and very close to Cat Island in the Bahamas . Frances was the first hurricane to impact the entire Bahamian archipelago since 1928 and almost completely destroyed their agricultural economy. Frances then passed over

2832-668: The Florida Keys . However, only minor damage was reported there. In Southwest Florida , Glades and Hendry recorded sustained tropical storm-force winds and hurricane-force wind gusts. The former suffered about $ 25 million in damage – $ 20 million to crops and $ 5 million to property. Each county of the Miami metropolitan area – Broward , Miami-Dade , and Palm Beach – reported hundreds of thousands of power outages. Significant impacts occurred in parts of South Florida, especially Palm Beach County, where

2950-717: The Hydrometeorological Prediction Center continued issuing advisories on the system until it crossed the Canada–United States border into Quebec , where heavy rainfall also fell. A tropical storm watch was issued for Frances for the Leeward Islands during the afternoon of August 29, which was upgraded to a warning that night and expanded to include the islands of Anguilla , Antigua , Barbuda , Nevis , Saba , Saint Kitts , Sint Eustatius , and Sint Maarten . A hurricane watch

3068-824: The Maddron Bald Trail (between Gatlinburg and Cosby) is an accessible old-growth forest with some of the oldest and tallest trees in the entire range. Over 130 species of trees are found among the canopies of the cove hardwood forests in the Smokies. The dominant species include yellow birch ( Betula alleghaniensis ), basswood ( Tilia americana ), yellow buckeye ( Aesculus flava ), tulip tree ( Liriodendron tulipifera ; commonly called "tulip poplar"), silverbells ( Halesia carolina ), sugar maple ( Acer saccharum ), cucumber magnolia ( Magnolia acuminata ), shagbark hickory ( Carya ovata ), Carolina hemlock ( Tsuga caroliniana ) and eastern hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis ). The American chestnut ( Castanea dentata ), which

3186-717: The Ordovician period, the North American and African plates collided, destroying the ancient ocean and initiating the Alleghenian orogeny —the mountain-building epoch that created the Appalachian range. The Mesozoic era saw the rapid erosion of the softer sedimentary rocks from the new mountains, re-exposing the older Ocoee Supergroup formations. Around 20,000 years ago, subarctic glaciers advanced southward across North America, and although they never reached

3304-595: The Suwannee River while all remaining warnings were dropped south of Anna Maria Island, as well as the Florida east coast and the Georgia coast. That afternoon, all hurricane warnings were downgraded to tropical storm warnings, with all warnings dropped between west of St. Marks and south of the Suwannee river. On the night of September 6, all remaining tropical cyclone warnings were dropped. The economic effect

3422-672: The World Network of Biosphere Reserves . The reserves cover more than 5% of the world’s surface and are home to over 260 million people. Biosphere reserves are areas comprising terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems. Its biosphere reserves are nominated by national governments and remain under the sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located. Their status is internationally recognized. Biosphere reserves are 'Science for Sustainability support sites'. Biosphere reserves have three zones: The first biosphere reserves were designated in 1976 in several countries including

3540-401: The balsam wooly adelgid , which arrived in the Smokies in the early 1960s. Thus, red spruce is now the dominant species in the range's spruce-fir forest. Large stands of dead Fraser firs remain atop Kuwohi and on the northwestern slopes of Old Black. While much of the red spruce stands were logged in the 1910s, the tree is still common throughout the range above 5,500 feet (1,700 m). Some of

3658-479: The black rat snake , and the northern water snake . The Smokies are home to one of the world's most diverse salamander populations. Five of the world's nine families of salamanders are found in the range, consisting of up to 31 species. The red-cheeked salamander is found only in the Smokies. The imitator salamander is found only in the Smokies and the nearby Plott Balsams and Great Balsam Mountains . Two other species—the southern gray-cheeked salamander and

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3776-573: The gray fox ) are found within the Smokies, with red foxes being documented at all elevations. European boar , introduced as game animals in the early 20th century, thrive in southern Appalachia but are considered a nuisance because of their tendency to root up and destroy plants. The boars are seen as taking food resources away from bears as well, and the park service has sponsored a program that pays individuals to hunt and kill boars and leave their bodies in locations frequented by bears. The Smokies are home to over two dozen species of rodents, including

3894-544: The smoky madtom and yellowfin madtom , the spotfin chub , and the duskytail darter . The firefly Photinus carolinus , whose synchronized flashing light displays occur in mid-June, is native to the Smoky Mountains with a population epicenter near Elkmont, Tennessee . Air pollution is contributing to increased red spruce tree mortality at higher elevations and oak decline at lower elevations, while invasive hemlock woolly adelgids attack hemlocks, and balsam woolly adelgids attack Fraser firs . Pseudoscymnus tsugae ,

4012-550: The southern Appalachian salamander —occur only in the general region. Other species include the shovelnose salamander , blackbelly salamander , eastern red-spotted newt , and spotted dusky salamander . The hellbender inhabits swift streams. Other amphibians include the American toad and the American bullfrog , wood frog , upland chorus frog , northern green frog , and spring peeper . Fish include trout , lamprey , darter , shiner , bass , and sucker . The brook trout

4130-429: The white-tailed deer , the population of which drastically expanded with the creation of the national park. The bobcat is the only remaining wild cat species, although sightings of cougars , which once thrived in the area, are still occasionally reported. The coyote is not believed to be native to the range but has moved into the area in recent years and is treated as a native species. Two species of fox ( red fox and

4248-458: The 2020s, the zones are categorized as follows: core (category I-IV), buffer (category V-VI), transition (uncategorized). Participating countries establish MAB National Committees that define and implement each country's activities. MAB currently operates through 158 national committees established among the 195 member states and nine associate member states of UNESCO. The agenda of the MAB programme

4366-633: The Atlantic coast of Florida from Martin County to Volusia County , resulting in substantial damage to 546 structures within the Coastal Building Zone. On the Gulf Coast, however, erosion and coastal flood specifically relating to the storm often became difficult to determine due to Charley less than a month earlier and then Ivan and Jeanne shortly after Frances. Frances produced tropical storm-force wind gusts as far south as

4484-472: The Bahamas and Florida, leading to the concern that it could restrengthen. However, Frances remained stable at Category 2 intensity with 105 miles per hour (169 km/h) maximum sustained winds while it battered the east coast of Florida between Fort Pierce and West Palm Beach for much of September 4. At 11 pm, the western edge of the eyewall began moving onshore. Because of its large eye, which

4602-684: The Chimney Tops, and kuwahi ᎫᏩᎯ, or "mulberry place". Most Cherokee settlements were located in the river valleys on the outer fringe of the Smokies, which along with the Unicoi Mountains provided the main bulwark dividing the Overhill Cherokee villages in modern Tennessee from the Cherokee Middle towns in modern North Carolina. The Overhill town of Chilhowee was situated at the confluence of Abrams Creek and

4720-587: The Dragon's Advocate and even hardy orchids . There are two native species of rhododendron in the area. The catawba rhododendron has purple flowers in May and June, while the rosebay rhododendron has longer leaves and white or light pink blooms in June and July. The orange- to sometimes red-flowered and deciduous flame azalea closely follows along with the catawbas. The closely related mountain laurel blooms in between

4838-404: The Florida citrus crop caused orange futures to rise four cents a pound. On September 24, the southern two-thirds of Georgia was declared a disaster by President Bush. The state lost 50 percent of its pecan crop due to Frances, which led to a price rise in pecans by late October. Lost peach trees were expected to lower output during 2005, and increase peach prices. A disaster declaration

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4956-732: The Florida peninsula with watches issued for the northwest Florida peninsula. On the morning of September 4, tropical storm warnings were extended northward to Anna Maria Island and along the Georgia coast. Tropical storm watches were extended northward to St. Marks, Florida . That afternoon, hurricane watches were dropped for most of the northwest Bahamas while warnings were extended up the coast to St. Marks, and watches were extended westward to Panama City, Florida . Early on morning of September 5, hurricane warnings were downgraded to tropical storm warnings south of Deerfield Beach, Florida , while tropical storm warnings were extended westward through

5074-564: The Lesser Antilles south of the British Virgin Islands. That afternoon, tropical storm warnings were dropped from Puerto Rico eastward. On the morning of September 1, a hurricane watch was issued for the northwest Bahamas while the watch for the central Bahamas was upgraded to a warning. That afternoon, warnings were dropped for the Dominican Republic. On the evening of September 1, hurricane warnings were issued for

5192-667: The Little Tennessee, and the Overhill town of Tallassee was located just a few miles upstream near modern Calderwood (both village sites are now under Chilhowee Lake). A string of Overhill villages, including Chota and Tanasi , dotted the Little Tennessee valley north of Chilhowee. International Biosphere Reserve Man and the Biosphere Programme ( MAB ) is an intergovernmental scientific program, launched in 1971 by UNESCO , that aims to establish

5310-616: The Mississippian-period villages at Chilhowee and Citico (Pardo's notary called them by their Muskogean names, "Chalahume" and "Satapo"). By the time the first English explorers arrived in southern Appalachia in the late 17th century, the Cherokee controlled much of the region, and the Great Smoky Mountains lay at the center of their territory. One Cherokee legend tells of a magical lake hidden deep within

5428-525: The Pisgah, Table Rock, Marion, and Armstrong state fish hatcheries. Red Cross volunteers distributed over 200,000 gallons of water by its 600 volunteers in four days. After Frances and Hurricane Ivan , Asheville determined that it needed $ 14 million in order to buy out willing businesses and homes within the floodplain. Because of the hurricane's effects in the United States, the name Frances

5546-884: The Smokies are part of the Tennessee River watershed and are thus entirely west of the Eastern Continental Divide . The largest stream entirely within the park is Abrams Creek , which rises in Cades Cove and empties into the Chilhowee Lake impoundment of the Little Tennessee River near Chilhowee Dam . Other major streams include Hazel Creek and Eagle Creek in the southwest, Raven Fork near Oconaluftee, Cosby Creek near Cosby , and Roaring Fork near Gatlinburg . The Little Tennessee River passes through five impediments along

5664-471: The Smokies are typically divided into three zones: Appalachian balds —patches of land where trees are unexpectedly absent or sparse—are interspersed through the mid-to-upper elevations in the range. Balds include grassy balds, which are highland meadows covered primarily by thick grasses, and heath balds, which are dense thickets of rhododendron and mountain laurel typically occurring on narrow ridges. Mixed oak-pine forests are found on dry ridges, especially on

5782-434: The Smokies, the advancing glaciers led to colder mean annual temperatures and an increase in precipitation throughout the range. Trees were unable to survive at the higher elevations and were replaced by tundra vegetation. Spruce-fir forests occupied the valleys and slopes below approximately 4,950 feet (1,510 m). The persistent freezing and thawing during this period created the large blockfields that are often found at

5900-510: The Smokies. As for temperatures, the average temperature difference between the mountains ( Newfound Gap around 5,000 feet (1,500 m) MSL and the valleys (Park Headquarters around 1,600 feet (490 m) MSL in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park is between 10 and 13 °F (6 and 7 °C) with highs and between 3 and 6 °F (2 and 3 °C) with lows. The difference between high temperatures

6018-658: The Smokies—formed over a billion years ago from the accumulation of marine sediments and igneous rock in a primordial ocean. In the Late Precambrian period, this ocean expanded, and the more recent Ocoee Supergroup rocks formed from accumulations of the eroding land mass onto the ocean's continental shelf. By the end of the Paleozoic era, the ancient ocean had deposited a thick layer of marine sediments which left behind sedimentary rocks such as limestone. During

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6136-708: The US, UK, Uruguay, Thailand, Iran and Poland. In 1996, the IUCN and MAB published a guideline for how to assess UNESCO biosphere reserves in the IUCN classification system . The IUCN distinguishes between the biosphere core area, buffer zones, transition zones, and each individual biosphere reserve. Biosphere core zones were in IUCN category I; either Ia ( strict nature reserve ) or Ib ( wilderness area ). Biosphere buffer zones would fall into categories IV, V or VI, and transition zones would be categorized as either V or VI, if possible. In

6254-652: The area qualifies as part of the Appalachian Rainforest . On the other hand, Gatlinburg's climate is four-season subtropical ( Cfa ) under Köppen (oceanic Do under Trewartha ), typical of Tennessee. Most of the rocks in the Great Smoky Mountains consist of Late Precambrian rocks that are part of a formation known as the Ocoee Supergroup . The Ocoee Supergroup consists primarily of slightly metamorphosed sandstones , phyllites , schists , and slate . Early Precambrian rocks, which include

6372-539: The banks of the three rivers and more damage was associated with river tributaries. Although the hurricane moved close to the Turks and Caicos Islands , only minor impact occurred there. More than a dozen homes sustained damage. One person was rescued after the roof blew off her residence. In the Bahamas, between 13 and 17 percent of the non-native Australian pine on San Salvador Island experienced damage, primarily from snapping, though some browning from salt spray

6490-489: The base of large mountain slopes. Between 16,500 and 12,500 years ago, the glaciers to the north retreated and mean annual temperatures rose. The tundra vegetation disappeared, and the spruce-fir forests retreated to the highest elevations. Hardwood trees moved into the region from the coastal plains, replacing the spruce-fir forests in the lower elevations. The temperatures continued warming until around 6,000 years ago, when they began to gradually grow cooler. Heavy logging in

6608-477: The central sections of Florida, three weeks after Hurricane Charley , causing significant damage to the state's citrus crop, closing major airports and schools, and forcing the cancellation of a collegiate football game. The storm then moved briefly offshore from Florida, into the northeast Gulf of Mexico , and made a second U.S. landfall, on the Florida Panhandle , before accelerating northeast through

6726-456: The coast of western Florida were extended southward to Anna Maria Island. Late that night, tropical storm warnings were dropped south of Bonita Beach including all the Florida Keys. Early on the morning of September 6, all warnings were dropped in Florida south of Englewood and Cocoa Beach . Later that morning, hurricane warnings were downgraded to tropical storm warnings between Indian Pass and Destin as well as between Anna Maria Island and

6844-584: The concern of many non-profit environmental stewardship groups, especially The Friends of the Smokies. Formed in 1993, the group assists the National Park Service in its mission to preserve and protect the Great Smoky Mountains National Park by raising funds and public awareness, and providing volunteers for needed projects. Native Americans have likely been hunting in the Great Smoky Mountains for 14,000 years. Numerous Archaic period ( c.  8000 –1000 B.C.) artifacts have been found within

6962-468: The cool season (October through April), as a result of a phenomenon known as mountain waves . These mountain wave winds are strongest in a narrow area along the foothills and can create extensive areas of fallen trees and roof damage, especially around Cades Cove in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park and the Camp Creek community. Strong winds created by mountain waves were a contributing factor with

7080-469: The county, the cyclone damaged some 3,000 homes and 1,600 businesses. Ground-level wind gusts in Brevard County reached 90 mph (140 km/h) at Merritt Island Airport . Across the county, Frances damaged 12,130 homes to some degree. Additionally, the storm ripped off 820 4-by-10 foot aluminum panels covering the large Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center . While Charley caused $ 700,000 damage, Frances's damage

7198-452: The crops were lost during Frances. Flooding was reported even in the mid-Atlantic and Northeast states, particularly along the Appalachian Mountains . A strip of upslope-induced rainfall along the Blue Ridge escarpment produced as much as 23 inches (580 mm) of rain in some areas of western North Carolina as the warm tropical air surged up and over the mountains. Flooding along the Swannanoa River near Asheville, North Carolina caused

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7316-429: The densest black bear population east of the Mississippi River. The black bear has come to symbolize wildlife in the Smokies, and the animal frequently appears on the covers of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park's literature. Most of the range's adult eastern black bears weigh between 100 pounds (45 kg) and 300 pounds (140 kg), although some grow to more than 500 pounds (230 kg). Other mammals include

7434-703: The depression continued on its path, and it strengthened to tropical storm status on August 25, approximately 1,420 miles (2,290 km) east of the Lesser Antilles . The tropical storm, now named Frances, further intensified on August 26 in an environment of low vertical wind shear as its track bent to the west-northwest. Frances rapidly intensified, developing an eye and reaching hurricane strength late that afternoon. An approaching upper-level trough caused Frances to move more northwesterly on August 27. The cyclone reached its primary peak intensity of 135 miles per hour (217 km/h) on August 28. The hurricane turned back to its original westward motion on August 29, as

7552-423: The devastating Gatlinburg fire on November 28, 2016 during the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires . Damaging winds can also be generated by strong thunderstorms, with tornadoes and strong thunderstorm complexes (also known as mesoscale convective systems ) occasionally affecting the Smoky Mountains. The climate of Kuwohi is hemiboreal ( Köppen Dfb , Trewartha Dcb ). As with much of the southern Blue Ridge ,

7670-483: The eastern United States near the Appalachians and into Atlantic Canada while weakening. A significant tornado outbreak accompanied the storm across the eastern United States, nearly equaling the outbreak from Hurricane Beulah . Very heavy rains fell in association with this slow-moving and relatively large hurricane, which caused floods in Florida and North Carolina. 50 people died and damages totaled US$ 10.1 billion (2004 dollars). A strong tropical wave moved off

7788-415: The endangered northern flying squirrel and 10 species of bats, including the endangered Indiana bat . The National Park Service has successfully reintroduced river otters and elk . An attempt to reintroduce the red wolf in the early 1990s ultimately failed. These wolves were removed from the park and relocated to the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge in North Carolina. The Smokies are home to

7906-422: The entire archipelago since 1866. On September 4, teams from the Ministry of Works, the Department of Environmental Health Services, the Royal Bahamas Defence Force and the Royal Bahamas Police Force were used to clear roadways of tree debris while utilities attempted to restore power and water in New Providence. The Family Islands were surveyed on September 5 and 6, when it was noted that major damage occurred within

8024-423: The entire banana crop, were lost during Frances. The pineapple crop was significantly impacted by wind damage in Eleuthera , while the entire fruit crop was lost for similar reasons. The corn crop in Long Island and Cat Island was completely lost. Significant poultry losses were experienced. Two people in the Bahamas were killed by the storm, one directly and the other indirectly. Prior to Frances weakening to

8142-412: The eye of the storm, he and others rescued approximately 70 people, who became trapped after storm surge entered their residences on the west end of the island. About 75% of the island chain lost power for a few hours during the storm. Insurers and reinsurers estimated industry insured losses at about $ 300 million (2004 dollars) throughout the Bahamas. All cool-season vegetable plantings, and

8260-484: The game-rich forests of the Smokies and into the fertile river valleys on the outer fringe of the range. Substantial Mississippian-period villages were uncovered at Citico and Toqua (named after the Cherokee villages that later thrived at these sites) along the Little Tennessee River in the 1960s. Fortified Mississippian-period villages have been excavated at the McMahan Indian Mounds in Sevierville and as well as mounds in Townsend . Most of these villages were part of

8378-469: The harsh mountain tops, typically above 5,500 feet (1,700 m). About 10,600 acres (43 km) of the spruce-fir forest are old-growth. The spruce-fir forest consists primarily of two conifer species— red spruce ( Picea rubens ) and Fraser fir ( Abies fraseri ). The Fraser firs, which are native to southern Appalachia, once dominated elevations above 6,200 feet (1,900 m) in the Smokies. Most of these firs were killed, however, by an infestation of

8496-626: The higher elevations in the Smokies are cool enough to support forest types more commonly found in the northern United States. The northern hardwood forests constitute the highest broad-leaved forest in the eastern United States. About 28,600 acres (116 km) are old-growth. In the Smokies, the northern hardwood canopies are dominated by yellow birch ( Betula alleghaniensis ) and American beech ( Fagus grandifolia ). White basswood ( Tilia heterophylla ), mountain maple ( Acer spicatum ) and striped maple ( Acer pensylvanicum ), and yellow buckeye ( Aesculus flava ) are also present. The understory

8614-467: The hurricane. The annual Florida State University - University of Miami college football game was rescheduled for the following week. The entire Major League Baseball series between the Florida Marlins and Chicago Cubs was postponed as well. Walt Disney World closed on September 4 and September 5  — only the third time it had closed for a hurricane, but the second time in

8732-479: The island group. Telecommunications were restored to most of the island chain within 24 hours. As of September 21, electricity had been restored to half of the Bahamians who had lost power. Western sections of Grand Bahama Island remained without power into Hurricane Jeanne, which was the most significantly impacted island. The onion crop was expected to be late in 2005 due to the loss of seedbeds and seedlings during

8850-633: The late 19th century and early 20th century devastated much of the forests of the Smokies, but the National Park Service estimates 187,000 acres (760 km) of old-growth forest remains, comprising the largest old-growth stand in the Eastern United States. Most of the forest is a mature second-growth hardwood forest. The range's 1,600 species of flowering plants include over 100 species of native trees and 100 species of native shrubs. The Smokies are also home to over 450 species of non-vascular plants and 2,000 species of fungi. The forests of

8968-472: The morning of September 1 and for the Southeast Bahamas late that night. Late on the morning of September 3, hurricane watches were issued for the northeast coast of Florida, while early that afternoon tropical storm warnings were issued for the same area. Hurricane warnings were dropped for the central Bahamas that afternoon. That night, tropical storm warnings were issued for the southwest coast of

9086-473: The most common hawk species, have been sighted at all elevations. Owl species include the barred owl , eastern screech owl , and northern saw-whet owl . Timber rattlesnakes —one of two venomous snake species in the Smokies—are found at all elevations. The other venomous snake, the copperhead , is typically found at lower elevations. Other reptiles include the eastern box turtle , the eastern fence lizard ,

9204-469: The most extensive effects. Throughout the county, Frances damaged 478 businesses, 19,958 single-family homes, 4,800 mobile homes, and 1,414 agriculture-related structures. The hurricane left about $ 238.5 million in damage in the county. Frances dropped significant rain on Florida, Georgia, Alabama , and North and South Carolina . The passage of tropical depression Frances into Georgia dumped up to 5 inches (130 mm) of rain onto

9322-637: The municipal marina in Fort Pierce and several hangars at the Treasure Coast International Airport . A total of 1,129 dwellings in the county became uninhabitable. At least 3,000 homes and about 50% of businesses were damaged in Indian River County. Property damage in the Treasure Coast totaled approximately $ 4.5 billion, while roughly $ 88.8 million in crop damage also occurred in

9440-468: The national park that were once part of the numerous small Appalachian communities scattered throughout the range's river valleys and coves. The park contains five historic districts and nine individual listings on the National Register of Historic Places . The name "Smoky" comes from the natural fog that often hangs over the range and presents as large smoke plumes from a distance. This fog

9558-467: The national park's boundaries, including projectile points uncovered along likely animal migration paths. Woodland period ( c.  1000 B.C. - 1000 A.D.) sites found within the park contained 2,000-year-old ceramics and evidence of primitive agriculture. The increasing reliance upon agriculture during the Mississippian period ( c.  900 –1600 A.D.) lured Native Americans away from

9676-425: The northwest Bahamas while hurricane watches were issued for the lower east coast of Florida and tropical storm watches were issued for the Florida Keys. There was the potential for catastrophic damage along Florida's heavily populated east coast, with warnings that damages from Frances could exceed the insured losses of Hurricane Andrew . These damage estimates were in anticipation that Frances would strike Florida as

9794-640: The oldest rocks in the Smokies, comprise the dominant rock type in the Raven Fork Valley (in the Oconaluftee valley ) and lower Tuckasegee River between Cherokee and Bryson City . They consist primarily of metamorphic gneiss , granite , and schist . Cambrian sedimentary rocks are found among the outer reaches of the Foothills to the northwest and in limestone coves such as Cades Cove. The Precambrian gneiss and schists—the oldest rocks in

9912-505: The pending crisis. Many universities across Florida canceled classes. Both the University of Central Florida and the University of North Florida told all students to leave their dorms. Evacuation at the University of South Florida was performed on a dorm-by-dorm basis. Florida Atlantic University was closed for a week and a half. Most schools were shut down from southern Miami-Dade County to just south of Melbourne two days before

10030-844: The point of its first landfall, few structures were destroyed and ocean overwash across the barrier island was limited, though the extent of the damage far exceeded that of Hurricane Charley. Significant tree damage was reported within golf courses along the Treasure Coast , with an average of 300-500 trees experiencing damage per course. Throughout the tri-county region – Martin, Indian River , and St. Lucie – hundreds of businesses, homes, and mobile homes suffered destruction, while thousands of other structures experienced various degrees of damage. The storm inflicted impacts on 1,319 homes in Martin County, 52 of which were destroyed. In St. Lucie County, Frances destroyed

10148-568: The range but inaccessible to humans. Another tells of a captured Shawnee medicine man named Aganunitsi who, in exchange for his freedom, travels to the remote sections of the range in search of the Uktena . The Cherokee called Gregory Bald Tsitsuyi ᏥᏧᏱ, or "rabbit place," and believed the mountain to be the domain of the Great Rabbit. Other Cherokee place names in the Smokies included Duniskwalgunyi ᏚᏂᏍᏆᎫᏂ, or "forked antlers", which refers to

10266-436: The range's southwestern boundary, namely Tellico Lake , Chilhowee Lake , Calderwood Lake , Cheoah Lake , and Fontana Lake . The highest point in the Smokies is Kuwohi , the tallest mountain in Tennessee, which rises to an elevation of 6,643 feet (2,025 m). It has the range's highest topographic prominence at 4,503 feet (1,373 m). Mount Le Conte is the tallest (i.e., from immediate base to summit) mountain in

10384-539: The range, rising 5,301 feet (1,616 m) from its base in Gatlinburg to its 6,593-foot (2,010 m) summit. The Smokies rise prominently above the surrounding low terrain. For example, Mount Le Conte (6,593 feet [2,010 m]) rises more than a mile (1.6 km) above its base. Because of their prominence, the Smokies receive a heavy annual amount of precipitation. Annual precipitation amounts range from 50 to 80 in (1,300 to 2,000 mm), and snowfall in

10502-423: The red spruce fail to encroach into the beech gaps is unknown. The Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest —also called the "boreal" or "Canadian" forest—is a relict of the ice ages , when mean annual temperatures in the Smokies were too cold to support a hardwood forest. While the rise in temperatures between 12,500 and 6,000 years ago allowed the hardwoods to return, the spruce-fir forest has managed to survive on

10620-802: The red spruces are believed to be 300 years old, and the tallest rise to over 100 feet (30 m). The main difference between the Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest and the spruce-fir forests in northern latitudes is the dense broad-leaved understory of the former, which are home to catawba rhododendron , mountain ash , pin cherry , thornless blackberry, and hobblebush . The herbaceous and litter layers are poorly lit year-round and are thus dominated by shade-tolerant plants such as ferns, namely mountain wood fern and northern lady fern , and over 280 species of mosses. Many wildflowers grow in mountains and valleys, including bee balm , Solomon's seal , Dutchman's breeches , various trilliums ,

10738-706: The region. Just inland from the Treasure Coast, Okeechobee County likely experienced sustained hurricane-force winds in most areas. The storm damaged 22,688 homes, nearly 700 of which were demolished. In Osceola County , Frances damaged 69 dwellings and 3 businesses. Heavy rainfall caused major street flooding in Kissimmee and St. Cloud , while water entered some workplaces and residences. The Orlando International Airport in Orange County reported sustained winds of 54 mph (87 km/h) and gusts up to 69 mph (111 km/h). Across

10856-484: The single storm tornado record set during Hurricane Beulah . Power outages affected up to six million people. Over 20 airports closed during the storm. As an extratropical cyclone , Frances passed through southern Ontario . The storm dropped up to 5.39 inches (137 mm), washing out roads and causing localized flooding in Quebec , New Brunswick , and Newfoundland . This rainfall smashed all-time rainfall records in

10974-533: The south-facing North Carolina side of the range. Stands dominated by the Eastern hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis ) are occasionally found along streams and broad slopes above 3,500 feet (1,100 m). Cove hardwood forests, which are native to southern Appalachia, are among the most diverse forest types in North America. The cove hardwood forests of the Smokies are mostly second-growth, although some 72,000 acres (290 km) are still old-growth. The Albright Grove along

11092-486: The southeast Bahamas as well as the Turks and Caicos Islands . Hurricane watches were upgraded to hurricane warnings later that morning. Toward noon, tropical storm warnings were issued for the remainder of the northern coast of the Dominican Republic , a hurricane watch was issued for the central Bahamas, while all watches and warnings were dropped for northeast portion of the Dominican Republic and portions of

11210-669: The southern eyewall of Frances crossed as it made landfall farther north. Heavy rains, including 13.56 in (344 mm) at Palm Beach International Airport , caused a large sinkhole to develop on Interstate 95 , which closed the highway to traffic. Roughly 15,000 houses and 2,400 businesses in the county were inflicted some degree of damage. Frances left about $ 570 million in damage in Palm Beach County, with about $ 70 million incurred to crops. Broward and Miami-Dade counties suffered about $ 80 million and $ 34 million in damages, respectively. Near

11328-405: The sruce-fir and northern hardwood zones. Ovenbirds , whip-poor-wills , and downy woodpeckers live in the drier pine-oak forests and heath balds. Bald eagles and golden eagles have been spotted at all elevations in the park. Peregrine falcon sightings are also not uncommon, and a peregrine falcon eyrie is known to have existed near Alum Cave Bluffs throughout the 1930s. Red-tailed hawks ,

11446-426: The state and caused the closings of schools in 56 counties. Across Georgia, winds of 30 to 40 miles per hour (48 to 64 km/h), with gusts to 50 miles per hour (80 km/h) led to the downing of tree branches and power lines. At one point on September 7, a total of 380,000 residences were without power. Significant crop damage was seen, particularly to the cotton and the peanut crops. On average, 30 percent of

11564-734: The state, peaking at 16.61 in (422 mm) in Kent Grove, near Spring Hill . Large portions of west-central and northeast Florida also reported precipitation amounts of at least 10 in (250 mm). Significant storm surge impacted both coasts, with a surge up to 5.89 ft (1.80 m) above mean sea level recorded at the St. Lucie Lock . However, the National Weather Service estimated that storm surge may have reached as high as 8 ft (2.4 m) above ground near Vero Beach . Extensive to moderate erosion impacted

11682-567: The storm left the Florida peninsula. Residents in the areas of impact after the storm were under a boil water order, because of the lack of electricity to area water systems. Churches prepared meals for people without power and food. Federal employees were granted excused absences if they helped with law enforcement and the cleanup. Thousands of portable generators were sent to the state by Home Depot and Lowe's home improvement stores. The United States Army Corps of Engineers installed blue tarpaulins on 41,556 damaged roofs statewide. Damage to

11800-509: The storm. In the aftermath of the storm, many colleges and school districts across Florida remained closed. President George W. Bush declared all of Florida a federal disaster area. Kennedy Space Center did not restore its complete work force until September 13 due to relief operations, as well as a lack of gasoline, ice, and water in the area. A total of 8000 members of the National Guard helped out with recovery efforts soon after

11918-512: The storm. 42 more deaths - 32 in Florida, eight in Georgia , one in the Bahamas and one in Ohio, are indirectly attributed to Frances. The total civilian damage from Frances was determined to be approximately US$ 8.86 billion (2004 dollars). Add in the estimated US$ 100 million damage (2004 dollars) done to space and military facilities at Kennedy Space Center , Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , and Patrick Air Force Base , Florida and

12036-499: The total damage was estimated to be about US$ 9 billion (2004 dollars), making it the fourth costliest hurricane in United States history at that time, behind Hurricane Andrew of 1992 and Hurricanes Charley and Ivan of 2004. At the time, adjusted for inflation, it became the seventh costliest hurricane for the lower 48 United States. Flooding was also reported in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Minor flooding happened along

12154-557: The two, and all of the blooms progress from lower to higher elevations. The reverse is true in autumn, when nearly bare mountaintops covered in rime ice (frozen fog) can be separated from green valleys by very bright and varied leaf colors. The rhododendrons are broadleafs , whose leaves droop in order to shed wet and heavy snows that come through the region during winter. The Great Smoky Mountains are home to 66 species of mammals, over 240 species of birds, 43 species of amphibians, 60 species of fish, and 40 species of reptiles. The range has

12272-402: The upper elevations is the largest of its kind. The Smokies are home to the densest black bear population in the Eastern United States and the most diverse salamander population outside of the tropics. Along with the biosphere reserve, the Great Smoky Mountains have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The U.S. National Park Service preserves and maintains 78 structures within

12390-662: The upper trough moved away the region and the subtropical ridge strengthened to Frances's north. Over the next day, the hurricane underwent an eyewall replacement cycle , during which the maximum sustained winds decreased to 115 miles per hour (185 km/h). This weakening trend was short lived, and the storm reintensified during the afternoon of August 30, as vertical wind shear remained low. The storm continued strengthening as it turned west-northwestward, reaching its peak intensity of 145 miles per hour (233 km/h) on September 2 while 555 miles (893 km) east-southeast of West Palm Beach, Florida . On September 2, Frances entered

12508-401: The west coast of Africa on August 21. Moving under the base of the subtropical ridge , it moved westward for several days, remaining disorganized despite favorable conditions. Thunderstorms associated with the wave finally began organizing on August 24 and the system became a tropical depression early the next day. Good upper-level outflow was observed in all but the eastern quadrants as

12626-482: The western Florida Keys. Later that morning, hurricane warnings were issued for most of the northwest Florida coast while hurricane watches were lowered for northeast Florida and hurricane warnings were dropped for the remainder of the northwest Bahamas. That afternoon, all warnings were dropped for southeast Florida south of Jupiter Inlet , while the remaining hurricane warnings along the east Florida coast were downgraded to tropical storm warnings. Hurricane warnings along

12744-484: The winter can be heavy, especially on the higher slopes. For comparison, the surrounding terrain has annual precipitation of around 40 to 50 in (1,000 to 1,300 mm). Flash flooding often occurs after heavy rain. In 2004, the remnants of Hurricane Frances caused major flooding, landslides , and high winds, which were soon followed by Hurricane Ivan , making the situation worse. Other post-hurricanes, including Hurricane Hugo in 1989, have caused similar damage in

12862-531: Was arguably the most beloved tree of the range's pre-park inhabitants, was killed off by the introduced Chestnut blight in the 1920s. The understories of the cove hardwood forest contain dozens of species of shrubs and vines. Dominant species in the Smokies include the Eastern redbud ( Cercis canadensis ), flowering dogwood ( Cornus florida ), Catawba rhododendron ( Rhododendron catawbiense ), mountain laurel ( Kalmia latifolia ), and smooth hydrangea ( Hydrangea arborescens ). The mean annual temperatures in

12980-468: Was felt early, as the storm struck during Labor Day weekend, traditionally the final summer vacation weekend in the United States. Many hotel reservations from South Carolina to Florida were canceled as people, seeing the destruction caused weeks earlier by Hurricane Charley, decided to avoid the coastal areas for safety. One death in the Bahamas, one in Ohio , and five in Florida were directly attributed to

13098-696: Was held in Seville, Spain in March 1995. The third World Congress was held in Madrid, Spain from February 4-9, 2008. The fourth World Congress of Biosphere Reserves took place in Lima , Peru , from March 14-17, 2016. The fifth World Congress is due to be held in Hangzhou, China from September 22-27 2025. The World Network of Biosphere Reserves are as follows: Hurricane Frances Hurricane Frances

13216-492: Was issued during the night of August 29 for the northern British Virgin Islands , the northern United States Virgin Islands , Culebra , and Vieques . On the morning of August 30, the hurricane watch for Vieques was downgraded to a tropical storm watch. That afternoon, hurricane watches were changed to tropical storm warnings across Puerto Rico, Culebra, Vieques, British Virgin Islands, and the northern U. S. Virgin Islands while

13334-468: Was made for the northeast section of South Carolina on October 7. On September 10, President Bush declared 34 counties within North Carolina a disaster area, making them eligible for US$ 6.5 million (2004 dollars) in public assistance. A Wildlife Commission removed its North Carolina Mountain State Fair exhibit due to Frances midway through the fair. Over 100,000 trout were lost due to the storm in

13452-523: Was noted. Frances destroyed five homes on the island, while eighty others experienced suffered roof damage. San Salvador reported a wind gust of 120 mph (190 km/h), the strongest gust observed in the Bahamas. The streets of the city capital of Nassau were littered with falling trees and satellite dishes. At nearby Cable Beach , a grocery store completely lost its roof. Approximately 50% of residences in Coopers Town and North Abaco on

13570-601: Was reported in Martin County . Consequently, a peak total of 4,270,583 customers across Florida lost electricity. Additionally, wind damage to citrus groves led to a near total loss near the coast of east-central and southeast Florida between Boca Raton and Melbourne , with lesser damage farther to the west across the Kissimmee River basin. Between Hurricane Charley and Frances, citrus losses totaled $ 2 billion. Frances also produced heavy rains in

13688-423: Was roughly 80 miles (130 km) across, and its slow forward motion, the center of circulation remained offshore for several more hours. At 1 am EDT on September 5 (0500 UTC), the center of the broad eye of Frances made landfall along the Florida coast, at the southern end of Hutchinson Island , near Sewall's Point , Jensen Beach , and Port Salerno, Florida . Late on September 5, Frances picked up speed due to

13806-491: Was significantly greater. Two external fuel tanks for the Space Shuttle were in the building but seemed undamaged. The Space Shuttle Discovery 's hangar was without power. Overall, Brevard County experienced about $ 277.6 million in damage, with more than one-third of that figure, $ 100 million, incurred to space and military facilities around Cape Canaveral . Volusia County was also among those experiencing

13924-403: Was the second most intense tropical cyclone in the Atlantic during 2004 and proved to be very destructive in Florida. It was the sixth named storm , the fourth hurricane, and the third major hurricane of the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season . The system crossed the open Atlantic in late August, moving to the north of the Lesser Antilles while strengthening. Its outer bands struck Puerto Rico and

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