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44-402: Fanqie ( Chinese : 反切 ; pinyin : fǎnqiè ; lit. 'reverse cut') is a method in traditional Chinese lexicography to indicate the pronunciation of a monosyllabic character by using two other characters, one with the same initial consonant as the desired syllable and one with the same rest of the syllable (the final). The method was introduced in the 3rd century AD and

88-588: A retronym applied to non-simplified character sets in the wake of widespread use of simplified characters. Traditional characters are commonly used in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Macau , as well as in most overseas Chinese communities outside of Southeast Asia. As for non-Chinese languages written using Chinese characters, Japanese kanji include many simplified characters known as shinjitai standardized after World War II, sometimes distinct from their simplified Chinese counterparts . Korean hanja , still used to

132-509: A certain extent in South Korea , remain virtually identical to traditional characters, with variations between the two forms largely stylistic. There has historically been a debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters . Because the simplifications are fairly systematic, it is possible to convert computer-encoded characters between the two sets, with the main issue being ambiguities in simplified representations resulting from

176-428: A founding model for Qing period evidential research on the classical legacy. Gu's positivist approach to a variety of disciplines, and his criticism of Neo-Confucianism had a huge influence on later scholars. His works include "Five Studies on Phonology" Yinxue Wushu ( 音學五書 ), "Digest of Daily Learning" Ri Zhi Lu ( 日知錄 ) and "Compendium of Historical Geography" Zhao Yu Zhi ( 肇域志 ). In 1682, while returning from

220-411: A friend's home to Huaying , Gu fell from horseback and died the next day. Together with Wang Fuzhi and Huang Zongxi , Gu is regarded as one of the most outstanding Confucian scholars of the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties. " Everybody is responsible for the fate of the world " ( Chinese : 天下興亡，匹夫有責 ; pinyin : tiān xià xīng wáng, pǐ fū yǒu zé ) Alternatively, The rise and fall of

264-508: A palatal medial -j- , but there was no such tendency for the rounded medial -w- , which was represented solely in the final character. There was also a strong tendency to spell words with labial initials using final characters with labial initials. The third character 反 fǎn "turn back" is the usual marker of a fanqie spelling in the Qieyun . In later dictionaries such as the Guangyun ,

308-596: A tonal homophone is transcribed as [pʰɛ¹] and 〔音披爺切第1聲〕, i.e. p-ēi + y-èh with tone 1 to give pē. Traditional Chinese characters Traditional Chinese characters are a standard set of Chinese character forms used to write Chinese languages . In Taiwan , the set of traditional characters is regulated by the Ministry of Education and standardized in the Standard Form of National Characters . These forms were predominant in written Chinese until

352-869: Is 産 (also the accepted form in Japan and Korea), while in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan the accepted form is 產 (also the accepted form in Vietnamese chữ Nôm ). The PRC tends to print material intended for people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese in traditional characters. For example, versions of the People's Daily are printed in traditional characters, and both People's Daily and Xinhua have traditional character versions of their website available, using Big5 encoding. Mainland companies selling products in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan use traditional characters in order to communicate with consumers;

396-412: Is now pronounced qí because in the level tone, the voiced initial becomes aspirated, but the second character is now pronounced liǎng . That is because in the rising tone, sonorants like [l] conditioned the yin register, which led to the modern third tone. In Cantonese , fanqie can be found in some dictionaries to this day, often alongside other romanization system or phonetic guides, to indicate

440-448: Is to some extent still used in commentaries on the classics and dictionaries. Early dictionaries such as the Erya (3rd century BC) indicated the pronunciation of a character by the dúruò (讀若, "read as") method, giving another character with the same pronunciation. The introduction of Buddhism to China around the 1st century brought Indian phonetic knowledge , which may have inspired

484-493: The Chinese Commercial News , World News , and United Daily News all use traditional characters, as do some Hong Kong–based magazines such as Yazhou Zhoukan . The Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified characters. DVDs are usually subtitled using traditional characters, influenced by media from Taiwan as well as by the two countries sharing the same DVD region , 3. With most having immigrated to

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528-456: The Guangyun . For example, in that dictionary, That implies that 東, 德 and 多 must all have had the same initial. By following such chains of equivalence, Chen was able to identify categories of equivalent initial spellers, and a similar process was possible for the finals. Unaware of Chen's work, the Swedish linguist Bernard Karlgren repeated the analysis to identify the initials and finals in

572-683: The Kensiu language . Gu Yanwu _______ Gu, a native of Jiangsu , was born as Gu Jiang ( simplified Chinese : 顾绛 ; traditional Chinese : 顧絳 ; pinyin : Gù Jiàng ). Gu began his schooling at the age of 7. In the early spring of 1645, Gu was appointed to be Office Manager in the Ministry of War 兵部司務 at the Southern Ming court in Nanjing . There he proposed strategies for strengthening resistance to

616-402: The Qieyun , the character 東 is described by the formula 德紅反. The first two characters indicate the onset and the final, respectively, and so the pronunciation of 東 [tuŋ] is given as the onset [t] of 德 [tək] with the final [uŋ] of 紅 [ɣuŋ] , with the same tone as 紅. In the rhyme dictionaries, there was a tendency to choose pairs of characters that agree on the presence or absence of

660-640: The Shanghainese -language character U+20C8E 𠲎 CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-20C8E —a composition of 伐 with the ⼝   'MOUTH' radical—used instead of the Standard Chinese 嗎 ; 吗 . Typefaces often use the initialism TC to signify the use of traditional Chinese characters, as well as SC for simplified Chinese characters . In addition, the Noto, Italy family of typefaces, for example, also provides separate fonts for

704-415: The fanqie method, a character's pronunciation is represented by two other characters. The onset (initial consonant) is represented by that of the first of the two characters (上字 "upper word", as Chinese was written vertically); the final (including the medial glide, the nuclear vowel and the coda) and the tone are represented by those of the second of the two characters (下字, "lower word"). For example, in

748-496: The 1910s. Chen's method can be used to identify the categories of initials and finals, but not their sound values, for which other evidence is required. Thus, Middle Chinese has been reconstructed by Karlgren and later scholars by comparing those categories with Sino-Xenic pronunciations and the pronunciations in modern varieties of Chinese . The method described the pronunciations of characters in Middle Chinese , but

792-555: The People's Republic of China, traditional Chinese characters are standardised according to the Table of Comparison between Standard, Traditional and Variant Chinese Characters . Dictionaries published in mainland China generally show both simplified and their traditional counterparts. There are differences between the accepted traditional forms in mainland China and elsewhere, for example the accepted traditional form of 产 in mainland China

836-462: The Qing. Disillusioned by the Southern Ming's ineffectiveness, Gu resigned and returned to his hometown. In 1655, Gu and friends killed a disloyal family servant who had revealed to Qing officials Gu's service at the Southern Ming court. Gu was arrested and charged by corrupt local officials, but a friend caused the case to be removed to another jurisdiction, from which he was released. In the next year, Gu

880-587: The United States during the second half of the 19th century, Chinese Americans have long used traditional characters. When not providing both, US public notices and signs in Chinese are generally written in traditional characters, more often than in simplified characters. In the past, traditional Chinese was most often encoded on computers using the Big5 standard, which favored traditional characters. However,

924-480: The character 强 , which had two readings in Middle Chinese. It could be read as [ɡjɑnɡ] in the level tone, meaning "strong, powerful", which developed regularly into the modern reading qiáng . However, it could be read also as [ɡjɑnɡ] in the rising tone, meaning "stubborn" or "forced". The regular development would be for the voiced initial [ɡ] to condition the yang register of the rising tone, becoming

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968-412: The fourth tone of modern Chinese and for the rising tone to condition an unaspirated initial. Thus, jiàng would be expected, and this does occur in the sense "stubborn", but the character also has the unexpected pronunciation qiǎng for the sense "forced". Chao attributed that to the fanqie formula 强 = 其 [ɡi] (level tone) + 兩 [ljɑnɡ] (rising tone) given in dictionaries. Here, the first character

1012-488: The idea of fanqie . According to the 6th-century scholar Yan Zhitui , fanqie were first used by Sun Yan (孫炎), of the state of Wei during the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD), in his Erya Yinyi (爾雅音義, "Sounds and Meanings of Erya "). However, earlier examples have been found in the late-2nd-century works of Fu Qian and Ying Shao . The oldest extant sources of significant bodies of fanqie are fragments of

1056-565: The initials. Voicing then disappeared in all dialects except the Wu group , with consonants becoming aspirated or unaspirated depending on the tone. The tones then underwent further mergers in various varieties of Chinese. Thus, the changes in both the initial and the tone were conditioned on each other, as represented by different characters in the fanqie pair. For example, the characters of formula 東 [tuŋ] = 德 [tək] + 紅 [ɣuŋ] are pronounced dōng , dé and hóng in modern Standard Chinese ; thus,

1100-493: The inverse is equally true as well. In digital media, many cultural phenomena imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan into mainland China, such as music videos, karaoke videos, subtitled movies, and subtitled dramas, use traditional Chinese characters. In Hong Kong and Macau , traditional characters were retained during the colonial period, while the mainland adopted simplified characters. Simplified characters are contemporaneously used to accommodate immigrants and tourists, often from

1144-725: The mainland. The increasing use of simplified characters has led to concern among residents regarding protecting what they see as their local heritage. Taiwan has never adopted simplified characters. The use of simplified characters in government documents and educational settings is discouraged by the government of Taiwan. Nevertheless, with sufficient context simplified characters are likely to be successfully read by those used to traditional characters, especially given some previous exposure. Many simplified characters were previously variants that had long been in some use, with systematic stroke simplifications used in folk handwriting since antiquity. Traditional characters were recognized as

1188-682: The majority of Chinese text in mainland China are simplified characters , there is no legislation prohibiting the use of traditional Chinese characters, and often traditional Chinese characters remain in use for stylistic and commercial purposes, such as in shopfront displays and advertising. Traditional Chinese characters remain ubiquitous on buildings that predate the promulgation of the current simplification scheme, such as former government buildings, religious buildings, educational institutions, and historical monuments. Traditional Chinese characters continue to be used for ceremonial, cultural, scholarly/academic research, and artistic/decorative purposes. In

1232-513: The marker character is 切 qiè "run together". (The commonly-cited reading "cut" seems to be modern.) The Qing scholar Gu Yanwu suggested that fǎn , which also meant "overthrow", was avoided after the devastating rebellions during the middle of the Tang dynasty . The origin of both terms is obscure. The compound word fǎnqiè first appeared during the Song dynasty . Fanqie provide information about

1276-983: The merging of previously distinct character forms. Many Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between these character sets. Traditional characters are known by different names throughout the Chinese-speaking world. The government of Taiwan officially refers to traditional Chinese characters as 正體字 ; 正体字 ; zhèngtǐzì ; 'orthodox characters'. This term is also used outside Taiwan to distinguish standard characters, including both simplified, and traditional, from other variants and idiomatic characters . Users of traditional characters elsewhere, as well as those using simplified characters, call traditional characters 繁體字 ; 繁体字 ; fántǐzì ; 'complex characters', 老字 ; lǎozì ; 'old characters', or 全體字 ; 全体字 ; quántǐzì ; 'full characters' to distinguish them from simplified characters. Some argue that since traditional characters are often

1320-452: The middle of the 20th century, when various countries that use Chinese characters began standardizing simplified sets of characters, often with characters that existed before as well-known variants of the predominant forms. Simplified characters as codified by the People's Republic of China are predominantly used in mainland China , Malaysia, and Singapore. "Traditional" as such is

1364-877: The most important of which was the Guangyun (1007–1008). Even after the more sophisticated rime table analysis was developed, fanqie continued to be used in dictionaries, including the voluminous Kangxi Dictionary , published in 1716, and the Ciyuan and Cihai of the 1930s. During the Qing dynasty , some bilingual Chinese-Manchu dictionaries had the Manchu words phonetically transcribed with Chinese characters . The book 御製增訂清文鑑 ("Imperially Published Revised and Enlarged Mirror of Qing"), in both Manchu and Chinese, used Manchu script to transcribe Chinese words and Chinese characters to transcribe Manchu words by using fanqie . In

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1408-716: The nation concerns everyone ; or Everyone bears responsibility for the prosperity of society . Gu is commemorated by Tinglin Park and the Gu Yanwu Museum in Tinglin Park of Kunshan . In 2005, the Central Propaganda Department of China named the Gu Yanwu Museum located at Gu's former residence in Qiandeng town as a "national patriotism education base". The former residence of Gu Yanwu

1452-677: The official script in Singapore until 1969, when the government officially adopted Simplified characters. Traditional characters still are widely used in contexts such as in baby and corporation names, advertisements, decorations, official documents and in newspapers. The Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative in Southeast Asia regarding simplification. Although major public universities teach in simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications such as

1496-607: The original Yupian (544 AD) found in Japan and the Jingdian Shiwen , a commentary on the classics that was written in 583 AD. The method was used throughout the Qieyun , a Chinese rhyme dictionary published in 601 AD during the Sui dynasty . When Classical Chinese poetry flowered during the Tang dynasty , the Qieyun became the authoritative source for literary pronunciations. Several revisions and enlargements were produced,

1540-700: The original standard forms, they should not be called 'complex'. Conversely, there is a common objection to the description of traditional characters as 'standard', due to them not being used by a large population of Chinese speakers. Additionally, as the process of Chinese character creation often made many characters more elaborate over time, there is sometimes a hesitation to characterize them as 'traditional'. Some people refer to traditional characters as 'proper characters' ( 正字 ; zhèngzì or 正寫 ; zhèngxiě ) and to simplified characters as 簡筆字 ; 简笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'simplified-stroke characters' or 減筆字 ; 减笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'reduced-stroke characters', as

1584-576: The pronunciation of characters lacking a homophone . For example, in the Sun Ya dictionary the character 攀 is transcribed as pinyin pān and for Cantonese pan¹ and the Cantonese tonal homophone 扳 , whereas 戀, lacking a tonal homophone, is transcribed as lyn² and 〔拉婉切〕 (l-āai + yún) to give lyún. If there is no tonal homophone, the tone is indicated. For example 實用廣州話分類詞典 transcribes 仆 as [pʰok⁶] and fanqie 〔披屋切〕 (p-ēi + ūk) but 𠵿, lacking

1628-470: The relationships have been obscured as the language evolved into the modern varieties over the last millennium and a half. Middle Chinese had four tones , and initial plosives and affricates could be voiced , aspirated or voiceless unaspirated . Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late Tang dynasty , each of the tones had split into two registers (traditionally known as yīn 陰 and yáng 陽) conditioned by

1672-421: The sounds of earlier forms of Chinese, but its recovery is not straightforward. Several characters could be used for each initial or final, and in particular, no character was ever used to spell itself. However, it is possible to identify the initials and the finals underlying a large and consistent collection of fanqie by using a method that was first used by the Cantonese scholar Chen Li , in his 1842 study of

1716-410: The tones no longer match. That is because the voiceless initial [t] and the voiced initial [ɣ] condition different registers of the Middle Chinese level tone, yielding the first and the second tones of the modern language. (The pinyin letter d represents the voiceless and unaspirated stop [t] .) That effect sometimes led to a form of spelling pronunciation . Chao Yuen Ren cited the example of

1760-636: The traditional character set used in Taiwan ( TC ) and the set used in Hong Kong ( HK ). Most Chinese-language webpages now use Unicode for their text. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends the use of the language tag zh-Hant to specify webpage content written with traditional characters. In the Japanese writing system , kyujitai are traditional forms, which were simplified to create shinjitai for standardized Japanese use following World War II. Kyūjitai are mostly congruent with

1804-985: The traditional characters in Chinese, save for minor stylistic variation. Characters that are not included in the jōyō kanji list are generally recommended to be printed in their traditional forms, with a few exceptions. Additionally, there are kokuji , which are kanji wholly created in Japan, rather than originally being borrowed from China. In the Korean writing system , hanja —replaced almost entirely by hangul in South Korea and totally replaced in North Korea —are mostly identical with their traditional counterparts, save minor stylistic variations. As with Japanese, there are autochthonous hanja, known as gukja . Traditional Chinese characters are also used by non-Chinese ethnic groups. The Maniq people living in Thailand and Malaysia use Chinese characters to write

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1848-518: The ubiquitous Unicode standard gives equal weight to simplified and traditional Chinese characters, and has become by far the most popular encoding for Chinese-language text. There are various input method editors (IMEs) available for the input of Chinese characters . Many characters, often dialectical variants, are encoded in Unicode but cannot be inputted using certain IMEs, with one example being

1892-587: The words for simplified and reduced are homophonous in Standard Chinese , both pronounced as jiǎn . The modern shapes of traditional Chinese characters first appeared with the emergence of the clerical script during the Han dynasty c.  200 BCE , with the sets of forms and norms more or less stable since the Southern and Northern dynasties period c.  the 5th century . Although

1936-412: Was the target of an assassination attempt instigated by a predatory neighbor formerly allied with the deceased disloyal servant. Gu then left home and traveled in north China for nearly all his remaining years. Inspired by Chen Di , who had demonstrated that Old Chinese has its own phonological system, Gu studied rhyming words in ancient classics and grouped them in 10 rhyme categories, which served as

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