155-576: Mathematical logic is the study of formal logic within mathematics . Major subareas include model theory , proof theory , set theory , and recursion theory (also known as computability theory). Research in mathematical logic commonly addresses the mathematical properties of formal systems of logic such as their expressive or deductive power. However, it can also include uses of logic to characterize correct mathematical reasoning or to establish foundations of mathematics . Since its inception, mathematical logic has both contributed to and been motivated by
310-501: A r y ) ∧ Q ( J o h n ) ) {\displaystyle \exists Q(Q(Mary)\land Q(John))} " . In this case, the existential quantifier is applied to the predicate variable " Q {\displaystyle Q} " . The added expressive power is especially useful for mathematics since it allows for more succinct formulations of mathematical theories. But it has drawbacks in regard to its meta-logical properties and ontological implications, which
465-415: A cumulative hierarchy of sets. New Foundations takes a different approach; it allows objects such as the set of all sets at the cost of restrictions on its set-existence axioms. The system of Kripke–Platek set theory is closely related to generalized recursion theory. Two famous statements in set theory are the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis . The axiom of choice, first stated by Zermelo,
620-445: A central role in many arguments found in everyday discourse and the sciences. Ampliative arguments are not automatically incorrect. Instead, they just follow different standards of correctness. The support they provide for their conclusion usually comes in degrees. This means that strong ampliative arguments make their conclusion very likely while weak ones are less certain. As a consequence, the line between correct and incorrect arguments
775-480: A certain cost: the premises support the conclusion in the sense that they make its truth more likely but they do not ensure its truth. This means that the conclusion of an ampliative argument may be false even though all its premises are true. This characteristic is closely related to non-monotonicity and defeasibility : it may be necessary to retract an earlier conclusion upon receiving new information or in light of new inferences drawn. Ampliative reasoning plays
930-573: A complex argument to be successful, each link of the chain has to be successful. Arguments and inferences are either correct or incorrect. If they are correct then their premises support their conclusion. In the incorrect case, this support is missing. It can take different forms corresponding to the different types of reasoning . The strongest form of support corresponds to deductive reasoning . But even arguments that are not deductively valid may still be good arguments because their premises offer non-deductive support to their conclusions. For such cases,
1085-425: A conclusion. Logic is interested in whether arguments are correct, i.e. whether their premises support the conclusion. These general characterizations apply to logic in the widest sense, i.e., to both formal and informal logic since they are both concerned with assessing the correctness of arguments. Formal logic is the traditionally dominant field, and some logicians restrict logic to formal logic. Formal logic
1240-433: A correspondence between syntax and semantics in first-order logic. Gödel used the completeness theorem to prove the compactness theorem , demonstrating the finitary nature of first-order logical consequence . These results helped establish first-order logic as the dominant logic used by mathematicians. In 1931, Gödel published On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems , which proved
1395-428: A definition of the real numbers in terms of Dedekind cuts of rational numbers, a definition still employed in contemporary texts. Georg Cantor developed the fundamental concepts of infinite set theory. His early results developed the theory of cardinality and proved that the reals and the natural numbers have different cardinalities. Over the next twenty years, Cantor developed a theory of transfinite numbers in
1550-409: A finitistic system together with a principle of transfinite induction . Gentzen's result introduced the ideas of cut elimination and proof-theoretic ordinals , which became key tools in proof theory. Gödel gave a different consistency proof, which reduces the consistency of classical arithmetic to that of intuitionistic arithmetic in higher types. The first textbook on symbolic logic for the layman
1705-510: A formal language together with a set of axioms and a proof system used to draw inferences from these axioms. In logic, axioms are statements that are accepted without proof. They are used to justify other statements. Some theorists also include a semantics that specifies how the expressions of the formal language relate to real objects. Starting in the late 19th century, many new formal systems have been proposed. A formal language consists of an alphabet and syntactic rules. The alphabet
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#17327801291081860-686: A formal language while informal logic investigates them in their original form. On this view, the argument "Birds fly. Tweety is a bird. Therefore, Tweety flies." belongs to natural language and is examined by informal logic. But the formal translation "(1) ∀ x ( B i r d ( x ) → F l i e s ( x ) ) {\displaystyle \forall x(Bird(x)\to Flies(x))} ; (2) B i r d ( T w e e t y ) {\displaystyle Bird(Tweety)} ; (3) F l i e s ( T w e e t y ) {\displaystyle Flies(Tweety)} "
2015-414: A formalized mathematical statement, whether the statement is true or false. Ernst Zermelo gave a proof that every set could be well-ordered , a result Georg Cantor had been unable to obtain. To achieve the proof, Zermelo introduced the axiom of choice , which drew heated debate and research among mathematicians and the pioneers of set theory. The immediate criticism of the method led Zermelo to publish
2170-518: A foundational theory for mathematics. Fraenkel proved that the axiom of choice cannot be proved from the axioms of Zermelo's set theory with urelements . Later work by Paul Cohen showed that the addition of urelements is not needed, and the axiom of choice is unprovable in ZF. Cohen's proof developed the method of forcing , which is now an important tool for establishing independence results in set theory. Leopold Löwenheim and Thoralf Skolem obtained
2325-493: A function as a rule for computation, or a smooth graph, were no longer adequate. Weierstrass began to advocate the arithmetization of analysis , which sought to axiomatize analysis using properties of the natural numbers. The modern (ε, δ)-definition of limit and continuous functions was already developed by Bolzano in 1817, but remained relatively unknown. Cauchy in 1821 defined continuity in terms of infinitesimals (see Cours d'Analyse, page 34). In 1858, Dedekind proposed
2480-415: A given argument is valid. Because of the reliance on formal language, natural language arguments cannot be studied directly. Instead, they need to be translated into formal language before their validity can be assessed. The term "logic" can also be used in a slightly different sense as a countable noun. In this sense, a logic is a logical formal system. Distinct logics differ from each other concerning
2635-551: A given conclusion based on a set of premises. This distinction does not just apply to logic but also to games. In chess , for example, the definitory rules dictate that bishops may only move diagonally. The strategic rules, on the other hand, describe how the allowed moves may be used to win a game, for instance, by controlling the center and by defending one's king . It has been argued that logicians should give more emphasis to strategic rules since they are highly relevant for effective reasoning. A formal system of logic consists of
2790-402: A great variety of topics. They include metaphysical theses about ontological categories and problems of scientific explanation. But in a more narrow sense, it is identical to term logic or syllogistics. A syllogism is a form of argument involving three propositions: two premises and a conclusion. Each proposition has three essential parts: a subject , a predicate, and a copula connecting
2945-614: A logical connective like "and" to form a new complex proposition. In Aristotelian logic, the subject can be universal , particular , indefinite , or singular . For example, the term "all humans" is a universal subject in the proposition "all humans are mortal". A similar proposition could be formed by replacing it with the particular term "some humans", the indefinite term "a human", or the singular term "Socrates". Aristotelian logic only includes predicates for simple properties of entities. But it lacks predicates corresponding to relations between entities. The predicate can be linked to
3100-421: A milestone in recursion theory and proof theory, but has also led to Löb's theorem in modal logic. The method of forcing is employed in set theory, model theory, and recursion theory, as well as in the study of intuitionistic mathematics. The mathematical field of category theory uses many formal axiomatic methods, and includes the study of categorical logic , but category theory is not ordinarily considered
3255-560: A model, or in other words that an inconsistent set of formulas must have a finite inconsistent subset. The completeness and compactness theorems allow for sophisticated analysis of logical consequence in first-order logic and the development of model theory , and they are a key reason for the prominence of first-order logic in mathematics. Gödel's incompleteness theorems establish additional limits on first-order axiomatizations. The first incompleteness theorem states that for any consistent, effectively given (defined below) logical system that
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#17327801291083410-403: A new concept – the computable function – had been discovered, and that this definition was robust enough to admit numerous independent characterizations. In his work on the incompleteness theorems in 1931, Gödel lacked a rigorous concept of an effective formal system; he immediately realized that the new definitions of computability could be used for this purpose, allowing him to state
3565-489: A particular sentence is true in every model that satisfies a particular set of axioms, then there must be a finite deduction of the sentence from the axioms. The compactness theorem first appeared as a lemma in Gödel's proof of the completeness theorem, and it took many years before logicians grasped its significance and began to apply it routinely. It says that a set of sentences has a model if and only if every finite subset has
3720-422: A portion of set theory directly in their semantics. The most well studied infinitary logic is L ω 1 , ω {\displaystyle L_{\omega _{1},\omega }} . In this logic, quantifiers may only be nested to finite depths, as in first-order logic, but formulas may have finite or countably infinite conjunctions and disjunctions within them. Thus, for example, it
3875-477: A rough division of contemporary mathematical logic into four areas: Additionally, sometimes the field of computational complexity theory is also included as part of mathematical logic. Each area has a distinct focus, although many techniques and results are shared among multiple areas. The borderlines amongst these fields, and the lines separating mathematical logic and other fields of mathematics, are not always sharp. Gödel's incompleteness theorem marks not only
4030-489: A second exposition of his result, directly addressing criticisms of his proof. This paper led to the general acceptance of the axiom of choice in the mathematics community. Skepticism about the axiom of choice was reinforced by recently discovered paradoxes in naive set theory . Cesare Burali-Forti was the first to state a paradox: the Burali-Forti paradox shows that the collection of all ordinal numbers cannot form
4185-664: A sentence like "yesterday was Sunday and the weather was good". It is only true if both of its input variables, p {\displaystyle p} ("yesterday was Sunday") and q {\displaystyle q} ("the weather was good"), are true. In all other cases, the expression as a whole is false. Other important logical connectives are ¬ {\displaystyle \lnot } ( not ), ∨ {\displaystyle \lor } ( or ), → {\displaystyle \to } ( if...then ), and ↑ {\displaystyle \uparrow } ( Sheffer stroke ). Given
4340-423: A separate domain for each higher-type quantifier to range over, the quantifiers instead range over all objects of the appropriate type. The logics studied before the development of first-order logic, for example Frege's logic, had similar set-theoretic aspects. Although higher-order logics are more expressive, allowing complete axiomatizations of structures such as the natural numbers, they do not satisfy analogues of
4495-403: A series of publications. In 1891, he published a new proof of the uncountability of the real numbers that introduced the diagonal argument , and used this method to prove Cantor's theorem that no set can have the same cardinality as its powerset . Cantor believed that every set could be well-ordered , but was unable to produce a proof for this result, leaving it as an open problem in 1895. In
4650-665: A set of premises that leads to a conclusion. An example is the argument from the premises "it's Sunday" and "if it's Sunday then I don't have to work" leading to the conclusion "I don't have to work". Premises and conclusions express propositions or claims that can be true or false. An important feature of propositions is their internal structure. For example, complex propositions are made up of simpler propositions linked by logical vocabulary like ∧ {\displaystyle \land } ( and ) or → {\displaystyle \to } ( if...then ). Simple propositions also have parts, like "Sunday" or "work" in
4805-455: A set. Very soon thereafter, Bertrand Russell discovered Russell's paradox in 1901, and Jules Richard discovered Richard's paradox . Zermelo provided the first set of axioms for set theory. These axioms, together with the additional axiom of replacement proposed by Abraham Fraenkel , are now called Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF). Zermelo's axioms incorporated the principle of limitation of size to avoid Russell's paradox. In 1910,
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4960-571: A stronger limitation than the one established by the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem. The second incompleteness theorem states that no sufficiently strong, consistent, effective axiom system for arithmetic can prove its own consistency, which has been interpreted to show that Hilbert's program cannot be reached. Many logics besides first-order logic are studied. These include infinitary logics , which allow for formulas to provide an infinite amount of information, and higher-order logics , which include
5115-402: A subfield of mathematical logic. Because of its applicability in diverse fields of mathematics, mathematicians including Saunders Mac Lane have proposed category theory as a foundational system for mathematics, independent of set theory. These foundations use toposes , which resemble generalized models of set theory that may employ classical or nonclassical logic. Mathematical logic emerged in
5270-453: A tendency in this period to regard the logical systems of the day to be complete, which in turn no doubt stifled innovation in this area. However, Francis Bacon published his Novum Organum ("The New Organon ") as a scathing attack in 1620 . Immanuel Kant thought that there was nothing else to invent after the work of Aristotle, and the famous logic historian Karl von Prantl claimed that any logician who said anything new about logic
5425-503: A variation of the logical system of Boole and Schröder but adding quantifiers. Peano was unaware of Frege's work at the time. Around the same time Richard Dedekind showed that the natural numbers are uniquely characterized by their induction properties. Dedekind proposed a different characterization, which lacked the formal logical character of Peano's axioms. Dedekind's work, however, proved theorems inaccessible in Peano's system, including
5580-581: Is computable ; this is not true in classical theories of arithmetic such as Peano arithmetic . Algebraic logic uses the methods of abstract algebra to study the semantics of formal logics. A fundamental example is the use of Boolean algebras to represent truth values in classical propositional logic, and the use of Heyting algebras to represent truth values in intuitionistic propositional logic. Stronger logics, such as first-order logic and higher-order logic, are studied using more complicated algebraic structures such as cylindric algebras . Set theory
5735-420: Is sound when its proof system cannot derive a conclusion from a set of premises unless it is semantically entailed by them. In other words, its proof system cannot lead to false conclusions, as defined by the semantics. A system is complete when its proof system can derive every conclusion that is semantically entailed by its premises. In other words, its proof system can lead to any true conclusion, as defined by
5890-517: Is a particular formal system of logic . Its syntax involves only finite expressions as well-formed formulas , while its semantics are characterized by the limitation of all quantifiers to a fixed domain of discourse . Early results from formal logic established limitations of first-order logic. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem (1919) showed that if a set of sentences in a countable first-order language has an infinite model then it has at least one model of each infinite cardinality. This shows that it
6045-476: Is a red planet". For most types of logic, it is accepted that premises and conclusions have to be truth-bearers . This means that they have a truth value : they are either true or false. Contemporary philosophy generally sees them either as propositions or as sentences . Propositions are the denotations of sentences and are usually seen as abstract objects . For example, the English sentence "the tree
6200-441: Is a restricted version of classical logic. It uses the same symbols but excludes some rules of inference. For example, according to the law of double negation elimination, if a sentence is not not true, then it is true. This means that A {\displaystyle A} follows from ¬ ¬ A {\displaystyle \lnot \lnot A} . This is a valid rule of inference in classical logic but it
6355-416: Is also known as symbolic logic and is widely used in mathematical logic . It uses a formal approach to study reasoning: it replaces concrete expressions with abstract symbols to examine the logical form of arguments independent of their concrete content. In this sense, it is topic-neutral since it is only concerned with the abstract structure of arguments and not with their concrete content. Formal logic
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6510-453: Is an example of the existential quantifier " ∃ {\displaystyle \exists } " applied to the individual variable " x {\displaystyle x} " . In higher-order logics, quantification is also allowed over predicates. This increases its expressive power. For example, to express the idea that Mary and John share some qualities, one could use the formula " ∃ Q ( Q ( M
6665-495: Is associated with informal fallacies , critical thinking , and argumentation theory . Informal logic examines arguments expressed in natural language whereas formal logic uses formal language . When used as a countable noun , the term "a logic" refers to a specific logical formal system that articulates a proof system . Logic plays a central role in many fields, such as philosophy , mathematics , computer science , and linguistics . Logic studies arguments, which consist of
6820-415: Is blurry in some cases, such as when the premises offer weak but non-negligible support. This contrasts with deductive arguments, which are either valid or invalid with nothing in-between. The terminology used to categorize ampliative arguments is inconsistent. Some authors, like James Hawthorne, use the term " induction " to cover all forms of non-deductive arguments. But in a more narrow sense, induction
6975-453: Is capable of interpreting arithmetic, there exists a statement that is true (in the sense that it holds for the natural numbers) but not provable within that logical system (and which indeed may fail in some non-standard models of arithmetic which may be consistent with the logical system). For example, in every logical system capable of expressing the Peano axioms , the Gödel sentence holds for
7130-421: Is commonly defined in terms of arguments or inferences as the study of their correctness. An argument is a set of premises together with a conclusion. An inference is the process of reasoning from these premises to the conclusion. But these terms are often used interchangeably in logic. Arguments are correct or incorrect depending on whether their premises support their conclusion. Premises and conclusions, on
7285-407: Is controversial because it belongs to the field of psychology , not logic, and because appearances may be different for different people. Fallacies are usually divided into formal and informal fallacies. For formal fallacies, the source of the error is found in the form of the argument. For example, denying the antecedent is one type of formal fallacy, as in "if Othello is a bachelor, then he
7440-453: Is deductively valid. For deductive validity, it does not matter whether the premises or the conclusion are actually true. So the argument "(1) all frogs are mammals; (2) no cats are mammals; (3) therefore no cats are frogs" is also valid because the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. According to an influential view by Alfred Tarski , deductive arguments have three essential features: (1) they are formal, i.e. they depend only on
7595-435: Is established by verification using a proof. Intuitionistic logic is especially prominent in the field of constructive mathematics , which emphasizes the need to find or construct a specific example to prove its existence. Organon The Organon ( Ancient Greek : Ὄργανον , meaning "instrument, tool, organ") is the standard collection of Aristotle 's six works on logical analysis and dialectic . The name Organon
7750-610: Is green" is different from the German sentence "der Baum ist grün" but both express the same proposition. Propositional theories of premises and conclusions are often criticized because they rely on abstract objects. For instance, philosophical naturalists usually reject the existence of abstract objects. Other arguments concern the challenges involved in specifying the identity criteria of propositions. These objections are avoided by seeing premises and conclusions not as propositions but as sentences, i.e. as concrete linguistic objects like
7905-467: Is impossible for a set of first-order axioms to characterize the natural numbers, the real numbers, or any other infinite structure up to isomorphism . As the goal of early foundational studies was to produce axiomatic theories for all parts of mathematics, this limitation was particularly stark. Gödel's completeness theorem established the equivalence between semantic and syntactic definitions of logical consequence in first-order logic. It shows that if
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#17327801291088060-432: Is interested in deductively valid arguments, for which the truth of their premises ensures the truth of their conclusion. This means that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false. For valid arguments, the logical structure of the premises and the conclusion follows a pattern called a rule of inference . For example, modus ponens is a rule of inference according to which all arguments of
8215-415: Is invalid in intuitionistic logic. Another classical principle not part of intuitionistic logic is the law of excluded middle . It states that for every sentence, either it or its negation is true. This means that every proposition of the form A ∨ ¬ A {\displaystyle A\lor \lnot A} is true. These deviations from classical logic are based on the idea that truth
8370-447: Is male; Othello is not a bachelor; therefore Othello is not male". But most fallacies fall into the category of informal fallacies, of which a great variety is discussed in the academic literature. The source of their error is usually found in the content or the context of the argument. Informal fallacies are sometimes categorized as fallacies of ambiguity, fallacies of presumption, or fallacies of relevance. For fallacies of ambiguity,
8525-688: Is necessary, then it is also possible. This means that ◊ A {\displaystyle \Diamond A} follows from ◻ A {\displaystyle \Box A} . Another principle states that if a proposition is necessary then its negation is impossible and vice versa. This means that ◻ A {\displaystyle \Box A} is equivalent to ¬ ◊ ¬ A {\displaystyle \lnot \Diamond \lnot A} . Other forms of modal logic introduce similar symbols but associate different meanings with them to apply modal logic to other fields. For example, deontic logic concerns
8680-518: Is necessary. For example, if the formula B ( s ) {\displaystyle B(s)} stands for the sentence "Socrates is a banker" then the formula ◊ B ( s ) {\displaystyle \Diamond B(s)} articulates the sentence "It is possible that Socrates is a banker". To include these symbols in the logical formalism, modal logic introduces new rules of inference that govern what role they play in inferences. One rule of inference states that, if something
8835-407: Is not the best or most likely explanation. Not all arguments live up to the standards of correct reasoning. When they do not, they are usually referred to as fallacies . Their central aspect is not that their conclusion is false but that there is some flaw with the reasoning leading to this conclusion. So the argument "it is sunny today; therefore spiders have eight legs" is fallacious even though
8990-417: Is one of many counterintuitive results of the axiom of choice. Logic#Formal logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning . It includes both formal and informal logic . Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths . It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure of arguments alone, independent of their topic and content. Informal logic
9145-541: Is only one type of ampliative argument alongside abductive arguments . Some philosophers, like Leo Groarke, also allow conductive arguments as another type. In this narrow sense, induction is often defined as a form of statistical generalization. In this case, the premises of an inductive argument are many individual observations that all show a certain pattern. The conclusion then is a general law that this pattern always obtains. In this sense, one may infer that "all elephants are gray" based on one's past observations of
9300-446: Is possible to say that an object is a whole number using a formula of L ω 1 , ω {\displaystyle L_{\omega _{1},\omega }} such as Higher-order logics allow for quantification not only of elements of the domain of discourse , but subsets of the domain of discourse, sets of such subsets, and other objects of higher type. The semantics are defined so that, rather than having
9455-430: Is studied by formal logic. The study of natural language arguments comes with various difficulties. For example, natural language expressions are often ambiguous, vague, and context-dependent. Another approach defines informal logic in a wide sense as the normative study of the standards, criteria, and procedures of argumentation. In this sense, it includes questions about the role of rationality , critical thinking , and
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#17327801291089610-410: Is the set of basic symbols used in expressions . The syntactic rules determine how these symbols may be arranged to result in well-formed formulas. For instance, the syntactic rules of propositional logic determine that " P ∧ Q {\displaystyle P\land Q} " is a well-formed formula but " ∧ Q {\displaystyle \land Q} " is not since
9765-641: Is the study of sets , which are abstract collections of objects. Many of the basic notions, such as ordinal and cardinal numbers, were developed informally by Cantor before formal axiomatizations of set theory were developed. The first such axiomatization , due to Zermelo, was extended slightly to become Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF), which is now the most widely used foundational theory for mathematics. Other formalizations of set theory have been proposed, including von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory (NBG), Morse–Kelley set theory (MK), and New Foundations (NF). Of these, ZF, NBG, and MK are similar in describing
9920-399: Is the theorem that a line contains at least two points, or that circles of the same radius whose centers are separated by that radius must intersect. Hilbert developed a complete set of axioms for geometry , building on previous work by Pasch. The success in axiomatizing geometry motivated Hilbert to seek complete axiomatizations of other areas of mathematics, such as the natural numbers and
10075-432: Is to study the criteria according to which an argument is correct or incorrect. A fallacy is committed if these criteria are violated. In the case of formal logic, they are known as rules of inference . They are definitory rules, which determine whether an inference is correct or which inferences are allowed. Definitory rules contrast with strategic rules. Strategic rules specify which inferential moves are necessary to reach
10230-540: Is unable to address. Both provide criteria for assessing the correctness of arguments and distinguishing them from fallacies. Many characterizations of informal logic have been suggested but there is no general agreement on its precise definition. The most literal approach sees the terms "formal" and "informal" as applying to the language used to express arguments. On this view, informal logic studies arguments that are in informal or natural language. Formal logic can only examine them indirectly by translating them first into
10385-599: Is used to represent the ideas of knowing something in contrast to merely believing it to be the case. Higher-order logics extend classical logic not by using modal operators but by introducing new forms of quantification. Quantifiers correspond to terms like "all" or "some". In classical first-order logic, quantifiers are only applied to individuals. The formula " ∃ x ( A p p l e ( x ) ∧ S w e e t ( x ) ) {\displaystyle \exists x(Apple(x)\land Sweet(x))} " ( some apples are sweet)
10540-431: Is why first-order logic is still more commonly used. Deviant logics are logical systems that reject some of the basic intuitions of classical logic. Because of this, they are usually seen not as its supplements but as its rivals. Deviant logical systems differ from each other either because they reject different classical intuitions or because they propose different alternatives to the same issue. Intuitionistic logic
10695-538: The Organon , found wide application and acceptance in Western science and mathematics for millennia. The Stoics , especially Chrysippus , began the development of predicate logic . In 18th-century Europe, attempts to treat the operations of formal logic in a symbolic or algebraic way had been made by philosophical mathematicians including Leibniz and Lambert , but their labors remained isolated and little known. In
10850-835: The Greek -speaking lands of the Eastern Roman Empire (aka Byzantium ). In the mid-twelfth century, James of Venice translated into Latin the Posterior Analytics from Greek manuscripts found in Constantinople. The books of Aristotle were available in the early Muslim world, and after 750 AD Muslims had most of them , including the Organon , translated into Arabic, normally via earlier Syriac translations. They were studied by Islamic and Jewish scholars, including Rabbi Moses Maimonides (1135–1204) and
11005-500: The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem , which says that first-order logic cannot control the cardinalities of infinite structures. Skolem realized that this theorem would apply to first-order formalizations of set theory, and that it implies any such formalization has a countable model . This counterintuitive fact became known as Skolem's paradox . In his doctoral thesis, Kurt Gödel proved the completeness theorem , which establishes
11160-530: The Posterior Analytics . In the Enlightenment there was a revival of interest in logic as the basis of rational enquiry , and a number of texts, most successfully the Port-Royal Logic , polished Aristotelian term logic for pedagogy . During this period, while the logic certainly was based on that of Aristotle, Aristotle's writings themselves were less often the basis of study. There was
11315-421: The real line . This would prove to be a major area of research in the first half of the 20th century. The 19th century saw great advances in the theory of real analysis , including theories of convergence of functions and Fourier series . Mathematicians such as Karl Weierstrass began to construct functions that stretched intuition, such as nowhere-differentiable continuous functions . Previous conceptions of
11470-402: The 19th century. Concerns that mathematics had not been built on a proper foundation led to the development of axiomatic systems for fundamental areas of mathematics such as arithmetic, analysis, and geometry. In logic, the term arithmetic refers to the theory of the natural numbers . Giuseppe Peano published a set of axioms for arithmetic that came to bear his name ( Peano axioms ), using
11625-469: The Greek word "logos", which has a variety of translations, such as reason , discourse , or language . Logic is traditionally defined as the study of the laws of thought or correct reasoning , and is usually understood in terms of inferences or arguments . Reasoning is the activity of drawing inferences. Arguments are the outward expression of inferences. An argument is a set of premises together with
11780-703: The Muslim Judge Ibn Rushd , known in the West as Averroes (1126–1198); both were originally from Córdoba, Spain , although the former left Iberia and by 1168 lived in Egypt . All the major scholastic philosophers wrote commentaries on the Organon . Aquinas , Ockham and Scotus wrote commentaries on On Interpretation . Ockham and Scotus wrote commentaries on the Categories and Sophistical Refutations . Grosseteste wrote an influential commentary on
11935-418: The ambiguity and vagueness of natural language are responsible for their flaw, as in "feathers are light; what is light cannot be dark; therefore feathers cannot be dark". Fallacies of presumption have a wrong or unjustified premise but may be valid otherwise. In the case of fallacies of relevance, the premises do not support the conclusion because they are not relevant to it. The main focus of most logicians
12090-399: The assessment of arguments. Premises and conclusions are the basic parts of inferences or arguments and therefore play a central role in logic. In the case of a valid inference or a correct argument, the conclusion follows from the premises, or in other words, the premises support the conclusion. For instance, the premises "Mars is red" and "Mars is a planet" support the conclusion "Mars
12245-495: The basic principles of classical logic. They introduce additional symbols and principles to apply it to fields like metaphysics , ethics , and epistemology . Modal logic is an extension of classical logic. In its original form, sometimes called "alethic modal logic", it introduces two new symbols: ◊ {\displaystyle \Diamond } expresses that something is possible while ◻ {\displaystyle \Box } expresses that something
12400-427: The beginning of the 18th century. Since the logical innovations of the 19th century, particularly the formulation of modern predicate logic , Aristotelian logic had for a time fallen out of favor among many analytic philosophers . However, the logic historian John Corcoran and others have shown that the works of George Boole and Gottlob Frege —which laid the groundwork for modern mathematical logic—each represent
12555-487: The best explanation, for example, when a doctor concludes that a patient has a certain disease which explains the symptoms they suffer. Arguments that fall short of the standards of correct reasoning often embody fallacies . Systems of logic are theoretical frameworks for assessing the correctness of arguments. Logic has been studied since antiquity . Early approaches include Aristotelian logic , Stoic logic , Nyaya , and Mohism . Aristotelian logic focuses on reasoning in
12710-645: The claim "either it is raining, or it is not". These two definitions of formal logic are not identical, but they are closely related. For example, if the inference from p to q is deductively valid then the claim "if p then q " is a logical truth. Formal logic uses formal languages to express and analyze arguments. They normally have a very limited vocabulary and exact syntactic rules . These rules specify how their symbols can be combined to construct sentences, so-called well-formed formulas . This simplicity and exactness of formal logic make it capable of formulating precise rules of inference. They determine whether
12865-468: The collection is nonempty, the lack of a general, concrete rule by which the choice can be made renders the axiom nonconstructive. Stefan Banach and Alfred Tarski showed that the axiom of choice can be used to decompose a solid ball into a finite number of pieces which can then be rearranged, with no scaling, to make two solid balls of the original size. This theorem, known as the Banach–Tarski paradox ,
13020-495: The color of elephants. A closely related form of inductive inference has as its conclusion not a general law but one more specific instance, as when it is inferred that an elephant one has not seen yet is also gray. Some theorists, like Igor Douven, stipulate that inductive inferences rest only on statistical considerations. This way, they can be distinguished from abductive inference. Abductive inference may or may not take statistical observations into consideration. In either case,
13175-608: The completeness and compactness theorems from first-order logic, and are thus less amenable to proof-theoretic analysis. Another type of logics are fixed-point logic s that allow inductive definitions , like one writes for primitive recursive functions . One can formally define an extension of first-order logic — a notion which encompasses all logics in this section because they behave like first-order logic in certain fundamental ways, but does not encompass all logics in general, e.g. it does not encompass intuitionistic, modal or fuzzy logic . Lindström's theorem implies that
13330-511: The conclusion "all ravens are black". A further approach is to define informal logic as the study of informal fallacies . Informal fallacies are incorrect arguments in which errors are present in the content and the context of the argument. A false dilemma , for example, involves an error of content by excluding viable options. This is the case in the fallacy "you are either with us or against us; you are not with us; therefore, you are against us". Some theorists state that formal logic studies
13485-458: The conclusion is true. Some theorists, like John Stuart Mill , give a more restrictive definition of fallacies by additionally requiring that they appear to be correct. This way, genuine fallacies can be distinguished from mere mistakes of reasoning due to carelessness. This explains why people tend to commit fallacies: because they have an alluring element that seduces people into committing and accepting them. However, this reference to appearances
13640-591: The conditional proposition p → q {\displaystyle p\to q} , one can form truth tables of its converse q → p {\displaystyle q\to p} , its inverse ( ¬ p → ¬ q {\displaystyle \lnot p\to \lnot q} ) , and its contrapositive ( ¬ q → ¬ p {\displaystyle \lnot q\to \lnot p} ) . Truth tables can also be defined for more complex expressions that use several propositional connectives. Logic
13795-412: The consistency of elementary arithmetic, respectively; the tenth was to produce a method that could decide whether a multivariate polynomial equation over the integers has a solution. Subsequent work to resolve these problems shaped the direction of mathematical logic, as did the effort to resolve Hilbert's Entscheidungsproblem , posed in 1928. This problem asked for a procedure that would decide, given
13950-678: The context of proof theory. At its core, mathematical logic deals with mathematical concepts expressed using formal logical systems . These systems, though they differ in many details, share the common property of considering only expressions in a fixed formal language . The systems of propositional logic and first-order logic are the most widely studied today, because of their applicability to foundations of mathematics and because of their desirable proof-theoretic properties. Stronger classical logics such as second-order logic or infinitary logic are also studied, along with Non-classical logics such as intuitionistic logic . First-order logic
14105-438: The contrast between necessity and possibility and the problem of ethical obligation and permission. Similarly, it does not address the relations between past, present, and future. Such issues are addressed by extended logics. They build on the basic intuitions of classical logic and expand it by introducing new logical vocabulary. This way, the exact logical approach is applied to fields like ethics or epistemology that lie beyond
14260-451: The depth level. But they can be highly informative on the surface level by making implicit information explicit. This happens, for example, in mathematical proofs. Ampliative arguments are arguments whose conclusions contain additional information not found in their premises. In this regard, they are more interesting since they contain information on the depth level and the thinker may learn something genuinely new. But this feature comes with
14415-407: The early decades of the 20th century, the main areas of study were set theory and formal logic. The discovery of paradoxes in informal set theory caused some to wonder whether mathematics itself is inconsistent, and to look for proofs of consistency. In 1900, Hilbert posed a famous list of 23 problems for the next century. The first two of these were to resolve the continuum hypothesis and prove
14570-409: The example. The truth of a proposition usually depends on the meanings of all of its parts. However, this is not the case for logically true propositions. They are true only because of their logical structure independent of the specific meanings of the individual parts. Arguments can be either correct or incorrect. An argument is correct if its premises support its conclusion. Deductive arguments have
14725-434: The field of ethics and introduces symbols to express the ideas of obligation and permission , i.e. to describe whether an agent has to perform a certain action or is allowed to perform it. The modal operators in temporal modal logic articulate temporal relations. They can be used to express, for example, that something happened at one time or that something is happening all the time. In epistemology, epistemic modal logic
14880-450: The first volume of Principia Mathematica by Russell and Alfred North Whitehead was published. This seminal work developed the theory of functions and cardinality in a completely formal framework of type theory , which Russell and Whitehead developed in an effort to avoid the paradoxes. Principia Mathematica is considered one of the most influential works of the 20th century, although the framework of type theory did not prove popular as
15035-485: The form "(1) p , (2) if p then q , (3) therefore q " are valid, independent of what the terms p and q stand for. In this sense, formal logic can be defined as the science of valid inferences. An alternative definition sees logic as the study of logical truths . A proposition is logically true if its truth depends only on the logical vocabulary used in it. This means that it is true in all possible worlds and under all interpretations of its non-logical terms, like
15190-458: The form of syllogisms . It was considered the main system of logic in the Western world until it was replaced by modern formal logic, which has its roots in the work of late 19th-century mathematicians such as Gottlob Frege . Today, the most commonly used system is classical logic . It consists of propositional logic and first-order logic . Propositional logic only considers logical relations between full propositions. First-order logic also takes
15345-523: The form of the premises and the conclusion: how they have to be structured for the inference to be valid. Arguments that do not follow any rule of inference are deductively invalid. The modus ponens is a prominent rule of inference. It has the form " p ; if p , then q ; therefore q ". Knowing that it has just rained ( p {\displaystyle p} ) and that after rain the streets are wet ( p → q {\displaystyle p\to q} ), one can use modus ponens to deduce that
15500-419: The form of the premises and the conclusion; (2) they are a priori, i.e. no sense experience is needed to determine whether they obtain; (3) they are modal, i.e. that they hold by logical necessity for the given propositions, independent of any other circumstances. Because of the first feature, the focus on formality, deductive inference is usually identified with rules of inference. Rules of inference specify
15655-421: The general form of arguments while informal logic studies particular instances of arguments. Another approach is to hold that formal logic only considers the role of logical constants for correct inferences while informal logic also takes the meaning of substantive concepts into account. Further approaches focus on the discussion of logical topics with or without formal devices and on the role of epistemology for
15810-422: The importance of the incompleteness theorem for some time. Gödel's theorem shows that a consistency proof of any sufficiently strong, effective axiom system cannot be obtained in the system itself, if the system is consistent, nor in any weaker system. This leaves open the possibility of consistency proofs that cannot be formalized within the system they consider. Gentzen proved the consistency of arithmetic using
15965-443: The incompleteness (in a different meaning of the word) of all sufficiently strong, effective first-order theories. This result, known as Gödel's incompleteness theorem , establishes severe limitations on axiomatic foundations for mathematics, striking a strong blow to Hilbert's program. It showed the impossibility of providing a consistency proof of arithmetic within any formal theory of arithmetic. Hilbert, however, did not acknowledge
16120-489: The incompleteness theorems in generality that could only be implied in the original paper. Numerous results in recursion theory were obtained in the 1940s by Stephen Cole Kleene and Emil Leon Post . Kleene introduced the concepts of relative computability, foreshadowed by Turing, and the arithmetical hierarchy . Kleene later generalized recursion theory to higher-order functionals. Kleene and Georg Kreisel studied formal versions of intuitionistic mathematics, particularly in
16275-406: The internal parts of propositions into account, like predicates and quantifiers . Extended logics accept the basic intuitions behind classical logic and apply it to other fields, such as metaphysics , ethics , and epistemology . Deviant logics, on the other hand, reject certain classical intuitions and provide alternative explanations of the basic laws of logic. The word "logic" originates from
16430-407: The internal structure of propositions. This happens through devices such as singular terms, which refer to particular objects, predicates , which refer to properties and relations, and quantifiers, which treat notions like "some" and "all". For example, to express the proposition "this raven is black", one may use the predicate B {\displaystyle B} for the property "black" and
16585-558: The issues involved in proving consistency. Work in set theory showed that almost all ordinary mathematics can be formalized in terms of sets, although there are some theorems that cannot be proven in common axiom systems for set theory. Contemporary work in the foundations of mathematics often focuses on establishing which parts of mathematics can be formalized in particular formal systems (as in reverse mathematics ) rather than trying to find theories in which all of mathematics can be developed. The Handbook of Mathematical Logic in 1977 makes
16740-522: The logical conjunction ∧ {\displaystyle \land } requires terms on both sides. A proof system is a collection of rules to construct formal proofs. It is a tool to arrive at conclusions from a set of axioms. Rules in a proof system are defined in terms of the syntactic form of formulas independent of their specific content. For instance, the classical rule of conjunction introduction states that P ∧ Q {\displaystyle P\land Q} follows from
16895-455: The mid-19th century as a subfield of mathematics, reflecting the confluence of two traditions: formal philosophical logic and mathematics. Mathematical logic, also called 'logistic', 'symbolic logic', the ' algebra of logic ', and, more recently, simply 'formal logic', is the set of logical theories elaborated in the course of the nineteenth century with the aid of an artificial notation and a rigorously deductive method. Before this emergence, logic
17050-485: The middle of the nineteenth century, George Boole and then Augustus De Morgan presented systematic mathematical treatments of logic. Their work, building on work by algebraists such as George Peacock , extended the traditional Aristotelian doctrine of logic into a sufficient framework for the study of foundations of mathematics . In 1847, Vatroslav Bertić made substantial work on algebraization of logic, independently from Boole. Charles Sanders Peirce later built upon
17205-482: The natural numbers but cannot be proved. Here a logical system is said to be effectively given if it is possible to decide, given any formula in the language of the system, whether the formula is an axiom, and one which can express the Peano axioms is called "sufficiently strong." When applied to first-order logic, the first incompleteness theorem implies that any sufficiently strong, consistent, effective first-order theory has models that are not elementarily equivalent ,
17360-484: The only extension of first-order logic satisfying both the compactness theorem and the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem is first-order logic. Modal logics include additional modal operators, such as an operator which states that a particular formula is not only true, but necessarily true. Although modal logic is not often used to axiomatize mathematics, it has been used to study the properties of first-order provability and set-theoretic forcing. Intuitionistic logic
17515-501: The only significant logical works that were available in the early Middle Ages . These had been translated into Latin by Boethius , along with Porphyry's Isagoge , which was also translated into Arabic by Ibn al-Muqaffa' via a Syriac intermediary. The other logical works were not available in Western Christendom until translated into Latin in the 12th century . However, the original Greek texts had been preserved in
17670-409: The other hand, are true or false depending on whether they are in accord with reality. In formal logic, a sound argument is an argument that is both correct and has only true premises. Sometimes a distinction is made between simple and complex arguments. A complex argument is made up of a chain of simple arguments. This means that the conclusion of one argument acts as a premise of later arguments. For
17825-444: The other hand, do not have propositional parts. But they can also be conceived as having an internal structure: they are made up of subpropositional parts, like singular terms and predicates . For example, the simple proposition "Mars is red" can be formed by applying the predicate "red" to the singular term "Mars". In contrast, the complex proposition "Mars is red and Venus is white" is made up of two simple propositions connected by
17980-485: The premises P {\displaystyle P} and Q {\displaystyle Q} . Such rules can be applied sequentially, giving a mechanical procedure for generating conclusions from premises. There are different types of proof systems including natural deduction and sequent calculi . A semantics is a system for mapping expressions of a formal language to their denotations. In many systems of logic, denotations are truth values. For instance,
18135-413: The premises offer support for the conclusion because the conclusion is the best explanation of why the premises are true. In this sense, abduction is also called the inference to the best explanation . For example, given the premise that there is a plate with breadcrumbs in the kitchen in the early morning, one may infer the conclusion that one's house-mate had a midnight snack and was too tired to clean
18290-470: The premises. But this point is not always accepted since it would mean, for example, that most of mathematics is uninformative. A different characterization distinguishes between surface and depth information. The surface information of a sentence is the information it presents explicitly. Depth information is the totality of the information contained in the sentence, both explicitly and implicitly. According to this view, deductive inferences are uninformative on
18445-485: The propositional connective "and". Whether a proposition is true depends, at least in part, on its constituents. For complex propositions formed using truth-functional propositional connectives, their truth only depends on the truth values of their parts. But this relation is more complicated in the case of simple propositions and their subpropositional parts. These subpropositional parts have meanings of their own, like referring to objects or classes of objects. Whether
18600-406: The propositions are formed. For example, the syllogism "all men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore Socrates is mortal" is valid. The syllogism "all cats are mortal; Socrates is mortal; therefore Socrates is a cat", on the other hand, is invalid. Classical logic is distinct from traditional or Aristotelian logic. It encompasses propositional logic and first-order logic. It is "classical" in
18755-417: The psychology of argumentation. Another characterization identifies informal logic with the study of non-deductive arguments. In this way, it contrasts with deductive reasoning examined by formal logic. Non-deductive arguments make their conclusion probable but do not ensure that it is true. An example is the inductive argument from the empirical observation that "all ravens I have seen so far are black" to
18910-436: The rules of inference they accept as valid and the formal languages used to express them. Starting in the late 19th century, many new formal systems have been proposed. There are disagreements about what makes a formal system a logic. For example, it has been suggested that only logically complete systems, like first-order logic , qualify as logics. For such reasons, some theorists deny that higher-order logics are logics in
19065-492: The scope of mathematics. Propositional logic comprises formal systems in which formulae are built from atomic propositions using logical connectives . For instance, propositional logic represents the conjunction of two atomic propositions P {\displaystyle P} and Q {\displaystyle Q} as the complex formula P ∧ Q {\displaystyle P\land Q} . Unlike predicate logic where terms and predicates are
19220-418: The semantics for classical propositional logic assigns the formula P ∧ Q {\displaystyle P\land Q} the denotation "true" whenever P {\displaystyle P} and Q {\displaystyle Q} are true. From the semantic point of view, a premise entails a conclusion if the conclusion is true whenever the premise is true. A system of logic
19375-604: The semantics. Thus, soundness and completeness together describe a system whose notions of validity and entailment line up perfectly. Systems of logic are theoretical frameworks for assessing the correctness of reasoning and arguments. For over two thousand years, Aristotelian logic was treated as the canon of logic in the Western world, but modern developments in this field have led to a vast proliferation of logical systems. One prominent categorization divides modern formal logical systems into classical logic , extended logics, and deviant logics . Aristotelian logic encompasses
19530-518: The sense that it is based on basic logical intuitions shared by most logicians. These intuitions include the law of excluded middle , the double negation elimination , the principle of explosion , and the bivalence of truth. It was originally developed to analyze mathematical arguments and was only later applied to other fields as well. Because of this focus on mathematics, it does not include logical vocabulary relevant to many other topics of philosophical importance. Examples of concepts it overlooks are
19685-404: The simple proposition "Mars is red", are true or false. In such cases, the truth is called a logical truth: a proposition is logically true if its truth depends only on the logical vocabulary used in it. This means that it is true under all interpretations of its non-logical terms. In some modal logics , this means that the proposition is true in all possible worlds. Some theorists define logic as
19840-415: The simple proposition they form is true depends on their relation to reality, i.e. what the objects they refer to are like. This topic is studied by theories of reference . Some complex propositions are true independently of the substantive meanings of their parts. In classical logic, for example, the complex proposition "either Mars is red or Mars is not red" is true independent of whether its parts, like
19995-870: The singular term r {\displaystyle r} referring to the raven to form the expression B ( r ) {\displaystyle B(r)} . To express that some objects are black, the existential quantifier ∃ {\displaystyle \exists } is combined with the variable x {\displaystyle x} to form the proposition ∃ x B ( x ) {\displaystyle \exists xB(x)} . First-order logic contains various rules of inference that determine how expressions articulated this way can form valid arguments, for example, that one may infer ∃ x B ( x ) {\displaystyle \exists xB(x)} from B ( r ) {\displaystyle B(r)} . Extended logics are logical systems that accept
20150-474: The smallest units, propositional logic takes full propositions with truth values as its most basic component. Thus, propositional logics can only represent logical relationships that arise from the way complex propositions are built from simpler ones. But it cannot represent inferences that result from the inner structure of a proposition. First-order logic includes the same propositional connectives as propositional logic but differs from it because it articulates
20305-418: The streets are wet ( q {\displaystyle q} ). The third feature can be expressed by stating that deductively valid inferences are truth-preserving: it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false. Because of this feature, it is often asserted that deductive inferences are uninformative since the conclusion cannot arrive at new information not already present in
20460-437: The strict sense. When understood in a wide sense, logic encompasses both formal and informal logic. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to analyze and assess the correctness of arguments. Its main focus is on everyday discourse. Its development was prompted by difficulties in applying the insights of formal logic to natural language arguments. In this regard, it considers problems that formal logic on its own
20615-550: The strongest form of support: if their premises are true then their conclusion must also be true. This is not the case for ampliative arguments, which arrive at genuinely new information not found in the premises. Many arguments in everyday discourse and the sciences are ampliative arguments. They are divided into inductive and abductive arguments. Inductive arguments are statistical generalizations, such as inferring that all ravens are black based on many individual observations of black ravens. Abductive arguments are inferences to
20770-410: The study of foundations of mathematics. This study began in the late 19th century with the development of axiomatic frameworks for geometry , arithmetic , and analysis . In the early 20th century it was shaped by David Hilbert 's program to prove the consistency of foundational theories. Results of Kurt Gödel , Gerhard Gentzen , and others provided partial resolution to the program, and clarified
20925-438: The study of logical truths. Truth tables can be used to show how logical connectives work or how the truth values of complex propositions depends on their parts. They have a column for each input variable. Each row corresponds to one possible combination of the truth values these variables can take; for truth tables presented in the English literature, the symbols "T" and "F" or "1" and "0" are commonly used as abbreviations for
21080-700: The subject in two ways: either by affirming it or by denying it. For example, the proposition "Socrates is not a cat" involves the denial of the predicate "cat" to the subject "Socrates". Using combinations of subjects and predicates, a great variety of propositions and syllogisms can be formed. Syllogisms are characterized by the fact that the premises are linked to each other and to the conclusion by sharing one predicate in each case. Thus, these three propositions contain three predicates, referred to as major term , minor term , and middle term . The central aspect of Aristotelian logic involves classifying all possible syllogisms into valid and invalid arguments according to how
21235-417: The subject to the predicate. For example, the proposition "Socrates is wise" is made up of the subject "Socrates", the predicate "wise", and the copula "is". The subject and the predicate are the terms of the proposition. Aristotelian logic does not contain complex propositions made up of simple propositions. It differs in this aspect from propositional logic, in which any two propositions can be linked using
21390-423: The symbols displayed on a page of a book. But this approach comes with new problems of its own: sentences are often context-dependent and ambiguous, meaning an argument's validity would not only depend on its parts but also on its context and on how it is interpreted. Another approach is to understand premises and conclusions in psychological terms as thoughts or judgments. This position is known as psychologism . It
21545-409: The table. This conclusion is justified because it is the best explanation of the current state of the kitchen. For abduction, it is not sufficient that the conclusion explains the premises. For example, the conclusion that a burglar broke into the house last night, got hungry on the job, and had a midnight snack, would also explain the state of the kitchen. But this conclusion is not justified because it
21700-399: The term ampliative or inductive reasoning is used. Deductive arguments are associated with formal logic in contrast to the relation between ampliative arguments and informal logic. A deductively valid argument is one whose premises guarantee the truth of its conclusion. For instance, the argument "(1) all frogs are amphibians; (2) no cats are amphibians; (3) therefore no cats are frogs"
21855-479: The truth values "true" and "false". The first columns present all the possible truth-value combinations for the input variables. Entries in the other columns present the truth values of the corresponding expressions as determined by the input values. For example, the expression " p ∧ q {\displaystyle p\land q} " uses the logical connective ∧ {\displaystyle \land } ( and ). It could be used to express
22010-402: The turn of the century. The two-dimensional notation Frege developed was never widely adopted and is unused in contemporary texts. From 1890 to 1905, Ernst Schröder published Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik in three volumes. This work summarized and extended the work of Boole, De Morgan, and Peirce, and was a comprehensive reference to symbolic logic as it was understood at the end of
22165-555: The uniqueness of the set of natural numbers (up to isomorphism) and the recursive definitions of addition and multiplication from the successor function and mathematical induction. In the mid-19th century, flaws in Euclid's axioms for geometry became known. In addition to the independence of the parallel postulate , established by Nikolai Lobachevsky in 1826, mathematicians discovered that certain theorems taken for granted by Euclid were not in fact provable from his axioms. Among these
22320-462: The words bijection , injection , and surjection , and the set-theoretic foundations the texts employed, were widely adopted throughout mathematics. The study of computability came to be known as recursion theory or computability theory , because early formalizations by Gödel and Kleene relied on recursive definitions of functions. When these definitions were shown equivalent to Turing's formalization involving Turing machines , it became clear that
22475-430: The work of Boole to develop a logical system for relations and quantifiers, which he published in several papers from 1870 to 1885. Gottlob Frege presented an independent development of logic with quantifiers in his Begriffsschrift , published in 1879, a work generally considered as marking a turning point in the history of logic. Frege's work remained obscure, however, until Bertrand Russell began to promote it near
22630-650: The works making up the Organon but is not traditionally considered part of it; additionally, there are works on logic attributed, with varying degrees of plausibility, to Aristotle that were not known to the Peripatetics. Whereas the Organon of the Latin Scholastic tradition comprises only the above six works, its independent reception in the Arabic medieval world saw appended to this list of works Aristotle's Rhetoric and Poetics . The Organon
22785-525: Was "confused, stupid or perverse." These examples illustrate the force of influence which Aristotle's works on logic had. Indeed, he had already become known by the Scholastics (medieval Christian scholars) as "The Philosopher", due to the influence he had upon medieval theology and philosophy. His influence continued into the Early Modern period and Organon was the basis of school philosophy even in
22940-486: Was developed by Heyting to study Brouwer's program of intuitionism, in which Brouwer himself avoided formalization. Intuitionistic logic specifically does not include the law of the excluded middle , which states that each sentence is either true or its negation is true. Kleene's work with the proof theory of intuitionistic logic showed that constructive information can be recovered from intuitionistic proofs. For example, any provably total function in intuitionistic arithmetic
23095-405: Was discussed at length around the turn of the 20th century but it is not widely accepted today. Premises and conclusions have an internal structure. As propositions or sentences, they can be either simple or complex. A complex proposition has other propositions as its constituents, which are linked to each other through propositional connectives like "and" or "if...then". Simple propositions, on
23250-540: Was given by Aristotle's followers, the Peripatetics , who maintained against the Stoics that Logic was "an instrument" of Philosophy. Aristotle never uses the title Organon to refer to his logical works. The book, according to M. Barthélemy St. Hilaire , was not called "Organon" before the 15th century, and the treatises were collected into one volume, as is supposed, about the time of Andronicus of Rhodes ; and it
23405-406: Was proved independent of ZF by Fraenkel, but has come to be widely accepted by mathematicians. It states that given a collection of nonempty sets there is a single set C that contains exactly one element from each set in the collection. The set C is said to "choose" one element from each set in the collection. While the ability to make such a choice is considered obvious by some, since each set in
23560-500: Was studied with rhetoric , with calculationes , through the syllogism , and with philosophy . The first half of the 20th century saw an explosion of fundamental results, accompanied by vigorous debate over the foundations of mathematics. Theories of logic were developed in many cultures in history, including China , India , Greece and the Islamic world . Greek methods, particularly Aristotelian logic (or term logic) as found in
23715-484: Was translated into Latin by Boethius about the 6th century. The six works of Organon are as follows: The order of the works is not chronological (which is now hard to determine) but was deliberately chosen by Theophrastus to constitute a well-structured system. Indeed, parts of them seem to be a scheme of a lecture on logic. The arrangement of the works was made by Andronicus of Rhodes around 40 BC. Aristotle's Metaphysics has some points of overlap with
23870-614: Was used in the school founded by Aristotle at the Lyceum , and some parts of the works seem to be a scheme of a lecture on logic. So much so that after Aristotle's death, his publishers ( Andronicus of Rhodes in 50 BC, for example) collected these works. Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, much of Aristotle's work was lost in the Latin West. The Categories and On Interpretation are
24025-562: Was written by Lewis Carroll , author of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland , in 1896. Alfred Tarski developed the basics of model theory . Beginning in 1935, a group of prominent mathematicians collaborated under the pseudonym Nicolas Bourbaki to publish Éléments de mathématique , a series of encyclopedic mathematics texts. These texts, written in an austere and axiomatic style, emphasized rigorous presentation and set-theoretic foundations. Terminology coined by these texts, such as
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